Cover-image not available Life on Earth An Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution Prepared in collaboration with the American Museum of Natural History Life on Earth An Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution Volume A–G Edited by Niles Eldredge Santa Barbara, California—•—Denver, Colorado—•—Oxford, England Copyright 2002 by Niles Eldredge All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Life on earth : an encyclopedia of biodiversity, ecology, and evolution / edited by Niles Eldredge p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1-57607-286-X (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN 1-57607-744-6 (e-book) Biological diversity—Encyclopedias Biological diversity conservation—Encyclopedias Ecology—Encyclopedias Evolution (Biology)—Encyclopedias I Eldredge, Niles QH541.15.B56 L54 2002 333.95'11'03—dc21 2002015852 06 05 04 03 02—10 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an e-book Visit abc-clio.com for details ABC-CLIO, Inc 130 Cremona Drive, P.O Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America Contents VOLUME Contributors ix Introduction xiii What Is Biodiversity? Why Is Biodiversity Important? 31 Threats to Biodiversity 49 Stemming the Tide of the Sixth Global Extinction Event: What We Can Do 73 Abyssal Floor 87 Adaptation 87 Adaptive Radiation 91 Agricultural Ecology 93 Agriculture and Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Engineering and the Second Agricultural Revolution 96 Agriculture and Biodiversity Loss: Industrial Agriculture 99 Agriculture: Benefits of Biodiversity to 105 Agriculture, Origin of 107 Alien Species 114 Amphibians 118 Angiosperms 126 Annelida—The Segmented Worms 132 Anthropology 135 Archaebacteria 140 Archaeology and Sustainable Development 142 Arthropods, Marine 144 Arthropods, Terrestrial 149 Artiodactyls 157 Atmosphere 160 Atmospheric Cycles 162 Atolls 163 Avian Malaria and the Extinction of Hawaiian Birds 164 Bacteria 167 Barrier Islands 171 Beaches 173 Beauty of Nature, Biophilia and Ethics 174 Benthos 178 Biogeography 178 Birds 181 Birds of Guam and the Brown Tree Snake 188 Black Rhinoceros 190 Bluebuck 191 Bony Fishes 192 Botany 197 Brachiopods 200 Bryophytes 202 Bryozoa 205 Carbon Cycle 207 Carnivora 208 Carolina Parakeet 212 Cetacea (Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises) 216 Chiroptera (Bats) 219 Chondrichthyes (Sharks, Rays, Chimaeras) 220 Chordates (Nonvertebrate) 224 Classification, Biological 226 Climatology 229 Cnidarians (Sea Anemones, Corals, and Jellyfish) 232 v Contents Coastal Wetlands 234 Coevolution 235 Coloniality 237 Communities 238 Conservation Biology 243 Conservation, Definition and History 246 Continental Shelf 249 Continental Slope and Rise 250 Convergence and Parallelism 251 Coral Reefs 252 Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction 259 Cultural Survival, Revival, and Preservation 263 Dams 267 Darwin, Charles 269 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Faunas 273 Deposition 274 Deserts and Semiarid Scrublands 276 Draining of Wetlands 278 Earthquakes 281 Echinoderms 282 Ecological Niches 287 Ecological Status of Modern Humans 291 Ecology 292 Economics 299 Ecosystems 300 Embryology 308 Endangered Species 312 Erosion 315 Estuaries 318 Ethics of Conservation 320 Ethnology 324 Ethnoscience 329 Evolution 335 Evolutionary Biodiversity 342 Evolutionary Genetics 347 Extinction, Direct Causes of 352 Five Kingdoms of Nature 357 Flabellidium Spinosum 361 Food Webs and Food Pyramids 362 Freshwater 365 Fungi 367 Galapagos Islands and Darwin’s Finches 373 Geological Time Scale 378 Geology, Geomorphology, and Geography 382 Giant, Flightless Island Birds 385 Giant Ground Sloth 388 Glaciation 390 Global Climate Change 393 Great Apes 397 Gymnosperms 399 VOLUME Habitat Tracking 405 Haplochromine Cichlids of Lake Victoria 407 Herbivory 411 Hole in the Ozone Layer 412 Holocene 413 Homo Sapiens 416 Human Evolution 418 Humans and Biodiversity: Examples from the Hoofed Mammals 424 Hutton, James 430 Hydrologic Cycle 432 Ice Caps and Glaciers 433 Indigenous Conservation 436 vi Industrial Revolution/Industrialization 439 Interior Wetlands 443 International Trade and Biodiversity 448 Intertidal Zone 449 Lagomorpha 451 Lagoons 453 Lakes 454 Land Use 456 Late Devonian Extinction 459 Late Ordovician Extinction 462 Late Triassic Extinction 465 Lemurs and Other Lower Primates 467 Lichens 469 _ Contents Linguistic Diversity 471 Linnaean Hierarchy 475 Lyell, Charles 479 Mammalia 483 Mass Extinction 486 Medicine, The Benefits of Biodiversity to 488 Meteorology 493 Microbiology 496 Mining 498 Molecular Biology and Biodiversity 500 Mollusca 502 Monkeys 507 Mountains 511 Museums and Biodiversity 514 Natural Selection 519 Nitrogen Cycle 522 Nurseries 523 Nutrient/Energy Cycling 524 Oceanic Trenches 527 Oceans 528 Order Uranotheria 531 Organizations in Biodiversity, The Role of 535 Oxygen, History of Presence in the Atmosphere 543 Paleontology 545 Palestinian Painted Frog 549 Perissodactyls 551 Permo-Triassic Extinction 553 Phylogeny 556 Physical Anthropology 558 Plankton 561 Plate Tectonics 569 Pleistocene Epoch 571 Pollination 574 Pollution 577 Population Growth, Human 582 Population, Human, Curbs to Growth 586 Positive Interactions 591 Preservation of Habitats 594 Preservation of Species 601 Primates 607 Protoctists 610 Pteridophytes 617 Punctuated Equilibria 620 Reptiles 625 Rivers and Streams 636 Rodents 640 Sandalwood Tree 645 Seamounts 646 Sixth Extinction 648 Smallpox 650 Snowball Earth 652 Soil 654 Speciation 657 Species 659 Sponges 664 Subsistence 667 Succession and Successionlike Processes 671 Sustainable Development 677 Systematics 681 Thylacine 689 Tides 691 Topsoil Formation 692 Topsoil, Loss of 693 Tourism, Ecotourism, and Biodiversity 695 Tropical Rain Forests 701 Urbanization 707 Valuing Biodiversity 711 Viruses 714 Volcanoes 717 Wallace, Alfred Russel 719 Xenarthrans (Edentates) 723 Zoology 727 Selected Bibliography 729 Index 749 About the Editor 793 vii Contributors Shara E Bailey George Washington University Postdoctoral Research Associate, Department of Anthropology Washington, DC Niles Eldredge American Museum of Natural History Chair, Committee on Evolutionary Processes and Curator, Division of Paleontology New York, New York Christopher B Boyko American Museum of Natural History Research Associate, Division of Invertebrate Zoology New York, New York Jon D Erickson Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Assistant Professor of Economics Troy, New York Daniel R Brumbaugh American Museum of Natural History Marine Program Manager, Center for Biodiversity and Conservation New York, New York William R Buck New York Botanical Garden Institute of Systematic Botany Bronx, New York Paulyn Cartwright University of Kansas Instructor of Biology Lawrence, Kansas Marcelo Carvalho American Museum of Natural History Research Associate, Department of Ichthyology New York, New York Thomas S Cox The Land Institute Senior Research Scientist Salina, Kansas Darrel Frost American Museum of Natural History Associate Dean of Science and Curator, Division of Vertebrate Zoology New York, New York Sergey Gavrilets University of Tennessee Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Mathematics Knoxville, Tennessee Rosemarie Gnam American Museum of Natural History Assistant Director, Center for Biodiversity and Conservation New York, New York John M Gowdy Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Professor of Economics Troy, New York David Grimaldi American Museum of Natural History Curator, Division of Invertebrate Zoology New York, New York Margret C Domroese American Museum of Natural History Outreach Program Manager, Center for Biodiversity and Conservation New York, New York ix _ Index Palynology, 199 Panama Canal, 345 Panama land bridge, 354 Pangaea, 395 Pangolins, 723 Panisett, Maurice, 169 Parakeets, 212–216 Parallel cladogenesis, 236–237 Parallelism, 251–252, 310 Paraphyletic groups, 227, 399 Parasites arthropods, 149 avian malaria and the extinction of Hawaiian birds, 164–166 bilharzia, 410 conifers, 402 segmented worms, 134 spread by alien hoofed animals, 429 terrestrial arthropods, 153–154 viruses as, 715 Paris Basin, 379 Parrot species Carolina parakeet, 212–216 species preservation programs, 605 Passenger pigeon, 62 Pasteur, Louis, 497, 583 Pastoralism, 424–426 Patagonia, Darwin’s visit to, 270 Patch structure, 53–55 Paucke, Father Florian, 660(fig.) Pauropoda, 151 Peat mosses, 204, 454, 550 Peatlands, 444 Peccaries, 158 Pedalfer soils, 655 Pedocal soils, 655–656 Pedology, 384 Pedophages, 408 Peking man, 422–423 Pelagic organisms, 178 deposition, 275 Late Ordovician extinction, 464 Pelobatidae, 123 Pelodytidae, 123 Peloponnesian War, 247 Penguins, 181, 183–184, 374–375 Penicillin, 369, 489, 498 Peracarida, 148 Peregrine falcon, 313, 603(fig.) Perennial streams, 638 Peripheral isolates, 662, 663 Perissodactyls, 551–553 Permian Period etymology of, 380, 381 gymnosperms, 400 mass extinction, 486–487 Permo-Triassic extinction, 461, 553–555, 554(fig.), 648 Persistence stability, 306 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 577 Peru, 456–457 Perverse subsidies, 50 Pest control, 64–65, 577 ferns as pesticides, 619 genetic engineering for pest resistance, 97–99 industrial agriculture and pesticides, 99–105 pesticide use in industrial agriculture, 99–105 Silent Spring, 249 sustainable solutions to, 103–104 Pesticide treadmill process, 100–101 Petrified Forest National Monument, 546 Petrography, 383 Petroleum industry changing Alaska’s subsistence mechanism, 671 destruction of neuston, 197 impact on rhino extinction, 441 pteridophyte source of fuel, 617 subsidies contributing to biodiversity loss, 714 threatening reindeer herding, 428 Petrology, 383 Petropedetidae, 126 Phaeodarians, 615–616 Phanerophytes, 15(table) Phanerozoic Era, 259, 462–465, 465–467 Pharmacological use, of biodiversity See Medicine, the benefits of biodiversity to Phenetics, 683–687 Phenotypic characters, of organismal diversity, 8–9 Phoronids See Lophophorates/Phoronids Phosphorous, 362, 525 Photic zone, 561 Photosynthesis adaptation, 89 in algae, 612–613 in bacteria, 167–171, 344 disruption by volcanic eruption, 354 food chains, 362 importance of evolutionary biodiversity, 345 ocean environments, 273–274 in phytoplankton, 561 Phototrophs, 526 Phylactolaemates, 206 Phyletic gradualism, versus punctuated equilibria, 620–623 Phylogenetic biogeography, 178, 180 Phylogenetic diversity, 21–22 779 Index Phylogenetic relationships, 222–223 Phylogenetic species concept, 11–12 Phylogenetic studies, Phylogenetic systematics, 227, 478, 683–687 Phylogeny, 556–558 Physical anthropology, 135, 136, 397–399, 418–424, 558–561 Physical geography, 384 Physical traits, Physiologic ecology, 295 Physiology, 728 adaptation, 88 biodiversity in terms of, carbon cycle, 207 organismal diversity and, 8–9 plant physiology, 198 Phytophages, 149, 151 Phytoplankton, 561–569, 579 Piedmont glaciers, 433–434 Pigou, Alfred, 81 Pigs, 158, 164–166 Pikas, 451–453 Pillbugs, 150 Piltdown man, 419 Pinacocytes, of a sponge, 665, 665(fig.) Pinales, 400–403 Pinchot, Gifford, 248, 249, 322 Pinnipeds, 208–211 Pioneer species See Succession and successionlike processes Pipidae, 123–124 Pipits, 186 Placental mammals, evolution of, 354, 484–485, 723 Plague, bubonic, 157 Planetary cycles, 480 Plankton, 255–256, 561–569, 612–613 Plant anatomy, 198 Plant-animal divide, 357–359, 611 Plant morphology, 198 Plant systematics, 198 Plants absence of vegetation on beaches, 174 angiosperms (flowering plants), 126–132 benefits of biodiversity to medicine, 488–493 botany, 197–200 bryophytes, 202–205 developmental blueprint, 312 ethnobotany, 331–333 food production, 360 found on Galapagos Islands, 374 guild coevolution, 236 gymnosperms, 399–404 habitat tracking, 406 780 herbivory, 411–412 interior wetlands, 443 invasive species, 57 Late Triassic extinction, 465–466 lichens, 469–471 market value of biodiversity, 712 non-food use by indigenous peoples, 456–457 Permo-Triassic extinction, 555 plant-animal divide, 357–359, 611 pollination, 574–577 pteridophytes, 617–620 role in evolutionary biodiversity, 345 Sandalwood tree, 645–646 in tropical rain forests, 702, 703–704 water sources for, 366 Plasmids, 715 Plasmodia, 616 Plasmodiophorans, 616 Plastics, 67 Plastids, 171, 357–358 Plate tectonics, 569–570 alien species migration as a result of, 114–115 Asia-India collisional zone, 180 as cause of mass extinctions, 487 as earth science, 382 earthquakes, 281–282 hydrothermal vents, 273–274 mountain building, 512–513 oceanic trenches, 527 seamount formation, 646–648 volcanoes, 717–718 Wallace’s Line, 720 Platform reefs, 254 Platyrrhines, 507 Playfair, John, 431–432 Pleistocene Epoch, 571–574 glacial and interglacial stages of, 572(table) glaciation and global climate change, 394 glaciers and ice caps, 433–435 glyptodonts, 725 herbivore extinction, 389–390 Plethodintidae, 121 Pleurodira, 626 Pliny the Elder, 137 Plumes, tectonic, 646–648 Poaceae, 127 Pogonophoran tubeworms, 170 Poison arrow frog, 25(fig.) Poison Dart Frogs, 491 Polar bears, 70 Policy failure, 50–51 Pollex (opposable thumb) lower primates, 468–469 _ Index New World monkeys’ lack of, 508 Old World monkeys, 510 primates, 607–610 Pollination, 574–577 as agricultural benefit, 106 angiosperms’ contribution to, 126–127 arthropods, 149 as example of mutualism, 591–594, 592 Holocene climate data, 415–416 importance of biodiversity, 37 palynology, 199 specialized pollinators and characteristics of the flowers they visit, 575(table) Pollution, 577–582 aquaculture, 62 groundwater from mines, 500 impact on estuaries, 320 leading to species extinction, 356 ocean dumping, 530–531 ozone loss, 412–413 plants’ role in mitigating, 345 pollution permit trading systems, 85–86 reducing agricultural pollution, 103–104 thermal inversions, 494 as threat to biodiversity, 49, 63–69 as threat to coral reefs, 254–256 tourism as source of, 697 Polychaeta, 132–135 Polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs), 577 Polycystine radiolarians, 615 Polymerase chain reaction, 34 Polyphyletic groups, 227 Polyploidy, 659 Pond turtles, 627 Pongidae, 227, 397–399 Pope, Alexander, 137 Population, human, curbs to growth, 586–591 Population diversity, 2, 9–11 Population dynamics, Population ecology, 7–8, 295–296 Population genetics, 340, 347–348 Population growth, human, 582–586 agricultural contribution to, 174–175 archaeology and sustainable development, 142 as cause of sixth extinction, 649 impact on coral reefs, 257 Industrial Revolution, 439–443 jellyfish blooms, 234 need for more dams, 267 need for stabilization, 75–77 Number of Years to Add to Each Billion, 583(table) rabbits and hares, 453 as a result of agricultural revolution, 93 subsistence, 667–671 as threat to biodiversity, 49–50 urbanization, 708 World population, 584(table) Porifera (sponges), 664–667 Porpoises See Cetacea Positive interactions, 591–594 Postcolonialism anthropology and, 140 diffusionist theory of cultural traits, 326 Potato blight, 105–106 Potatoes, domestication of, 112 Pottos, 467 Poverty, 50 Prasinophyceans, 568 Precambrian Period, 382 Pre-Columbian linguistic diversity, 473 Prehensile tails, 509, 643 Prehistoric civilizations See Ancient civilizations Prehistoric organisms, 158 ancestors of Perissodactyls, 551–553 ancestral man’s ecosystem connection, 176 archaebacteria, 140–141 bacteria, 167–171 bony fishes, 192–193 bovine animals, 191–192 Carnivora, 208–209 cartilaginous fishes, 220–224 Cetacea, 216–218 changes leading to habitat destruction, 353 Chiroptera (bats), 219 Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction, 259–262 crustaceans, 147–148 dinosaur-bird relationship, 182 early amniotes, 484 echinoderms, 283–284 evolution of life on earth, 4–6 evolutionary convergence, 251–252 Holocene, 413–416 mass extinctions, 5–6, 5(table) oxygen in the atmosphere, 543 paleobotany, 199–200 reptiles, 626–628 terrestrial arthropods, 149, 152 Uranotheria, 531 See also Fossil record Preservation of habitats, 594–601 Preservation of species, 601–607 Pressure changes, 494 Primary succession, of local ecosystems, 307–308, 671, 672–673 Primate Order, 608(fig.) 781 Index Primate studies, 558, 559–560 Primates, 607–610 apes, 397–399 evolutionary theory, 338 Homo sapiens, 416–418 human evolution, 337 importance of biodiversity, 38 lemurs and other lower primates, 467–469, 468(fig.), 607–610 monkeys, 507–511 orang-utans, 609(fig.) Principles of Geology (Lyell), 480 Pripyat-Dnieper-Donet rift, 461 Private lands, 85 Proboscis monkey, 511 Prochlorophytes, 562–563 Progenesis, 311 Progressive inclusion, 336–337 Prokaryotes, 307 plankton, 561–569 plant-animal divide, 357–359 taxonomic distinction from eukaryotes, 715 See also Bacteria Prokarytology: A Coherent View (Sonea and Panisett), 169 Propagule, 376 Prosimians, 467–469, 607–610 Protected areas, 83, 595–601, 714 Proteidae, 122 Protein molecular clock, 419–420 Protein synthesis, 419 Proteins, Proteobacteria, 563 Protesters, 75(fig.) Protists ancestors to sponges, 667 five kingdoms classification, 360 Permo-Triassic extinction, 553(table) protoctists, 610 Protoctists, 610–617 aerobic function, 168 ancestral, aerobic cells, 358 as example of eukaryotes, 344 five kingdoms classification, 360 nuclei and mitochondria, 360–361 and other plankton, 563–564 Protostomes, 346 Protozoa, 358–359, 367 See also Protoctists Pseudidae, 125 Pseudopods, 612 Pseudoscropionida, 150 Pteridomania, 619 Pteridophytes, 617–620 782 Puerto Rico: species preservation programs, 605 Punctuated equilibria, 620–623 Purrón Dam, 143 Pycnogonida, 144 Quarantines, 59–60 Quartz, 654 Quaternary Period, 381, 571–574 Queen of the Meadow, 489 Quillworts, 617 Quolls, 689 Rabbits and hares, 451–453, 452(fig.) Racism, 138, 327 Radioactivity, 381 Radiolarians, 564–565, 610–617, 615–616 See also Protoctists Radiometric dating, 381–382 boundary of Late Triassic extinction, 466 glacial climate changes, 392 sea level changes, 414 sloth skin, 388 Welwitschia gymnosperms, 404 Railroads, 175 Rain shadow, 513 Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance, 540 Random genetic drift, 350 Rangifer tarandus, 426–428 Ranidae, 126 Ranoids, 125–126 Rapa whelks, 506 RARE Center for Tropical Conservation, 603 Rats avian malaria and the extinction of Hawaiian birds, 164–165 influx into Galapagos Islands, 376 Raunkiaer, Christen, 15 Raunkiaer’s Life Forms, 15(table) Rawtheyan stage, 462 Ray-finned fishes, 194–195 Rays, 220–224 Recombination, 349–350 Recreational value, of biodiversity coral reefs, 253 dams, 267–269 importance of biodiversity, 39–40 tourism, ecotourism, and biodiversity, 695–701 Recycling, 293(fig.) Red Algae See Protoctists Red List of Threatened Species, 28 Red tides, 566 Redi, Francesco, 497 _ Index Reductionist approach, to ecosystems, 302–303 Redundant systems, 597 Redwoods, 400 Reef structures See Corals; Corals and coral reefs Regan, Tom, 321 Regeneration, in echinoderms, 283 Regulation and legislation, 50–51 Endangered Species Act, 313 fish harvesting, 62 governmental agencies’ role in biodiversity, 537–540 linguistic education, 475 as method of conserving biodiversity, 85–86 wildlife trade, 62 Reindeer, 426–428, 473–474 Reintroduction programs, for species conservation, 605–607 Religion agricultural cycle and, 95–96 biophilia and ethics, 175–176, 176 ethics of conservation, 321–322, 536 ethnoscience and, 333–334 evolution versus creationism, 335–336 intrinsic value of biodiversity, 40 population control and, 77 religious organizations in biodiversity, 535–537, 542 treatment of hoofed animals, 429 view on evolution, 545 Replenishment of genetic stocks See Agriculture: Benefits of biodiversity to Representative systems, 597 Reproduction family planning and population growth, 584–586 flightless birds’ egg-laying strategy, 388 kingdom taxonomy based on, 361 nitrogen cycle, 522 phylogeny, 556–558 random genetic drift, 350 Reproduction, asexual deuteromycotes, 369 echinoderms, 283 lichens, 469–471 segmented worms, 132 sexual and asexual reproduction in ciliates, 613 species concept, 661 through cloning, 606–607 zygomycotes, 368 Reproduction, sexual adaptation, 89 allele variation, amphibians, 118, 121, 122–123 angiosperms, 129 bacteria, 168–169 basidiomycotes, 368–369 benthos, 178 birds, 183 bony fishes, 195 effect of chemical contaminants on, 577–578 ferns, 618 fungi, 367 fungi-leaf cutter ant symbiosis, 370 gene trading and cell symbiosis in bacteria, 170–171 marine arthropods, 146 mollusks, 503–504 of non-fern pteridophytes, 618–619 pollination, 574–577 protoctists, 610–611 segmented worms, 134 sexual and asexual reproduction in ciliates, 613 sexual selection, 351–352 speciation, 339–341, 657–659 species concept, 661 sponges, 666–667 spontaneous generation theory, 497 Reptiles, 227, 625–636 versus amphibians, 118 evolutionary taxonomy versus phylogenetics in classifying, 685–687 species preservation programs, 605 Research institutions, 535, 540–541, 709 Reservoirs See Dams Resilience, of ecosystems, 306 Resin-producing trees, 400–403 Resource allocation beef industry, 429–430 Resource allocation and use, 299–300 after the industrial revolution, 441 ecosystem classification, 304–305 ecosystem diversity and, 16 geography as study of, 384 land use, 456–459 need for economic reform, 80–83 overexploitation, 60–63 population growth and, 75–77 sustainable development, 677–681 uneven distribution of, 49–50 urbanization as concentration of human resources, 709 valuing biodiversity, 711–712 Resource Conservation Ethic, 248, 322 Resource use functions, 289 Restoration, of Lake Huleh, 550 Resurgent volcanoes, 718 Reticulations, 556–557 Retroviruses, 717 783 Index Rhacophoridae, 126 Rhinoceros, 190–191, 441, 552–553, 602 Rhinocerotidae, 190–191 Rhinodermatidae, 124–125 Rhinophrynidae, 123 Rhodophytes, 613 Rhyacotritonidae, 121 Rhythmites, 392 Ribonucleic acid See RNA Ridgway, Robert, 376 Rinderpest, 425 Ringtail lemur, 468, 468(fig.) Rio Earth Summit (1992), 264, 678, 680 Riparian systems See Rivers and streams Ritual cycles, 333–334 Rivers and streams, 636–640, 638(fig.) benthos, 178 coastal wetlands, 234–235 continental slope and rise, 251 dams, 267–269 Darwin’s tangled bank, 272 erosion, 315–316 glaciation, 391–392, 392 habitat loss and fragmentation, 52–53 hydrologic cycle, 432 lakes and, 454–456 loss of topsoil, 693–694 tides in estuaries, 691–692 RNA of bacteria, 169–170 evolutionary biology and, 341 evolutionary theory, 337 three kingdom taxonomy, 359 See also Viruses Robinson Crusoe Islands, 645–646 Rock crawlers, 152 Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, 429 Rocky Mountains, 513 Rodents, 640–644 avian malaria and the extinction of Hawaiian birds, 164–165 Chiroptera (bats), 219–220 evolutionary biodiversity in, 346 lagomorphs and, 451 origins of agriculture, 111–112 rat influx into Galapagos Islands, 376 as threat to biodiversity, 56 topsoil manipulation, 693 Rolston, Holmes, 321 Romantic-Transcendentalism, 322–323 Roosevelt, Theodore, 248, 249 Root systems, of angiosperms, 128 Ropefish, 194 784 Rosaceae, 127 Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica, 435(fig.) Rostral organ, 193 Rosy periwinkle, 704 Roux, Willhelm, 310–311 Roya fern, 620 Rugosa, 252 Ruminants, 159 Russia: subsistence production, 670 Rusts, 368–369 Ryan, John, 46 Saami people, 427–428 Sacred Valley, Peru, 456–457 Safaris, 699–700 Sahara Desert, 425, 469 Sahlins, Marshall, 328 Saint-Hilaire, E.G., 507 Salamanders See Amphibians Salamandridae, 122 Salicylic acid, 489 Salinity, 318, 694 Salish Indians, 331 Salps, 225 Salt, as ocean product, 530 Salt marshes, 234 Saltation, 621, 637 Samburu Wildlife Reserve, Kenya, 533(fig.) San Andreas Fault, 570 San Diego Zoological Society, 605 San Francisco Bay, 59, 116–117 San people, 331, 425, 669, 701 Sand dollars, 286 Sandalwood tree, 645–646 Sapir, Edward, 327–328 Sarawak Law, 271–272 Sarcopterygii, 192–193 Saskatchewan Glacier, Alberta Canada, 391(fig.) Sauropsids, 626 Savagery, 138 Savannas armadillos, 724 interior wetlands, 445 Scaphopods See Mollusca Schizocarps, 130 Schwartz, Karlene, 611 Scientific method, 383 Sclater, Philip Lutley, 179–180 Scleroglossa, 631, 632–633 Sclerosponges, 667 Scolecomorphidae, 120 Scolecophidia, 633 Scorpionflies, 153 _ Index Scorpionida, 150 Scorpions See Arthropods, terrestrial Scouring rush, 619 Sea anemones, 14(fig.), 232–234, 252 Sea cows, 531–535 Sea cucumbers, 286–287 Sea kelp See Protoctists Sea level changes affecting barrier islands, 173 Carboniferous climate changes, 395 glaciation and glacial melting, 392, 432, 434 global climate changes and, 396 Holocene, 414, 416 Late Ordovician extinction, 464–465 Late Triassic extinction, 466 Permo-Triassic extinction, 555 during Pleistocene Epoch, 571 shore erosion, 319 Sea lily, 283, 285–286 Sea otters, 44, 210 Sea scorpions, 144 Sea slugs, 504 Sea spiders, 144, 146 Sea squirts, 225, 493 Sea stars, 284–285, 285(fig.) Sea turtles, 627 Sea urchins, 44, 286 Seafloor, 87, 249–250, 275, 529, 530, 570 Seagrass meadows, 523 Seamounts, 646–648, 647(fig.) Seascape diversity, Sebaceous glands, 534 Secondary pests, 101 Secondary succession, of local ecosystems, 671, 673 Sedgwick, Adam, 380 Sedimentation in dams, 267–268 dating human fossil remains, 420–421 filling lakes, 454–455 fossil remains in, 546–547 geological study of, 384 geological time scale and, 378–379 ice caps and glaciers, 433 impact on estuaries, 320 impact on Lake Victoria, 409 loss of topsoil, 693–694 ocean floor, 530 Pleistocene Epoch, 571 prior to oxygen development, 543 rivers and streams, 637–640 soil, 654–657 through glaciation, 391–392 See also Deposition Seed dispersal, 37–38 Segmented worms, 132–135, 150–151 Seismology, 383 Selective breeding, in agriculture, 105 Selective feeding, of herbivores, 411 Selfish gene, 341, 521 Sentience, 321 Sere See Succession and successionlike processes Services, provided by ecosystems, 34–38 Sexual selection, 89, 351–352, 520 Shallow marine environments, 275 Shallow water wetlands, 443 Shapiro, Harry, 560–561 Sharks, rays, and ratfish See Chondrichthyes Shelled diatoms, 344 Shield volcanoes, 717 Shipworm, 320 Shrimp, medicinal use of, 492 Siberia, loss of linguistic diversity, 474 Sierra Nevada Mountains, 513 Sikhism, 536 Silent Spring (Carson), 249 Silica, in radiolarian shells, 615–616 Silicon dioxide, 545–546 Silurian Period, 380 Silverfish, 151 Simpson, George Gaylord, 227, 341, 683 See also Evolution Singer, Peter, 321 Sinkholes, 317, 366, 455 Sinrock Mary, 427 Sirenians, 531–535 Sirenidae, 120–121 Sixth extinction, 73–86, 291–292, 354, 648–650 Skinks, 630, 631–632 Skottsberg, Carl, 645–646 Slash and burn agriculture, 94 Sleeping sickness, 615 Slime molds, 610–617, 616 Slime nets, 616 Sloshing Bucket theory, of evolution, 342 Sloths, 388–390, 723, 725–726 Smallpox, 263–264, 650–652 Smell, sense of, 467, 505 Smith, William, 379 Smithsonian Institution, 136, 514 Smuts, 368–369 Snails, 502 Snake-necked turtles, 626 Snakeflies, 153 Snakes birds of Guam and the brown tree snake, 58, 115(fig.), 188–189, 188–199 785 Index classification of, 629–630, 631, 633–635 medicinal use of, 491 See also Reptiles Snapping turtles, 627 Sneath, James, 683 Snowball Earth, 652–654 Snowflakes, 433 Social anthropology, 327 Social behavior, of apes, 397 Social Darwinism, 137 Societal structures, 333 Society, commercialization of, 441 Sociobiology, 341 Sociocultural anthropology, 135 Socioeconomic structure, 50 Sociolinguistics, 475 Soil, 654–657, 692–693, 693–695 Soil profile, 655 Sokal, Robert R., 683 Solanaceae, 127 Solar energy atmospheric gases and global climate, 395–396 climatology and, 230–231 composition of the atmosphere, 161–162 food chains, 362–364 hydrologic cycle, 432 nutrient and energy cycling, 524–526 photosynthesis, 344 reduction after volcanic eruptions, 393 Solid waste, 66–67, 79 Solitaire of Rodriguez, 385 Sonar, as noise pollutant, 68 Sonea, Sorin, 169 Sonoran Desert, 592–593 Sooglossidae, 124 Source of crops See Agriculture: Benefits of Biodiversity to South Africa, 422 Darwin’s visit to, 270 ecotourism, 700 South America indigenous knowledge of subsistence agriculture, 671 linguistic extinction, 473 tropical rain forests, 701, 702–703 turltes, 626 South Georgia, Antarctica, 186 Soviet Union loss of linguistic diversity, 473–474 reindeer herding, 427–428 Spadefoots, 123 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 497 Spatial biodiversity, 2, 24 786 Speciation, 12, 657–659 allopatric speciation, 662 allopatric speciation versus phyletic gradualism, 621 birds, 186–187 of birds, 183 cospeciation, 236–237 evolutionary theory and, 339–341 haplochromine cichlids of Lake Victoria, 408 sexual selection, 352 Species, 659–664 Species, preservation of, 601–607 Species-area relationship, 22–23 Species conservation, 601–607 Species distribution, 21(table), 22–23 Species diversity, 2, 11–14, 55 Species evenness, 20(table) Species flock, 408 Species level genetic discontinuity, 340–341 Species richness, 12 alpha, beta, and gamma diversity, 23–24 measuring ecosystem diversity, 17, 19–22, 20(table) preservation of habitat, 596 during primary succession, 672 species-area relationship, 22–23 Species selection, 622–623 Spencer, Herbert, 270, 519 Sphagnopsida (peat mosses), 204 Spider monkeys, 508 Spiders, 149–150, 155 Spinal cord, 224 Spiritual value, of biodiversity, 38–39 Spirochetes, 358 Spits, 174 Splitters, 419, 420 Sponges, 178, 345, 492, 664–667, 665(fig.), 666(fig.) Spontaneous generation theory, 497 Sporangia, 618 Spore-producing plants bryophytes, 202–205 ferns, 618 fungi, 367–371 Sporophytes, 202–205 Spreading boundary, 570 Springtails, 151 Squamata, 629–630 Squid, 492 See also Mollusca Squirrel monkeys, 509 Squirrels, 643 Sri Lanka, 407 Stability, of ecosystems, 305–307 _ Index Starfish, 284–285 Starfish and brittle stars, 285(fig.) See also Echinoderms Stasis coordinated stasis, 664 punctuated equilibria and, 621–622 speciation and, 342 See also Habitat tracking; Species State governments, 538–539 Steadman, David, 376 Steady-state earth, 480–481 Steady-state economy, 81 Steller’s sea cow, 531–535 Stenolaemates, 206 Steno’s laws, 381 Stensen, Niels (Steno), 378–379 Stephen’s Island wren, 57 Steward, Julian, 328, 426 Stewardship, of the environment, 322, 437–438, 535–543 Stick insects, 152 Stomach structure, of artiodactyls, 159 Stoneflies, 151–152 Storm King Mountain, 539 Strait of Magellan, 724 Stramenopiles, 567 Strangelove Ocean, 260 Stratigraphy, 383–384 Stratosphere, 160–161, 412 Stratovolcanoes, 717–718 Strickland, H E., 477 Strip mining, 498–499 Stromatolites, 454 Stromatoporoids, 462 Structural botany, 198 Structural-functionalism, 327 Structural geology, 383 Structuralism, 327 Stuff, the Secret Life of Everyday Things (Ryan and Durning), 46 Sturgeons, 194 Suar people, 334 Subduction, of tectonic plates, 527, 717–718 Submarine trenches, 304 Submarine vents See Deep-sea hydrothermal vent faunas Subsidization, 50, 82–83, 713–714 Subsistence, 667–671 Subsistence Act (1978), 668, 671 Subspecies populations, 10 Succession and successionlike processes, 671–677, 673(fig.), 674(fig.) Sudan, 670 Sulfide bacteria, 170 Sulfur oxides, 579, 581 Sungazers, 632 Superposition, the Law of, 379 Suriname, 269 Surrogate measures, of biodiversity, 19–22 Suspension-feeders, 233 Sustainable development, 26–27, 649–650, 677–681, 677–681 archaeology and, 142–144 biophilia and ethics, 174–177 ethnoscience and, 333–334 industrial agriculture, 100 overexploitation of resources, 60–63 subsistence and sustainability, 670 sustainable agriculture as conservation method, 103 tourism, 699–701 Swamps (wetlands), 234–235, 274–275, 443, 444 See also Mangrove swamps Swarth, Harry S., 373 Sweden: reindeer herding, 427 Swidden method, of cultivation, 94 Symbiosis, 169 in bacteria, 170–171 fungi-leaf cutter ant symbiosis, 370 lichens, 469–471 obligate mutualisms, 591–592 Sympatric speciation, 657–658 Sympodial branching, 128 Synapomorphy, 504, 684 Synergistic effects, 71 Synthetic activity, of systematics, 683 Synthetic Theory of Evolution, 341 Systema Naturae (Linnaeus), 558 Systematics, 681–687 discovering the tree of life, 556 evolutionary theory, 337 Linnaean classification, 475–479 museum science, 518 Tahiti, Darwin’s visit to, 270 Tamanduas, 725 Tanzania, 421 Tapirs, 552 Tarsiers, 467 Tasmania, 264, 689–691 Tasmanian devil, 689 Taung child, 419, 421–422 Taxa, 659 Taxodiaceae, 402–403 Taxonomic diversity, 19, 462 Taxonomic scholarship, 682–683 Taxonomy, 13–14 787 Index biological classification, 226–229 classifying Homo sapiens, 416–418 defining community, 15 estimated number of described species, 13(table) five kingdoms of nature, 357–361 Linnaean hierarchy, 475–479 of mollusks, 504–505 Raunkiaer’s Life Forms, 15(table) systematics, 681–687 three kingdom scheme, 359 Taylor, Paul, 321 Technology genetic engineering, 96–99 Industrial Revolution, 439–443 nutrient and energy cycling, 525 overharvesting of marine fish, 61–62 pollution prevention, 580–582 reducing energy consumption, 80 seafloor mapping, 530 use in habitat preservation, 594–601 Tectonics, 383 Tehuacán Valley, Mexico, 143 Teleostei, 194–196 Temperate zones angiosperms, 131 avian biodiversity, 184 conifers, 400–403 echinoderms, 282–283 intertidal zone, 449–450 succession studies, 671 Temperature atmospheric influence on, 160–161 bacterial adaptation to, 168 birds regulating temperature by feathers, 182–184 bony fishes’ adaptation to, 195–196 changes leading to habitat loss, 353, 354 coral reefs’ sensitivity to, 163, 256, 697–698 in deserts and semiarid scrublands, 276–277 estuaries, 319 global climate changes, 393, 395–396 hydrologic cycle, 432 Ice Age, 653 influencing erosion, 315–316 Late Devonian mass extinction, 459–460 meteorology, 493–496 ocean currents, 528–529 soil production, 654–655 temperature variations in lagoons, 454 thermal pollution, 579 in tropical rain forests, 702 Temporal dynamics, 672–676 Tenrecs, 534–535 Termites, 89–90, 152 788 Terrarium, invention of, 619 Terrestrial environments artiodactyls, 157–159 herbivory, 411 intertidal zone, 449–450 primary succession, 673 segmented worms, 132–135 Terrestrial organisms: species longevity, 661 Tertiary Period, 381 Tetrapods, 192–197 mass extinctions, 487(table) Permo-Triassic extinction, 555 Texas: captive nilgai populations, 192 Thailand: origins of agriculture, 110 Thalloid liverworts, 204 The Major Families of Birds, 187(table) “The Niche Relationships of the California Thrasher” (Grinnell), 288 Theoretical population genetics, 347–348 Theory of evolution, 335 Theory of the Earth (Hutton), 480 Thermal inversions, 494 Thermal pollution, 579, 581 Thermal vents See Deep-sea hydrothermal vent faunas Thermocline, 529 Thermodynamics, 524–526 Thermosphere, 161 Therophytes, 15(table) Theropsids, 626 Third World See Developed/developing countries Thirty Years War, 396 Thoreau, Henry David, 248, 322(fig.) Threats to biodiversity, 49–72 Three-toed sloths, 725–726 Thucydides, 247 Thumbs, opposable lower primates, 468–469 New World monkeys’ lack of, 508 Old World monkeys, 510 primates, 607–610 Thylacine, 689–691 Ticks See Arthropods, terrestrial Tides, 691–692 in estuaries, 318–319 impact on beaches, 173–174 intertidal zone, 449–450 Tiger snake, 635(fig.) Tigers, as endangered species, 313–315 Tilapia, 409 Till, 391–392 Tillman, David, 272, 289 Timber industry _ Index balancing land use, 458 subsidies contributing to biodiversity loss, 713–714 tropical rain forests, 704 Tintinnids, 567 Toadstools See Fungi Tombolos, 174 TOMS See Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) satellite Tongariro National Park, New Zealand, 438 Tongue, as prey-prehension organ, 630–631 Tool manufacturing, 417–418, 422, 668 Topsoil, loss of, 693–695 Topsoil formation, 654–657, 692–693 Tornadoes, 494 Torpor, 183 Tortoises, 373–374, 626–627 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) satellite, 413 Totemism, 333–334 Tourism, ecotourism, and biodiversity, 39–40, 375, 695–701, 712, 714 Toxic animals See Venomous and toxic animals Toxic contaminants, 64–65, 412, 577–582 Trade policies, biodiversity and, 448–449 Traditional environmental knowledge, 334 TRAFFIC organization, 62 Tragedy of the Commons, 60 Transcendental Movement, 247 Transform boundary, 570 Transgenes, 96–99 Transmutation, 270 Travel cost method, of valuation, 41 Tree graphs, 685 Tree line, 179 Tree of Life of living species (Cladogram), 271, 343 phylogeny, 556–558 plant-animal divide, 357–359 systematics approach to, 683 See also Evolutionary biodiversity Treefrogs, 125 Trenches, oceanic, 527 Tres Cruces Cordillera, Bolivia, 361–362 Triassic Period, 381, 465–467, 553–555, 648 Trilobites establishing the geological time scale, 381 Late Ordovician extinction, 463–464 marine arthropods, 144, 146 mass extinctions, 487(table) paleontological study of, 548 Permo-Triassic extinction, 555 Trinil calvaria, 419 Trophic relationships (food webs) See Food webs and food pyramids Tropical climates, 178 avian biodiversity, 184 coastal lagoons, 454 conifers, 402 coral reefs, 252–258 echinoderms, 282–283 ecotourism, 699 frogs, 122–124 K-T extinction, 260–261 soil composition, 655 terrestrial arthropods as disease vectors, 155, 157 Tropical rain forests, 701–705 avian biodiversity, 184 Cameroons, 702(fig.) conifers, 403 deforestation of Amazon region, 457 ecosystem classification, 305 ecotourism, 699 edge effects, 54 habitat loss and fragmentation through destruction of, 52 indigenous conservation in, 438 logging slash, 52(fig.) lower primates, 467–469 role of trees, 345 sloths, 725–726 soil composition, 655 Uranotheria in, 531–535 Troposphere, 160 True mosses, 203 Truganini, 264 Tuataras, 629 Tube worms, 274 Tugen Hills, Kenya, 420–421 Tunicates, 225, 492, 493 Turner, Nancy, 331 Turnover pulses (Coordinated stasis), 342, 664, 675 See also Evolution Turtles, 67, 68, 626–627 See also Reptiles Tusked animals, 159 Twain, Mark, 175 Two-toed sloths, 725–726 Twort, F W., 716 Typhlonectidae, 120 Ukraine region, 461 Ultraviolet radiation (UV), 578–579 UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992), 678, 680 UN Conference on Human Development (1972), 678 UN Human Development Index (HDI), 680 UN International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), 589–590 789 Index UN Summit on Children, 590 UN World Commission on Environment and Development, 142 Underground mining, 499–500 Undulipodia, 367, 371, 612, 613, 614–615 Ungulates, 424–426, 551–553 Uniformitarianism, 383, 405, 430, 480–481 Unionoid freshwater mussels, 506 United States conservation efforts, 248 glacial erosion, 316 global climate changes, 395, 396 human population growth, 584 indigenous conservation and landrights, 438 invasive species policy, 59 mollusks as alien species, 505–506 National Environmental Policy Act, 538 origins of agriculture, 112 pastoralism, 425–426 predicting earthquakes, 282 revival of Pequot nation, 265 role of NGOs in regulation, 541 species preservation, 602 water resources, 365, 366 University biodiversity programs, 540–541 Ur (ancient civilization), 247 Uraeotyphlidae, 119 Uranotheria, 531–535 Urban sprawl, 78 Urbanization, 174–175, 639, 707–709 Urochordata, 225 Urodela (salamanders), 120–122 U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, 605 Utilitarian value, of biodiversity, 31–40 UV See Ultraviolet radiation Vaccination, 651 Vaccinia, 650 Vagvolgyi, Mari, 376 Vaiont Dam, 267 Valuing biodiversity, 711–714 assessment methods, 83–84 biophilia and ethics, 174–177 economics, 299–300 ethics of conservation, 320–324 intrinsic or inherent value, 40 tropical rain forests, 704–705 utilitarian value or extrinsic value, 31–40 Van Leeuwenhoek, Anton, 167, 497, 727–728 Varanidae, 632 Variolation, 651 Varves, 392 Vena cava, double, 724 790 Venezuela, 143, 699 Venice, Italy, 396 Venomous and toxic animals, 491 beaded lizard and Gila monster, 632 cyanobacteria, 562 dinoflagellate groups, 565–566 medicinal use of, 492 mollusks, 503 Vertebrates birds, 181–187 Cetacea, 216–218 chordates, 225 evolutionary biodiversity in, 346 evolutionary theory, 337 See also Amphibians; Birds; Mammalia; Reptiles Vestiges of Creation (Chambers), 719 Victorian fern craze, 619 Vietnam family planning policy, 588 pesticide reduction, 103 Virion, 715 Virology, 716–717 Viroplankton, 51–562 Viruses, 714–717 AIDS virus, 493, 586, 590, 682 bacteria and, 169 and other plankton, 562 smallpox, 650–652 Volcanoes and volcanic eruptions, 162–163, 717–718 atolls and, 163–164 as cause of mass extinctions, 354, 460–461, 466, 487, 555 climate change, 393 Galapagos Islands, 374 lake formations, 455 link to ozone loss, 413 moas’ survival of, 386 Mount St Helen’s, Washington, 717 mountain building, 512, 513 ocean formation, 529–530 oceanic trenches, 527 plate tectonics and, 569–570 seamounts, 646–648 Volcanology, 383 Volterra, Vito, 3, 288 Von Baer, Karl, 309 Von Baer’s laws, 309 Von Humboldt, Alexander, 248 Von Karman vortex, 495(fig.) The Voyage of the Beagle (Darwin), 180 Voyage of the H.M.S Beagle (Darwin), 719 Vrba, Elisabeth S., 90–91, 342, 622–623 _ Index Walden, 322(fig.) Wallace, Alfred Russel, 719–721 adaptation, 88–89 biogeography, 179–180 Darwin-Wallace theory, 271 natural selection, 339, 519, 558–559 Wallace, Herbert, 719 Wallace’s Line, 180, 720 Ward, Nathaniel Bagshaw, 619 Warfare, as cause of habitat loss, 355 Wasps, 154–155 Waste disposal, 579–580, 581 Water biophilia and ethics, 177 bryophytes’s use of and dependence on, 361 in deserts and semiarid scrublands, 276–277 erosion by, 315, 317 fungi’s predilection for, 371 government subsidies to farmers, 50 hydrologic cycle, 432 ice caps and glaciers, 433–436 importance of biodiversity, 35 interior wetlands, 445, 447, 447(fig.) lagoons, 453–454 lakes, 454–456 loss of topsoil through runoff, 693–695 measuring the value of biodiversity, 41–42 mine seeps, 500 oceans, 528–531 rainfall in tropical rain forests, 702 rivers and streams, 636–640 soil production, 654 sustainable development and water use, 142–143 thermal pollution, 579 tides, 691–692 understanding radiation of bony fishes, 196–197 See also Freshwater Water cycle maintaining the, 36 plate tectonics influencing, 570 role of trees, 345 Water-striders, 147 Water table, 365–366, 455 Water vascular system, 283, 346 Wealth, patterns of distribution and consumption of See Economics Weather barrier islands as protection from, 171–173 climatology, 229–231 effect on tides, 692 impact on ozone loss, 413 impact on tourism, 697 meteorology, 493–496 oceans, 528–529 Weathering, 315 Web spinners, 152 Wedgwood, Emma, 270 Weedy species, 54 Weidenreich, Franz, 423 Weiner, Jonathan, 376 Welwitschia, 403–404 West Siberian lowland, 445 Westminster Abbey, 273 Wet meadows, 443–445 Wet prairies, 445 Wetlands, 36–37, 52 coastal wetlands, 234–235, 278, 593 conservation legislation, 540 draining of, 278 drying up through overuse of water, 365 interior wetlands, 443–447 Whales See Cetacea What is Biodiversity?, 1–30 Wheat, 33 White, Leslie, 328 Whittaker, R H., 357, 360, 611 Why is Biodiversity Important?, 31–47 Wild conservation, 601–602 Wildebeest, 158 Wildlife trade, 62–63 Willis, J C, 179 Willow trees, 489 Wilson, Edward O., 175–176, 179, 341, 648, 712–713 Wind effect on tides, 692 erosion by, 316–317 loss of topsoil through, 693–695 ocean surface, 528–529 Woese, Carl, 141, 359 Wolves, 208 Women domination of, 324 increasing political and educational status of, 76–77 Moru society agriculture, 670–671 Wood products, 33–34 Woolly mammoth, 533 Wootton, J Tim, 289 Wordsworth, William, 247 World Conference of Indigenous Peoples on Territory, Environment and Development, 264, 438 World Conservation Strategy (1980), 678 World Conservation Union, 62, 595 World Health Organization, 488, 651 World Heritage Convention (1972), 438 World population, 584(table) 791 Index World Trade Organization (WTO), 448 World Wildlife Fund, 62, 698 Worldwide Fund for Nature, 537 Worms benthos, 178 pogonophoran tubeworms, 170 segmented, 132–135 Wrangel Island, 533 Wright, Sewall, 3, 340 WTO See World Trade Organization Xanthoplasts, 613 Xenarthrans (Edentates), 723–726 Xenosauridae, 632 Xiphosura, 144 Yakut language, 474 Yeasts, 367, 368 See also Fungi 792 Yellow-green algae, 612–613 Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, 141, 175, 175(fig.), 248, 358, 513, 700 Yews, 400, 402 Yosemite National Park, California, 248 Younger Dryas, 414–415 Zebra mussels, 117, 505–506 See also Alien species Zebras, 551–553, 552(fig.) Zero net growth isoclines, 289 Ziconotide (SNX-111), 492 Zillig, Wolfram, 141 Zooflagellates, 614–615 Zoology, 727–728 Zooplankton, 561–569 Zooxanthellae, 253 Zovirax, 492 Zygomycotes, 368 About the Editor Niles Eldredge is Chair, Committee on Evolutionary Processes, and Curator, Division of Paleontology, at the American Museum of Natural History He is the author of numerous works on biodiversity and evolution, including Life in the Balance: Humanity and the Biodiversity Crisis (Princeton University Press) and The Triumph of Evolution: and the Failure of Creationism (W H Freeman) 793 ... Earth An Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution Prepared in collaboration with the American Museum of Natural History Life on Earth An Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution. .. species and the species composition and ecology of agricultural ecosystems are part of biodiversity A Short History of the Study of Biodiversity The term biodiversity (as the contracted form of biological... American Museum of Natural History Associate Dean of Science and Curator, Division of Vertebrate Zoology New York, New York Sergey Gavrilets University of Tennessee Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary