Encyclopedia of volcanoes

Encyclopedia of According to Greek Mythology, the giant Typhon is buried under Etna volcano Whenever the giant stirs, the volcano erupts violently Eighteenth century print (See The History of Volcanology, p 15.) Encyclopedia of Editor-in-Chief Haraldur Sigurdsson University of Rhode Island, U.S.A Associate Editors Bruce F Houghton Institute of Geology and Nuclear Science, New Zealand Stephen R McNutt Alaska Volcano Observatory and University of Alaska Fairbanks, U.S.A Hazel Rymer Open University, United Kingdom John Stix McGill University, Canada Foreword by Robert D Ballard ACADEMIC PRESS A Harcourt Science and Technology Company San Diego San Francisco New York Boston London Sydney Toronto Academic Press to Supply Copyright Page Contents ARTICLE INDEX xi Melting the Mantle CONTRIBUTORS xiii Paul D Asimow FOREWORD xix Migration of Melt xxi Plate Tectonics and Volcanism The Editors GUIDE TO THE ENCYCLOPEDIA 69 Martha J Daines Robert D Ballard PREFACE 55 89 Michael R Perfit and Jon P Davidson xxiii Composition of Magmas Introduction 115 Nick Rogers and Chris Hawkesworth Haraldur Sigurdsson Origin of Magmas The History of Volcanology 15 133 Timothy L Grove Haraldur Sigurdsson Volatiles in Magmas 149 Paul Wallace and Alfred T Anderson, Jr P A R T I Origin and Transport of Magma Physical Properties of Magmas Mantle of the Earth Magma Chambers 171 Frank J Spera 41 Bruce D Marsh Raymond Jeanloz v 191 vi Rates of Magma Ascent C ONTENTS 207 331 Charles B Connor and F Michael Conway Malcolm J Rutherford and James E Gardner Plumbing Systems Basaltic Volcanic Fields 219 Flood Basalt Provinces Charles R Carrigan Peter R Hooper Magma Ascent at Shallow Levels Submarine Lavas and Hyaloclastite 237 345 361 Rodey Batiza and James D L White Claude Jaupart Seamounts and Island Building 383 Ralf Schmidt and Hans-Ulrich Schmincke Subglacial Eruptions 403 John L Smellie P A R T I I Eruption Earth’s Volcanoes and Eruptions: An Overview 249 Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert Sizes of Volcanic Eruptions Explosive Volcanism 263 David M Pyle Volcanic Episodes and Rates of Volcanism P A R T I V Magmatic Fragmentation 271 Haraldur Sigurdsson 421 K V Cashman, B Sturtevant, P Papale, and O Navon Phreatomagmatic Fragmentation 431 Meghan Morrissey, Bernd Zimanowski, Kenneth Wohletz, and Ralf Buettner Hawaiian and Strombolian Eruptions P A R T I I I 447 S Vergniolle and M Mangan Effusive Volcanism Vulcanian Eruptions 463 Meghan M Morrissey and Larry G Mastin Basaltic Volcanoes and Volcanic Systems 283 George P L Walker Lava Flows and Flow Fields Plinian and Subplinian Eruptions 291 Raffaello Cioni, Paola Marianelli, Roberto Santacroce and Alessandro Sbrana 307 Surtseyan and Related Phreatomagmatic Eruptions 477 Christopher R J Kilburn Lava Domes and Coulees Jonathan H Fink and Steven W Anderson Lava Fountains and Their Products John A Wolff and Janet M Sumner 495 James D L White and Bruce Houghton Phreatoplinian Eruptions 321 B F Houghton, C J N Wilson, R T Smith, and J S Gilbert 513 C ONTENTS Volcanic Plumes 527 Volcanism on Venus Steven Carey and Marcus Bursik L S Crumpler and Jayne C Aubele Pyroclast Transport and Deposition Volcanism on Mars 545 James R Zimbelman 555 Cryovolcanism in the Outer Solar System Colin J N Wilson and Bruce F Houghton Pyroclastic Fall Deposits B F Houghton, C J N Wilson, and D M Pyle Pyroclastic Surges and Blasts vii 727 771 785 Paul Geissler 571 Greg A Valentine and Richard V Fisher Ignimbrites and Block-and-Ash Flow Deposits P A R T V I 581 A Freundt, C J N Wilson, and S N Carey Lahars Volcanic Interactions Volcanic Gases 601 803 Pierre Delmelle and John Stix James W Vallance Geothermal Systems Debris Avalanches 617 Tadahide Ui, Shinji Takarada, and Mitsuhiro Yoshimoto Volcaniclastic Sedimentation around Island Arcs Manfred P Hochstein and Patrick R L Browne 643 Deep Ocean Hydrothermal Vents 857 David A Butterfield 663 Jon Davidson and Shan De Silva Scoria Cones and Tuff Rings 835 627 Peter W Lipman Composite Volcanoes Fraser Goff and Cathy J Janik Surface Manifestations of Geothermal Systems with Volcanic Heat Sources Steven Carey Calderas 817 Volcanic Lakes 877 Pierre Delmelle and Alain Bernard 683 Dirk Vespermann and Hans-Ulrich Schmincke Mineral Deposits Associated with Volcanism 897 Noel C White and Richard J Herrington P A R T V Extraterrestrial Volcanism P A R T V I I Volcanic Hazards Volcanism on the Moon 697 Paul D Spudis Volcanism on Io Rosaly Lopes-Gautier 709 Volcanic Ash Hazards to Aviation T P Miller and T J Casadevall 915 viii Volcanic Aerosol and Global Atmospheric Effects C ONTENTS 931 Michael J Mills Hazards from Pyroclastic Flows and Surges 945 Ground Deformation, Gravity, and Magnetics Setsuya Nakada Gas, Plume, and Thermal Monitoring Lava Flow Hazards John Stix and He´le`ne Gaonac’h 957 Donald W Peterson and Robert I Tilling The Hazard from Lahars and Joăkulhlaups Synthesis of Volcano Monitoring 973 1121 John B Murray, Hazel Rymer, and Corinne A Locke 1141 1165 Stephen R McNutt, Hazel Rymer, and John Stix Kelvin S Rodolfo Hazards of Volcanic Gases 997 Glyn Williams-Jones and Hazel Rymer Volcanic Tsunamis 1005 James E Bege´t Volcanic Seismicity 1015 Stephen R McNutt Impacts of Eruptions on Human Health Volcano Warnings Volcanic Crises Management Peter J Baxter 1199 Servando De La Cru`z-Reyna, Roberto Meli P., and Roberto Quaas W Volcanic Hazards and Risk Management 1035 1185 Christopher G Newhall 1215 Russell Blong Risk Education and Intervention 1229 Volcanic Contributions to the Carbon and Sulfur Geochemical Cycles and Global Change 1045 David Johnston and Kevin Ronan Michael A Arthur The Ecology of Volcanoes: Recovery and Reassembly of Living Communities P A R T I X 1057 Economic Benefits and Cultural Aspects of Volcanism 1083 Exploitation of Geothermal Resources Ian W B Thornton Volcanism and Biotic Extinctions Michael R Rampino and Stephen Self 1243 Stefa´n Arno´rsson Volcanic Soils 1259 Chien-Lu Ping P A R T V I I I Volcanic Materials in Commerce and Industry 1271 Eruption Response and Mitigation Jonathan Dehn and Stephen R McNutt Seismic Monitoring Stephen R McNutt 1095 Volcanoes and Tourism Haraldur Sigurdsson and Rosaly Lopes-Gautier 1283 C ONTENTS Archaeology and Volcanism 1301 APPENDIX 1: COMMON UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 1361 1315 APPENDIX 2: CATALOG OF HISTORICALLY ACTIVE VOLCANOES ON EARTH 1365 Stephen L Harris Volcanoes in Art Haraldur Sigurdsson Volcanoes in Literature and Film Haraldur Sigurdsson and Rosaly Lopes-Gautier ix Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1385 INDEX 1389 1339 I NDEX volatiles, role in production, 322–323 welding, 324–326 Lava lake, thermal signature, 1162 Lava pond definition, 447 Hawaiian and Strombolian eruptions, 451 Lava shield volcano definition, 283 features, 284–285 lava flow types, 285 lava lakes, 285–286 types, 284–285 Lava tube definition, 697 thermal signature, 1163–1164 Legume, definition, 1057 Lightning, eruption correlation, 1172 LILE, see Large ion lithophile element Limu fragment definition, 361 hyaloclastites, 372 LIP, see Large igneous province Liquid limit, definition, 1260 Liquidus definition, 41, 55, 133 mantle melting, 60, 65 values for natural melts, 176 Literature, volcano depiction juvenile fiction and comics, 1353–1355 overview, 1339–1340 pre-20th century novels, 1340–1345 20th century novels, 1345–1353 Lithic fragment, definition, 1143 Lithosphere definition, 41, 89, 133, 345, 857 effects on volcanism, 111–112 flood basalt eruptions, 358 plume effects, 109 structure, 90 Lithostatic pressure definition, 219 depth distribution, 228 magmatic flow driving, 228–229 Littoral, definition, 957 Lobate lava definition, 361 physical characteristics, 367–368 pillow lava similarities, 367–369 Long Island, biotic reassembly, 1068–1069 Long Valley, warning and crisis management, 1195–1196 Low-velocity zone definition, 41, 43 temperature, 43 M Maar characteristics, 684 morphology, 689 surge deposits, 686–687 tectonic settings, 691 xenoliths, 692 Macrobiota, definition, 1057 Mafic, definition, 698 Mafic lava definition, 957 hazards, 962–966 ultramafic lava on Io, 720 Mafic rock, definition, 115 Magma assimilation, see Assimilation, magma composition basaltic magmas, 119–125 element classification, 116–118 silicic magmas, 125–128 variation overview, 173 representation, 136–137 convergent plate boundaries, 103–104 cryomagma, see Cryovolcanism crystallization, 193 definition, 41, 116, 133, 149, 171, 173, 219, 345, 361, 643, 698, 1058 degassing, see Degassing divergent plate boundaries, 99–100 dynamic properties, 507–508 flow, see Dike; Magma ascent fracturing, melt localization and flow focusing, 84–85 global rate of production, 135 history of study, 34–35 intraplate volcanism, 107–109 intrinsic properties, 506–507 length scales, 174 mixing, 134, 142, 146–147 ocean, 698 origins midocean ridges, 138–140 subduction zones, 142–144 plate tectonic effects composition, 110–111 generation, 93–94 1403 primary magma, 89, 134, 137–138 quenching, 361 rheology, 171 thermodynamic properties density and equation of state, 175–178 enthalpy, 178–179 entropy, 178 heat capacity, 179 model development, 188 overview, 174–175 time scales, 174 transport properties diffusion, 186–188 magma viscosity, 183–185 melt viscosity, 181–183 overview, 172–173, 179, 181 thermal conductivity, 185 variables influencing volcanic processes overview, viscosity, water content, viscosity, see Viscosity volatiles, see Volatiles Magma ascent crystallization, 507 degassing, 208–210 factors affecting rate crystallization, 208, 210–211 overview, 207–208 volatiles and degassing, 208–210, 238–240 flow dynamics at shallow levels annular flow, 231 bubbly flow, 241 bulk flow conditions, 241–242 slug flow, 241 viscosity effects, 240 flow regimes, 237 mass discharge rate at shallow levels calculation, 242 conduit geometry effects, 243 degassing model, 244–245 driving pressure, 242–243 laminar flow modeling, 243–244 postfragmentation events, 245 modeling, 425 phenocryst-melt reactions, 211–213 pressure changes, 238 rate estimation calculation from mass eruption rate, 213 hypocenter migration, 213–214 overview, 208, 216–217 U-Th isotopic series disequilibrium, 216 1404 Magma ascent (continued) xenoliths magma reactions, 215 transport, 214–215 source and reservoir determination, 208–209 Venus, 766–767 Magma chamber calderas, 651–652 definition, 643 differentiation processes chemical fractionation effects, 200 compaction, 200 mush flow fractionation, 198–199 overview, 197–198 reprocessing, 199 silicic segregation, 198 heat content, 820–821 heat flow, 821 mush column features, 203–204 geophysical detection, 204–205 igneous diversity and bimodality, 205 outer core of Earth, 192 pluton formation and chamber evolution, 202–203 pluton studies of processes, 200–202 seismic features, 1027–1028, 1030, 1032 volumes, 193 Magma discharge rate (MDR), plinian and subplinian eruptions, 480, 484–486, 488–493 Magma fragmentation, see Fragmentation Magmastatic, definition, 219 Magmatic center definition, 728 radial fracture center, 728 Magnesium/chlorine ratio, volcanic lake monitoring, 892–893 Magnesium metasomatism, definition, 857, 867 Magnetic monitoring Aso monitoring, 1139–1140 measurement techniques, 1137–1138 Mount Etna self-potential in magnetic monitoring, 1177–1178 Mount St Helens eruption of 1980, 1138–1139 overview, 1170 principles, 1135–1137 I NDEX sources of magnetism, 1136–1137 White Island eruption of 1974, 1139 Magnitude, earthquakes, 1015, 1017 Magnitude, eruptions calculation, 263–264 definition, 1, 477 distribution of values in historic eruptions, 265–266 intensity relationship, 267 Major element, definition, 857 Mallet, Robert, contributions to plate tectonics, 32 Manifestation definition, 836 geothermal systems, see Geothermal system Mantle adiabats, 66–67 core boundary, 53 cosmochemistry, 48–49 definition, 134, 345, 698 heat sources, 51–52 transfer, 49–51 melting, see Melting, mantle mineralogy, 44–49 structure, 42–44 temperature, 49–51 viscosity, 50–51 Mantle plume core–mantle boundary, 53 definition, 89, 108, 271, 345 flood basalt province sources, 355– 356, 358 intraplate volcanism, 107–109 lithosphere effects, 109 mantle decompression, 93 melt production rates, 275–276 mineral deposition processes, 899 ocean island basalt origin, 120–121 origin, 53 Margin basin definition, 627 island arc deposits mature marginal basin, 637–638 young marginal basin, 636–637 Maria, definition, 698 Mars, volcanic activity calderas, 775 comparison with Earth activity, 772 composition analysis, 780–781 distribution, 772–774 epochs, 773, 781–782 explorations, 772–774, 780–782 large central volcanoes, 774–776 patera, 775–778 plains, 779–780 small constructs, 778–779 SNC meteorites, 771, 781 tholus, 776 Mass eruption rate (MER) definition, eruption column correlation, 8–9 estimation with C-band radar, 1157 intensity scale, 263–264 magma ascent rate calculation, 213 magnitude correlation, Mass extinction acid rain, 1089 climate cooling, 1086–1088 correlation with flood basalt eruptions climate cooling, 1086–1088 continental flood basalts, 1084–1086 extraterrestrial impact correlation, 1090 lava flow rate, 1086 definition, 1083 greenhouse warming, 1088–1089 MCR, see Mechanical conversion ratio MDR, see Magma discharge rate Mechanical conversion ratio (MCR) efficiency, 442 water-to-melt mass ratio correlation, 436 Megamullion, formation, 100 Melt fraction, strength correlation, 80–81 Melt inclusion definition, 149 volatiles, analysis in magma, 155 Melting, mantle, see also Decompression melting; Magma causes, 52, 66 composition and solidus dependence, 56, 63–65 crystal–melt reactions in control, 138–140 frictional heating and viscous dissipation, 66 heat generation, 31, 51–52, 66 pressure dependence, 56, 135 radioactivity temperature dependence, 56, 65– 66, 135 thermodynamic theory, 56–63 Melt migration matrix mechanical property dependence, 78–81 melt localization and flow focusing, 81–86 I NDEX permeability dependence, 72–78 porous flow model, 69–71 viscosity dependence, 71–72 Melt reaction coefficient, definition, 134 Melt viscosity, see Viscosity MER, see Mass eruption rate Metaluminous rock, definition, 115 Metasomatism, definition, 172 Metis Shoal, seamount emergence, 394 Mg# calculation, 136–137 midocean ridge basalt, 141 Microgravity definition, 1121 gravity monitoring, 1131–1135 network, 1121 Microphysics aerosols, 936 definition, 931 Microsite, definition, 1058 Midocean ridge axial morphologies, 95–96 episodicity of volcanism, 272–273 fast-spreading ridges, 97–98, 100 formation, 94 heat transfer, 50 hydrothermal circulation, hydrothermal systems, see Hydrothermal system intermediate-spreading ridges, 98–99 intrusion versus extrusion of rock, 95 magma production, 135, 138–140 mineral deposition processes, 899 neovolcanic zone, 95 off-axis volcanism, 100–102 plate growth rate, 272–273 seamounts, see Seamount slow-spreading ridges, 96–97 structure, 94–95 subduction, 106–107, 272–273 volcanic activity, 4–5 volcano characteristics, 255 Midocean ridge basalt composition, 81, 99, 121, 123–125, 141 definition, 345, 803, 857 isotopic analysis of helium, 807 oceanic flood basalts, 356 Migration, see Melt migration Minoan civilization, see Akrotiri Miranda, see Uranus moons Mixing ratio, definition, 931 Moho, definition, 41 Mollisol, definition, 1260 Molybdenum, see Porphyry Monitor, lizard colonization of new volcanic habitats, 1058, 1070 Monitoring, see also specific volcanoes artificial neural networks in data analysis, 1184 automatic detection and processing of data, 1184 comparison with medicine, 1168, 1183 continuous recording of data, 1183–1184 crisis management critical phase, 1207–1209 pre-event, 1203–1204 effusive eruptions, 1172 explosive eruptions, 1171–1172 gas monitoring, see Gas goals, 1096, 1167–1168 gravity, see Gravity monitoring ground deformation, see Ground deformation monitoring Internet communications, 1183 intrusions versus eruptions, 1183 magnetic monitoring, see Magnetic monitoring posteruption monitoring, 1172–1173 preruption monitoring, 1170–1171 seismic monitoring, see Earthquake synthesis of data from various sources, 1168, 1182 threshold setting, 1182–1183 Monogenetic volcano definition, 283, 331 flow field features, 286–287 Mons, definition, 771 Montmorillinite, definition, 1271 Montserrat, see Soufriere Hills volcano Moon evolution of mare volcanism early phase, 706 late phase, 707–708 main phase, 706–707 lava flows, 701–703 mare basalts composition, 700–701 discovery, 698–699 origin, 699–700 nonmare volcanism, 705 pyroclasts, 703–704 search for volcanic activity, 7, 698 sinous rilles, 704–705 Mortality 1405 causes of death and injury explosions, 1039–1040 gases, 1041–1042 lahars, 1039 pyroclastic flow, 1037–1039 pyroclastic surge, 1037–1039 tephra fall, 1040–1041 volcano-related mortality between 1600 and 1986, 921–922, 1037 volcanoes versus other natural disasters, 9–10 Motmot, biota assembly, 1074–1075, 1078 Mount Etna climate effects, 932 eruption of 44 B.C fractures, 1173–1174 gas monitoring, 1178 gravity monitoring, 1134–1135, 1176–1177 ground deformation monitoring, 1175–1176 human activity, 1173 monitoring Earth tides, 1177 gases, 1178 gravity, 1176–1177 ground deformation, 1175–1176 radar, 1178–1179 seismology, 1174–1175 self-potential in magnetic monitoring, 1177–1178 paintings, 1321, 1324–1325, 1330 Mount Hood, tourism, 1292 Mount Pele´e eruption of 1902, pyroclastic flow and surge, 948 Mount Pinatubo, see Pinatubo Mount Ranier archeology, 1309–1310 education initiatives, 12322 tourism, 1292 Mount Spurr eruption of 1992, seismic activity, 1030–1031 Mount St Helens biosystem effects, 1061–1062 eruption of 1980 field observation, 482–484 gas analysis, 810 ground deformation monitoring, 1128–1129 seismic activity, 1030, 1109 warning and crisis management, 1192–1193 lava dome studies, 317 magma ascent, 211, 213 1406 Mount St Helens (continued) paintings, 1329–1330, 1335 tourism, 1289–1290, 1292 Y tephra in archeology, 1310–1311 Movies, see Film Mud definition, 974 lump, 513 rain, 513 Muddy streamflow, definition, 602–603 Mudflow definition, 973–974, 1301 hazards, see Lahar Multiple gating, definition, 1229 Mush column features, 203–204 geophysical detection, 204–205 igneous diversity and bimodality, 205 Mush zone definition, 191, 194 flow fractionation, 198–199 Myojinsho eruption of 1952–1953, 500–501 seamount emergence, 394–395 Mythology, see Geomythology N National park, establishment and tourism, 1286–1288 Neck definition, 191 features, 192 Necrotizing fasciitis definition, 1035 lahar association, 1039 Neoclassicism definition, 1315 Pompeii paintings, 1325–1326 Neolithic, definition, 1301 Neovolcanic zone, definition, 89, 95 Nephelenite, definition, 345 Neptune moon, see Triton Neptunist beliefs, 24–25 definition, 15 Neuropteran, definition, 1058 Neutral buoyancy level definition, 527 plume umbrella region formation, 532 Nevado del Ruiz eruption of 1985 lahar hazards I NDEX Armero destruction and lack of mitigation, 986–987 snowmelt eruption, 984–985 warning and crisis management, 1235–1236 News media communication of warnings, 1191, 1211–1212 education of public, 1230–1231 Newton, Isaac, views of volcanoes, 22–23 Newtonian fluid definition, 207 magma modeling, 213 Ngauruhoe, vulcanian eruption, 464–466 Nickel sulfide deposits, komatiitic lava characteristics, 909–910 distribution and age, 908–909 origin, 910 significance, 908 Nitrogen fixation, 1058, 1064 ratio with other volcanic gases, 807–808 sources in new volcanic habitats, 1063–1064 Noachian epoch, Mars, 771, 773, 781–782 Noncrystalline mineral, definition, 1260 Nucleation, definition, 931–932 O Obsidian definition, 15, 1271 prehistoric uses, 1275 Ocelli, definition, 897 Ochric epipedon, definition, 1260 Off-axis volcanism midocean ridge, 100 seamount formation, 101–102 transform fault volcanism, 102 Oligocene epoch, definition, 1083 Olivine definition, 134, 698 green sand beaches, 1294 liquidus volume, 137 melt exchange, 136–137 pressure in formation, 139 Omnivore, definition, 1058 Ophiolite definition, 41, 44, 134, 857 features, 44–45 Optical depth, definition, 932, 937 OPX, see Orthopyroxene Orbital period, definition, 785 Orbital resonance, definition, 785 Ore definition, 897–898 formation processes arcs and subduction zones, 899–900 heat loss by intrusive rocks, 898 mantle plumes, 899 midocean ridges, 899 Orthopyroxene (OPX) definition, 134 pressure in formation, 139 Oxisol, definition, 1260 Oxygen, aerosol effects on atmospheric chemistry, 938–939 Ozone depletion, see also Total ozone mapping spectrometer Antarctic ozone hole, 941–942 midlatitude depletions, 942 overview, 938–939 Pinatubo eruption effects, 942 P Pahoehoe lava flow definition, 285, 291 diagnostic features, 295 energy supply in formation, 299 evolution, 298 examples, 298 forecasting of behavior, 304 reversibility of formation, 299 Palagonite definition, 15, 403 discovery, 37 Paracrystalline, definition, 1260 Paricutin paintings, 1334 Paricutin, depiction in literature, 1347–1348 Particle cohesion definition, 545 pyroclast deposit control, 549 Particle trajectory definition, 545 pyroclast deposit control, 548–549 Passage zone, definition, 403, 411 Patera definition, 709, 728, 771 Mars, 775–778 Venus, 757–758 I NDEX Pavlof eruption of 1996, seismic activity, 1112 PDC, see Pyroclastic density current Pegmatite, definition, 116 PEL, see Permissible exposure limit Pelagic sediment, hyaloclastite production, 374 Pele, religious significance, 1297–1298 Pele’s tears, Hawaiian and Strombolian eruptions, 451 Peperite definition, 361, 383 formation, 362 Peralkaline rock definition, 116 granite, 126 Peraluminous rock definition, 116 granite, 126 Peridotite composition, 45–47 composition, 119 cosmochemistry, 48–49 definition, 1, 15, 41, 134, 898 magma source hypothesis, 34–35 melting, 46 reaction coefficient variation with pressure, 139 Perlite commercial uses, 1278, 1281 definition, 1271 properties, 1278 Permanent charge, clay, 1260 Permeability anisotropic permeability development in deformation, 82–83 calculation, 70 definition, 69, 1243 measurement, 77–78, 87 melt migration dependence, 78–81 melt network geometry in partially molten rocks, 74–77 models, 73–74, 87 Permian period, definition, 1083 Permissible exposure limit (PEL), definition, 997 Petrogenesis, definition, 89, 116 Petrology, history, 33–34 Phase definition, 55 mantle melting, 60 Phase separation definition, 857–858 hydrothermal systems, 868–869, 871, 874 Phenocryst definition, 219 fates in solidification front, 195–196 melt reactions in magma ascent, 211–213 phenocryst-free intrusions, 196–197 Photodissociation, definition, Photolysis, definition, 785 Photosynthesis, definition, 1058 Phreatic, definition, 1301 Phreatomagmatic eruption, see Explosive eruption Phreatomagmatic fragmentation depth, 444 dry versus wet, 444 eruption styles, 432–433 evolution classification, 442 field observation, 443–444 fuel–coolant interaction homology, 433–434, 437–439 global occurrence, 432–433 grain shapes and mechanisms, 435– 436, 439–441 mechanical conversion ratio, 436, 442 mild activity, see Surtseyan eruption overview, 507–508 plinian eruptions, 486, 488 rock sample experiments, 437–439 shock wave, 442 stages ejection, 442 premixing, 441 pressure growth, 441–442 subplinian eruptions, 489–490 temperature/pressure control, 442–443 tephra characteristics, 433 thermite experiments with water, 435–437 types, 439–441 viscosity control, 443 water effects, 508–509 Phreatomagmatism, definition, 431 Phreatoplinian eruption accretionary lapilli, 520–521 ash aggregation, 520–521 definition, 524 deposits processes of deposition, 521–522 syneruptive erosion, 522–523 types, 513, 517–519, 523 examples Askja phase C eruption of 1875, 514 Mount St Helens, 519–520 1407 Taupo eruptions of 181 A.D., 515–516 Vesuvius eruption of 79 A.D., 519, 523 external water role, 513–514 fragmentation eruption mechanisms, 520 fragmentation index, 516–517 graduation to other eruptive styles, 524 numerical models, 521 plume, 532–533 pyroclastic density currents, 518, 520–521 wet eruption versus wet deposition, 523 Picrite, definition, 345, 898 Picritic basalt, definition, 89 Picturesque definition, 1315 Piecemeal disruption, caldera subsidence, 655–656 Piezomagnetic, definition, 1121 Pillow lava composition, 367 crystallization, 364–365 definition, 361, 383–384, 403 discovery, 37 para-pillow lava, 368–369 physical characteristics, 364 pillow breccia, 361, 366–367, 376–377 pillow volcanoes, 361, 366 shelves, 365 spall fragmentation, 361, 367 spreading rate, 365–366 subglacial eruption, 410, 416 surface features, 364 Pinatubo caldera, 646, 661 lahars in eruption of 1991 lake breakouts, 987, 989 mitigation engineering, 989–990 mortality, 987 prediction of crisis end, 990–991 pyroclastic flow and surge, 948–949 seismic activity, 1112–1113 tourism, 1299 warning and crisis management, 1193–1195, 1235 Pit crater, definition, 384 Plagioclase definition, 134 liquidus volume, 137 Planeze, definition, 663 Plastic limit definition, 1260 1408 Plastic limit (continued) volcanic soils, 1268 Plate subsidence, calderas, 654 Plate tectonics convergent plate boundaries architecture, 102–103 backarc basins, 105–106 extensional versus compressional arcs, 104–105 magmas and volcanoes, 103–104, 135 ridge subduction, 106–107 cooling role, 90 cycle initiation, discovery, 32–33 divergent plate boundaries faulting, 100 magmas, 99–100 midocean ridge volcanism, 94–99 off-axis volcanism, 100–102 flood basalt province implications, 356–358 flow pattern in convecting mantle, 49–50, 90 intraplate volcanism flood basalts and continental rifting, 109–110 plumes and distribution, 107–109 magma composition influence, 110–111 generation influence, 93–94 plate boundary relationship to volcanism, 91, 93 relative volumes of magma fluxes, 94 types, 91 slab pull, volcano role, 3–4 Plateau basalt, see Flood basalt Playfair, John, contributions to decompression melting, 28 Plinian eruption characteristic features, 478 definition, 945, 1301 deposits, 480–481, 485 field observation El Chichon, 482, 484–485 Mount St Helens, 482–484 fragmentation of magma, 479–480 graduation between plinian and subplinian activity, 493 history of classification, 477–478 plumes, 478–479 Vesuvius eruption of 79 A.D reconstruction I NDEX caldera collapse and phreatomagmatic activity, 488 column, 486, 488 constraints in product analysis, 491–493 historic account, 477–478, 485– 486, 531, 1036 initial phreatomagmatic phase, 486 product analysis, 488 Plug definition, 191 features, 192 Plume aircraft hazards, see Aviation hazards discrete plume from single vent modeling of thermals, 533–534 shallow water eruptions, 534 dispersal, atmospheric effects crosswinds, 539–540 downwind evolution, 541–543 latitudinal control of vertical temperature profile, 540–541 moisture, 541 duration of formation, 527–528 generation mechanisms degassing, 528 elutriation from pyroclastic flows and surges, 528, 530 external water interactions, 528 fire fountaining, 530–531 height estimation from seismic activity, 1108 hydrothermal plume, see Hydrothermal plume Io plumes, 723–724 maintained plumes from extended sources basaltic fissure eruptions, 537–539 co-ignimbrite plumes, 527, 534, 536–537 formation, 534, 536–537 modeling, 537 structure, 536 types, 537 mantle, see Mantle plume pyroclast transport, 546 sustained plume from single vent maximum height, 532 source, 531 trunk, 531 umbrella region, 532, 542 vertical velocity, 531 water effects, 532–533 Pluto moons cryovolcanism, see Cryovolcanism explorations, 800 physical properties, 786 Pluton definition, 191–192, 898 features, 192–193 formation and chamber evolution, 202–203 magma chamber process studies convection in sedimentation, 202 layered plutons, 200–202 thermal convection, 202 Plutonist beliefs, 25 definition, 15 experiments, 25–27 Poas, gravity monitoring, 1134 Polygenetic volcano, definition, 283 Porosity, definition, 1243 Porous flow model, melt migration, 69–71 Porphyry copper, molybdenum, and gold deposits age, 900 characteristics, 900–902 distribution, 900 origin, 902 significance, 900 types, 900 definition, 898 Post-traumatic stress disorder definition, 1229 interventions, 1237–1239 Power input, volcano requirements, 284 Power output, distribution of values in historic eruptions, 265 Power production, geothermal systems available power estimation, 831, 1253–1254 combined utilization schemes, 1248 decline of output, 832, 1254–1255 development, 830–831 drilling casing programs, 1249–1251 directional drilling, 1256–1257 exploration and appraisal, 830, 1253 purposes, 1248 technique, 1248–1249 efficiency, 1247–1248 environmental and safety issues I NDEX atmospheric pollution, 1255–1256 ground subsidence, 1256 overview, 832–833 scenery impact, 1256 waste fluid injection, 1257 water pollution, 1256 examples, 817–818, 1244, 1246 exploration drilling, 830, 1253 feasibility and design of plant, 1253–1254 phases, 1251 surface exploration, 1251–1253 wells, 1243 injection well, 1243, 1257 monitoring of systems, 832, 1254 popularity, 1244 potential, 11, 13, 854, 1243–1244 production well, 1243 schemes for power generation, 831–832 selection of system for power utilization, 1244–1246 Precursor, definition, 1095 Prediction, definition, 1095 Preparedness crisis management, 1201 definition, 1199 Primary colonist, definition, 1058 Primary producer definition, 1058 Primary succession colonization of new volcanic habitats, 1080 definition, 1058 Probabilistic, definition, 1095 Productivity definition, 55 mantle melting, 60–61 Proterozoic eon, definition, Proton precision magnetometer, definition, 1121 Pseudocrater, definition, 771 Pumice commercial uses, 1277 definition, 421, 1058, 1143, 1271–1272 fragmentation product, 427 prehistoric uses, 1275 properties, 1277 Pyroclast boundaries between fields fall:flow, 551–552 fall:surge, 550–551 surge:flow, 552 commercial uses, 1272–1274, 1276 composite volcano products classification, 676–677 cone-building association, 678–680 flow direction and redistribution, 677 main vent association, 677–678 ring plain association, 680 satellite vent association, 680–681 constraints in eruption reconstruction from deposits, 491–493 definition, 1, 321, 421, 447, 698, 709 deposition system controls fluctuations of particle concentration, 549, 553 particle cohesion, 549, 552–553 particle concentration, 549 particle trajectory, 548–549 definition, 545 overview, 548 fall deposits, see Pyroclastic fall flow deposits, 550 fragmentation product analysis, 427, 429 moon, 703–704 plinian eruptions, 480–481, 485 surge deposits, see Pyroclastic surge transport systems overview, 545–546 plume, see Plume pyroclastic density current, see Pyroclastic density current Pyroclastic, definition, 627, 1301 Pyroclastic density current (PDC), see also Block-and-ash-flow deposit; Ignimbrite; Pyroclastic flow; Pyroclastic surge blocking, 571, 576 classification of types, 546 concentrated currents, 547–548 definition, 545, 581, 583 dilute currents, 546–547 modeling of flow, 597–598 phreatoplinian eruptions, 518, 520–521 plinian and subplinian eruptions, 478, 481, 485–486, 488–489, 491, 493 rationale for study, 599 runout dense mass flows, 597–598 1409 dilute suspension currents, 598 Pyroclastic fall absolute grain size and sorting, 563–565 agglutination, 566 boundaries with other deposition fields, 550–552 classification of deposits, 569 definition, 545, 555 dispersal index, 558–559 eruption sources, 556 external water flashing, 569 features of deposits, 549–550 fining of depositis, 559–560 juvenile clasts morphology, 567 vesicularity, 567–568 stratification and grading in deposits, 561–563 thinning of deposits controlling factors, 556–558 rate, 556 volume determination for deposits, 560–561 wallrock lithic content, 568–569 welding, 566 whole-deposit grain size, 561 Pyroclastic flow, see also Block-andash-flow deposit; Ignimbrite definition, 545, 583, 643, 945, 1058, 1301 deposits alteration and cementation, 596 boundaries with other deposition fields, 551–552 compaction and reworking, 595–596 features, 550, 581–582 features, 547–548 hazards and disasters causes of death and injury, 1037–1039 mitigation, 954 Mount Pele´e eruption of 1902, 948, 1059 Mount Pinatubo eruption of 1991, 948–949 Soufrierer Hills, 949–950 Unzen eruption of 1991, 950– 951, 953 Vesuvius eruption of 79 A.D., 953–954 lava dome collapse, 309 mobility and size, 946–948 origins, 946 1410 Pyroclastic flow (continued) risk reduction, 1224 sea entry flow–water interaction, 593, 630 Krakatau eruption of 1883, 593–595 seismic features, 1021, 1102 speed, 948 temperature, 948 Pyroclastic surge atomic bomb homology, 573 base surge, 571, 573 characteristics, 546–547, 572 compressible flow effects, 580 critical particle loading, 579–580 definition, 545, 571, 945, 1301–1302 deposits bedforms, 571, 573–574, 580 bedset, 571 boundaries with other deposition fields, 550–552, 578 distinguishing from eolian and water-lain deposits, 578–579 facies variations condensed water-induced variations, 577–578 proximal to distal variations, 575–576 topography-induced variations and blocking, 576–577 vertical variations, 577 features, 550, 572–573, 581 granulometry, 574–575 generation mechanisms, 572 hazards and disasters causes of death and injury, 1037–1039 mitigation, 954 Mount Pele´e eruption of 1902, 948 Mount Pinatubo eruption of 1991, 948–949 Soufrierer Hills, 949–950 Unzen eruption of 1991, 950– 951, 953 Vesuvius eruption of 79 A.D., 953–954 hydrovolcanic eruptions, 573 mobility and size, 946–948 origins, 946 physical processes, 570 risk assessment, 580 speed, 948 temperature, 948 Pyrolite I NDEX composition, 46 definition, 41 Pyroxene, definition, 698 Q QBO, see Quasi-biennial oscillation Quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO), equatorial winds, 937 R Radioactive decay, heat generation, 31, 51–52, 66, 819 Radiogenic isotope applications, 128 argon, 167–168 basaltic magma analysis, 128–129 definition, 116 granite analysis, 130 helium, 167 types, 128 Radiolysis, definition, 785 Radiometric dating, definition, 698 Radionuclide, definition, Radon diffuse flank degassing, 814 fumarole emission monitoring, 1147, 1149 toxicity, 998, 1000, 1042 Rare earth element basaltic magmas, 125 definition, 116 Rayleigh number definition, 191 determination, 202 Rayleigh–Taylor instability definition, 431 phreatomagmatic fragmentation, 440–441 Reaction channels, formation, 85–86 Reaction rim definition, 207 hornblende reaction rim, 211–212 Real-time seismic amplitude measurement (RSAM), volcano forecasting, 1105–1106 Recurrence rate, see Episodicity, volcanism Redox potential, definition, 803 Reduced displacement, definition, 1095 Refractory, definition, 41, 1272 Relative Risk Index, formulation, 1219 Remote sensing definition, 1143 gases, 1149–1153 prospects, 1164–1165 Resurfacing, definition, 785 Reticulite definition, 447 fragmentation product, 427 Hawaiian and Strombolian eruptions, 452 porosity, 323 Return code, definition, 1199 Reversible reaction adiabatic processes, 56 definition, 55 Reynolds number bulk flow modeling, 242 definition, 219–220, 237, 242 Rheology, definition, 220, 307 Rhyolite composition, 117, 125–128 definition, 220 formation, 126 hyaloclastites, 378 magma properties, 172 magma transport, 229–231 reprocessing of magma, 199 volatiles, abundance, 162–163 water in magma evolution, 127 Rigid crust, definition, 191, 194 Rille, definition, 698 Ring plain definition, 663 pyroclast association, 680 volcano erosion, 672 Risk acceptable risk, 1185, 1215–1217 analysis, 1217–1220 categorization of risk takers, 1216 definition, 957–959, 997, 1185, 1215–1216 education, see Education, volcano risks identification, 1217 management, overview, 1215–1216, 1226 reduction lahar, 1221–1222 lake degassing, 1224 lava flow, 1220 overview, 1220, 1224–1225, 1227 pyroclastic flow, 1224 tephra fall, 1222–1224 Relative Risk Index formulation, 1219 I NDEX tolerable risk, 1215, 1217 transfer disaster relief, 1224–1226 insurance, 1226 warnings, 1187, 1189–1190 Ritter Island, biotic reassembly, 1069 Rockfalls, seismic features, 1021, 1102 Romans, ancient views of volcanoes, 20–21, 1312 Romanticism definition, 1315 volcano paintings, 1336–1337 RSAM, see Real-time seismic amplitude measurement Ruapehu eruption of 1995, postevent interventions, 1238–1240 Run up, definition, 1005 S Sakurajima eruption of 1914 ground deformation monitoring, 1126 vulcanian eruption, 466 San Sebastiano, rebuilding, 291–292 Sand, definition, 1260 Santorini archeology, see Akrotiri caldera, 645 eruption of 1620 B.C., climate effects, 932 SAR interferometry, see Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry Satellite vent, see Vent Saturation, melts, 149, 152, 164 Saturn moons Cassini exploration, 800 cryovolcanism Dione, 796 Enceladus, 794–795 Tethys, 796 Titan, 795–796 physical properties, 786 Scavenger, definition, 1058 Scientific Event Alert Network (SEAN), 249 Scoria abundance, 683 characteristics, 684 definition, 321, 421, 447, 684, 1058 deposit features, 685–686 examples Capelinhos, 692–693 Miyake-jima eruption, 693 Paricutin, 693–694 morphology and internal structure, 688–689 particle features, 684–685 tectonic settings groups and complexes, 689 islands, 690 rift areas and subduction zones, 690–692 Scrope, George Poullettt, contributions to volcanology, 29, 36 Seamount abundance, 384–385 asperity, 384, 400–401 biota assembly Anak Krakatau, 1075–1077, 1079–1080 Motmot, 1074–1075, 1078 Surtsey, 1072–1074, 1077 chemical composition intraplate seamounts, 397 island arc seamounts, 397–398 midocean ridge seamounts, 397 definition, 362, 384 emplacement and fragmentation processes, factors affecting, 391 endemic fauna, 401 geographic distribution intraplate seamounts, 387, 389 island arcs, 390 midocean ridge seamounts fast spreading ridges, 389–390, 401 overview, 389 slow spreading ridges, 390, 401 Pacific plate seamounts, 390–391 growth stages deep-water stage, 391 drilling results, 393–394 emergent stage, 393 erosional stage, 393 intermediate water/shoaling stage, 392–393 overview, 391 historical observations of emergence, 394–395 hydrothermal activity hot spot seamounts on active spreading centers, 398 intraplate hot spot seamounts, 398–399 island arc seamounts, 399 hydrothermal chemistry, 871–872 lithosphere load, 399 oceanic crust formation, 399–400 off-axis volcanism in formation, 101–102 1411 plate techtonic implications, 399 size and morphology craters, 386 factors affecting, 386 intraplate and midocean ridge seamounts, 386 island arc seamounts, 386–387 mapping, 386 nonvolcanic seamounts, 387 types, 384 upper mantle composition, 400 SEAN, see Scientific Event Alert Network Sector collapse debris avalanche production, 617–618 definition, 617 Sedimentation, definition, 932 Seiche, definition, 1005 Seismic monitoring, see Earthquake Seismic network data analysis, 1097–1098 definition, 1095 Seismic spectral amplitude measurement (SSAM), volcano forecasting, 1105–1106 Seismic station, definition, 1095 Shape, volcanoes, 250–252 Shasta religious significance, 1297 tourism, 1292 Shear stress, resistance in lahar modeling, 614–615 Sheet flow characteristics, 369–370 definition, 361 Shield field definition, 728 Venus, 768 Shield volcano, definition, 698, 771 Shock wave definition, 463 fragmentation induction, 507 vulcanian eruptions, 466–467, 471 Sideromelane definition, 15, 384, 495 discovery, 37 Silicate, definition, 41 Silicic lava, definition, 957 Silicosis, definition, 1035 Sill definition, 191 features, 192 Silt, definition, 1260 Silver deposits characteristics, 903 1412 Silver deposits (continued) distribution and age, 903 origin, 903–904 significance, 902–903 types, 903 Sinous rille definition, 698 moon, 704–705 Slab definition, 90 rollback, 105 The Sleeper of the Moonlight Ranges, volcano depiction in literature, 1347 Slug flow definition, 226, 237, 447 magma ascent at shallow levels, 241 SNC meteorites, compositional analysis of Mars, 771, 781 Soil, volcanic agriculture and civilization impact, 1268–1269, 1272 charge, 1267 classification, 1262–1263 climate role in formation, 1263–1264 general features, 1260–1261, 1265 geographic distribution, 1261–1262 mineralogy, 1265–1267 morphology, 1265 parent materials, 1263 physical properties, 1268 time of formation, 1264 topography, 1264 vegetation, 1264 Solfatara, see Geothermal system Solid Earth theory, historical view, 27–28 Solidification front chemical fractionation effects, 200 crystal fractionation, 197 definition, 191 divisions, 194 features, 194–195 formation, 193 instability and silicic segregation, 198 phenocryst fates, 195–196 Solids concentration definition, 545 pyroclast deposition effects, 549, 553 Solid-state greenhouse, definition, 785 Solid-state imaging (SSI), Galileo imaging of Io, 709, 712, 719 Solidus composition and melting dependence, 56, 63–65 I NDEX composition dependence, 56 definition, 41, 55, 116, 134 mantle adiabat intersections, 67 slope from Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 60 Soufriere Hills monitoring dome growth acceleration, 1180–1181 high growth rate, 1181–1182 early activity, 1179–1180 seismology, 1179 pyroclastic flow and surge, 949–950 Spall dome definition, 495 surtseyan eruption, 496 Spall fragment, definition, 361, 367 Spatial resolution, definition, 1143 Spatter, see also Agglutination definition, 362 welded spatter, 370 Spatter bomb definition, 447 Hawaiian and Strombolian eruptions, 451 Spectrogram, seismic signals, 1095 Spinel definition, 134 pressure in formation, 139 Spodosol, definition, 1260 Sputtering, definition, 785 SSAM, see Seismic spectral amplitude measurement SSI, see Solid-state imaging Stock definition, 191 features, 192 Stockwork, definition, 858 Stratosphere aerosol effects dynamics, 937–939 polar clouds, 941 warming, 939–940 aerosol, 934 definition, 527 sulfur dioxide perturbation, 935–936 sulfuric acid aerosols in climate cooling, 1086–1088 Stratovolcano definition, 283, 664 features, 286 Strength, partially molten rock, 80–81 Stromatolite definition, plate tectonic cycle initiation, Stromboli, volcano depiction in film, 1339, 1355–1356 Strombolian eruption, see also Scoria cone bubble growth and magma fragmentation, 323 definition, 321, 447, 683 degassing, 453–454 deposition features, 452 magma reservoirs and conduits, 455–456 models, 458–460 overview, 447–448 products, 451–452 style of eruption, 448–451 transition to Hawaiian eruption, 448, 460 tremor sources, 456–458 two-phase flow, 454–455 Subduction continental accretion, convergent plate boundariy zones, 103–104 crust and mantle recycling, definition, 1, 804 isotope tracing, 6–7 mechanism, 6, 52 midocean ridges, 272–273 ridge subduction, 106–107 volatiles, recycling, 168–169 water functions, 5–6, 52 Subduction zone definition, 90, 271 fractional crystallization, 144–146 mineral deposition processes, 899–900 volcano characteristics, 207, 254–255 Subglacial eruption basaltic eruptions thick glaciers, 409, 411–414 thin glaciers, 409–411 criteria for determination in geologic record, 406–408 felsic eruptions, 414–415 fluid dynamics, 417 glacier properties affecting, 408–409 meltwater generation, 406, 416–417 paleoenvironmental information from volcanoes, 415417 sea level impact, 417 Vatnajoăkull ice cap, 404, 406 volcano formation, 404 1413 I NDEX Sublime, definition, 1315 Subliquidus, definition, 220 Submarine hydrothermal vent, see also Hydrothermal system biological significance, 858, 868 definition, 858 fluid compositions, 859, 864 history of study, 858 site locations, 858–862 Submarine lava, see also Hyaloclastite; Lobate lava; Pillow lava; Sheet flow arc volcanoes, 632 eruption style control, 362 flow types and features, 363 laboratory simulation, 363 modern versus ancient examples, 363 silicic flows, 370 welded spatter, 370 Subplinian eruption characteristic features, 478 deposits, 480–481, 485 fragmentation of magma, 479–480 graduation between plinian and subplinian activity, 493 history of classification, 477–478 plumes, 478–479 Vesuvius eruption reconstructions AP2 eruption, 490 constraints in product analysis, 491–493 1631 A.D eruption opening phase, 489 phreatomagmatic phase, 489–490 vulcanian phase, 489 Succession, biological, 1058 Successional mosaic, definition, 1058 Sulfates, ash components, 1156–1157 Sulfide deposit, see Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposit Sulfur allotropes on Io, 709, 718 historic applications, 16, 18 liquid sulfur in volcanic lakes, 889 mining of volcanic products, 1280–1281 solubility in silicate melts, 152–153 Sulfur cycle preindustrial geochemical cycle, 1049–1050, 1052 recycling, 1054–1055 Sulfur dioxide annual emission estimates, 1048 asthma induction, 1041 conversion to sulfuric acid, 1087–1088 correlation spectrometry, 809, 812, 997, 1046, 1149–1151 emission concentration changes over time, 1147, 1150–1151 Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, 1153 greenhouse warming, 1088–1089 hazards, 999, 1001–1002 hydrothermal system reactions, 808–809 isotopic analysis, 807 measurement of outgassing, 1046–1047 Mount Etna monitoring, 1178 silicic magma release, 164–165 stratosphere perturbation, 935–936 thermal infrared multispectral scanner monitoring, 1153 total ozone mapping spectrometry, 1151–1152, 1172 toxicity, 998, 1000 Sulfuric acid aerosols in climate cooling, 1086–1088 toxicity, 998, 1001 Summit pit, definition, 698 Sunset Crater, archeology, 1296, 1309 Superheated liquid, definition, 431 Surtsey, biota assembly, 1072–1074, 1077 Surtseyan eruption classifications of mild phreatomagmatic activity, 510 continuous plumes, 510 definition, 496, 683 discrete explosions, 510 emergence from sea, 497, 499–500 plume, 534 related phreatomagmatic eruptions heterogeneity of eruptive processes and products, 505–506 Kilauea eruption of 1924, 503–504 Myojinsho eruption of 1952– 1953, 500–501 Taal eruption of 1965, 501–502 Teishi knoll eruption of 1989, 504–505 Ukinrek eruption of 1977, 502–503 White Island eruption of 1976– 1982, 502 subaqueous explosion, 496–497 vents geometry, 509–510 wall properties, 509 water and phreatomagmatic fragmentation, 508–509 Suspension zone, definition, 191, 194 Swarm, see Earthquake Swimming in the Volcano, volcano depiction in literature, 1352–1353 Syenite, definition, 345 Symbiosis, definition, 1058 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry advantages, 1184 definition, 728, 1121–1122 ground deformation monitoring, 1122–1124, 1141 Mount Etna monitoring, 1179 Venus studies, 730–731 T Taal, eruption of 1965, 501–502 Tachylite definition, 495 surtseyan eruption, 496–497 Tambora eruption of 1815 climate effects, 10–12, 933, 1090–1091 impact on civilization, 10–11 Taupo, caldera, 647 Teishi, knoll eruption of 1989, 504–505 Telemetry, seismic stations, 1095 Temperature monitoring, see Thermal monitoring Tephra, see also Ash colonization of new volcanic habitats, 1067–1068 definition, 421, 1058, 1272, 1302 erosion rate, 1059 falling damage, 421 phreatomagmatic eruption, 433 volume estimation from seismic activity, 1108 vulcanian eruption characteristics, 469, 471, 473 Tephra fall biosystem effects of fallout animals, 1059–1060 insects, 1060 local survival animals, 1061–1062 plants, 1060–1061 1414 Tephra fall (continued) particle size effects, 1060 timing effects, 1060, 1062 death and injury, 1040–1041 risk reduction, 1222–1224 Tephra jet definition, 495 finger jet definition, 403 subglacial eruption, 412 surtseyan eruption, 496–497, 499–500 Tephra layer, definition, 271 Terra, definition, 698 Tertiary consumer, definition, 1058 Tessera, definition, 728 Tetanus definition, 1035 lahar association, 1039 Tethys, see Saturn moons Texaco, volcano depiction in literature, 1351–1352 Thera, see Santorini Thermal conductivity estimation, 185 radiative conductivity, 185 values for solids and melts, 185–186 Thermal definition, 527 modeling, 533–534 Thermal diffusivity, definition, 220 Thermal infrared, definition, 1143 Thermal monitoring airborne sensors, 1160 anomalies high-amplitude anomalies, 1161–1163 low-amplitude anomalies, 1163–1164 origins, 1159–1160 ground-based measurements, 1160 principles, 1157, 1159 spaceborne sensors, 1160–1161 space–time resolution of data, 1161 Thickness half-distance definition, 555 fining of fall depositis, 560 Tholeiite, definition, 345 Tholeiitic trend, subduction zone magmas, 146 Tholus definition, 728, 772 Mars, 776 Thomas Register of Products and Services, volcano-related commerce, 1272–1273 I NDEX Tidal wave, see Tsunami Tillite definition, 403 formation, 410 Tiltmeter, ground deformation monitoring, 1126 Tindar definition, 403 formation, 411 Titan, see Saturn moons Toba, see Tambora eruption of 1815 TOMS, see Total ozone mapping spectrometer Topographic inversion, definition, 663 Tornillo, vulcanian eruption warning, 468–469 Total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) definition, 1143 sulfur dioxide monitoring, 1151– 1152, 1172 Tourism development, 1299–1300 Grand Tour, 1284–1285 history of volcano tourism, 1283–1286 national parks, 1286–1288 offerings of volcanoes archeological interest, 1294–1296 beaches, 1293–1294 climbing and skiing, 1290–1292 ecotourism, 1292–1293 hot springs and spas, 1290 religious interest, 1296–1298 scenery, 1288–1289 spectacle of volcanic activity, 1289–1290 overview of sites, 1283 trends, 1284 Trachyte, definition, 403 Trap rock, definition, 1272 Trapdoor subsidence, calderas, 655 Tremor, see also Earthquake definition, 447, 1015, 1019 features, 1019–1020, 1101 Hawaiian and Strombolian eruptions, 456–458 mechanisms, 1104 volcanic explosivity index relationship to reduced displacement, 1107 vulcanian eruptions, 465, 467, 471 Triassic period, definition, 1083 Triton, see also Cryovolcanism cryovolcanism, 791–793 explorations, 791–792 heating, 793 orbit, 791 origin, 793 physical properties, 786 Tropopause definition, 527, 933 plume dispersal, 540–541 Troposphere aerosol-induced cooling, 940–941 definition, 527, 933 particles, 934 Tsunami definition, 1005 historic characteristics, 1006–1007 Krakatoa eruption of 1883, 1006, 1010–1011 mechanisms of volcanic production debris avalanches, 1009–1010 explosive eruption, 1010–1011 lake tsunamis, 890, 1008–1009 overview, 1005–1006, 1011–1013 submarine eruptions, 1006–1007, 1012 Tuff, see also Ash-flow deposit; Vesicular tuff definition, 1272 Tuff cone characteristics, 684 morphology, 689 surge deposits, 686–687 tectonic settings, 691–692 Tuff ring characteristics, 684 morphology, 689 surge deposits, 686–687 tectonic settings, 691 xenoliths, 692 Turbidite, definition, 404, 627 Turbidity current, definition, 627 Turbulence definition, 602 Turbulent flow definition, 237 features, 304 Turner, Joseph Mallord William, volcano paintings, 1326–1327 Tuya, definition, 404 The Twenty-One Balloons, volcano depiction in literature, 1353–1354 Tympanic membrane, see Eardrum rupture U Ukinrek, eruption of 1977, 502–503 Ukiyoe, definition, 1316 I NDEX Ultisol definition, 1260 Ultra-low velocity zone (ULVZ), definition, 41–42 Ultramafic, definition, 41 ULVZ, see Ultra-low velocity zone Uniformitarian, definition, 271–272 Units, conversion factors, 1361–1364 Unzen eruption of 1991, pyroclastic flow and surge, 950–951, 953 Upflow zone, definition, 858, 963 Uranus moons cryovolcanism, 793–794 physical properties, 786 Usu, gas analysis, 810–811 V Vapor density, definition, 997 Vapor film collapse in phreatomagmatic fragmentation, 434, 440 definition, 431 oscillation and turbulence production, 440 Variable charge, clay, 1260 Vascular plant colonization of new volcanic habitats, 1073 definition, 1058 local survival, 1061 Vatnajoăkull ice cap, subglacial eruption, 404, 406 VEI, see Volcanic explosivity index Vent, see also Plume; Submarine hydrothermal vent basaltic volcanic fields alignment, 339–340 faults, occurence of vents, 340–341 patial patterns in distribution, 336–337 composite volcanoes migration, 672–674 pyroclast association main vent, 677–678 satellite vent, 680–681 definition, 663, 698 ignimbrite source vents, 595 satellite vent, 663 subsidiary vents, 674 Surtseyan eruptions geometry, 509–510 wall properties, 509 Venus, volcanic activity abundance, 728 active centers, table, 732–751 calderas, 757–758 distribution, 731, 752–753 explorations, 729–731, 752–753 factors influencing eruptions and landforms magma ascent, 766–767 magma composition, 765 surface temperature and pressure, 765–766 fluted domes, 756 intermediate volcanoes, 727–728, 754–756 large volcanoes, 728, 753–754, 768 lava channels, 759–760 flow fields, 758–759 plains, 758 unusual flows, 759 magma ascent, 766–767 magmatic structures arachnoid, 762 corona, 761–762 overview, 760–761 radial fracture centers, 764–765 origins, 728–729 planetary characteristics, 729–730 rationale for study, 729 small volcanoes, 728, 756–757 steep-sided domes, 728, 755–756 tectonics, 768–769 Vertisol, definition, 1260 Vesicle, definition, 421, 698 Vesicularity definition, 421 pyroclastic fall deposit juvenile clasts, 567–568 Vesicular rock definition, 307 lava textures, 313–314 Vesicular tuff, definition, 683 Vesiculated tuff definition, 495 surtseyan eruption, 500 Vesiculation bubble nucleation, 423, 430 definition, 421 magma acceleration, 429–430 Vesuvius AP2 eruption reconstruction, 490 eruption of 79 A.D pyroclastic flow and surge, 953–954 reconstruction caldera collapse and phreatomagmatic activity, 488 1415 column, 486, 488 constraints in product analysis, 491–493 historic account, 477–478, 485–486, 531, 1036 initial phreatomagmatic phase, 486 product analysis, 488 eruption of 1631 A.D reconstruction opening phase, 489 phreatomagmatic phase, 489–490 vulcanian phase, 489 Herculaneum archeology, 1302–1304 history of tourism, 1284–1285 paintings artistic illustration, 1336 eruption of 1631, 1321–1324 eruptions of 1770’s, 1325 modern paintings, 1335–1336 neoclassicism, 1325–1326 pre-eruption of 79 A.D., 1319–1320 Turner paintings, 1326–1327 Pompeii archeology historic accounts of eruption, 477–478, 485–486, 531, 1036, 1304–1305 overview, 1295, 1302–1303 rediscovery and excavation, 1305 reconstruction constraints in product analysis, 491–493 VHMS, see Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposit The Violins of Saint-Jacques, volcano depiction in literature, 1345–1347 Viscosity composition dependence, 71–72 cryomagma, 789 definition, 69, 149–150, 220, 698 dike flow effects, 225–226 factors affecting, 506–507 lunar lava, 701 magma viscosity capillary number, 184 shear rate effects, 185 volume fraction effects, 183–184 melt migration dependence, 71–72, 79–80 melt viscosity prediction with Adams-Gibbs-Di Marzio theory, 182–183 pressure dependence, 182 temperature dependence, 181–183 1416 Viscosity (continued) molten carbonate, 176 relative viscosity, 172 supercritical water, 176 volatile effects on silicate melts, 166–167 Visible maria definition, 698 Volatiles, see also Bubble; Degassing; Gas; specific volatiles basaltic magma abundances backarc basin basalts, 161 continental margin basalts, 160–161 flood basalts, 161 island arc basalts, 160–161 midocean ridge basalts, 158–159 ocean island basalts, 159–160 bubble growth and magma fragmentation, 323–324 definition, 1, 42, 90, 150, 220, 237, 322, 709, 803 degassing, see Degassing dike flow, rising gas bubble effects, 226–227 effects on silicate melt properties density, 166 viscosity, 166–167 explosive eruptions, 229, 256, 322–323 importance in volcanic eruptions, 165 loss from conduits, 426 magmatic content measuring fluid inclusion analysis, 156–157 phase equilibrium experiments, 154–155 quenched glass analysis, 155 saturation with volatile-rich minerals and immiscible liquids, 157 thermodynamic calculation based on mineral compositions, 155–156 noble gases, 167–168 partial pressures in solubility, 152 recycling by subduction, 168–169 silicate glass abundance measurements, 157, 322 silicic magma abundances andesite, 161–162 dacite, 162–163 gradients, 163–164 rhyolite, 162–163 saturation, 164 sulfur dioxide emission, 164–165 I NDEX silicic magma evolution role, 127–128 solubility, 149–154, 238–239, 322– 323, 808 storage in basaltic magmas, 157–158 Volcanic aerosol, see Aerosol Volcanic arc, see Arc Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) definition, 263, 477, 1005 distribution of eruptions, 258–259 features by index value, 264 interval and individual magnitude, 259–261 relationship to tremor reduced displacement, 1107 Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposit (VHMS) characteristics, 905–906 distribution and age, 904 origin, 906, 912 significance, 904 types, 905 Volcanic lake, see Lake, volcanic Volcaniclastic, definition, 627 Volcaniclastic apron, definition, 627 Volcanic winter, see also Climate definition, 1083 Tambora eruption of 1815, 933, 1090–1091 Volcano, volcano depiction in film, 1356–1358 Volcano, volcano depiction in literature, 1348–1349 Volcanoes of the World categorization of volcanoes, 1365 condensed and updated table, 1366–1383 Volcanology definition, 2, 16 history, 16–37 The Volcano Lover, volcano depiction in literature, 1352 The Volcano Ogre, volcano depiction in literature, 1349 Vulcanian eruption ballistic injection, 469 definition, 945 deposit characteristics, 469–471 destructive potential, 464 field examples Galeras, 466–469 Ngauruhoe, 464–466 Sakurajima, 466 Vulcano, 464 fuel–coolant interaction model, 474 history of classification, 463–464 overview of features, 463, 474 plumes and dynamics, 471–473, 533–534 shock waves, 466–467, 471 source models, 473–474 tremors, 465, 467, 471 velocity and pressure estimates, 469 Vulcano gas analysis, 812 vulcanian eruption, 464 Vulnerability definition, 1199, 1201–1203, 1215 modification, 1216 W Warning alert levels, 1189, 1194, 1196, 1199, 1205 case studies Long Valley, 1195–1196 Mount St Helens, 1192–1193 Nevado del Ruiz eruption of 1985, 1235–1236 Pinatubo, 1193–1195, 1235 characteristics of successful warnings, 1186 contents, 1234 credibility, 1234–1235 definition, 1229 dissemination concise statements, 1191 Internet, 1191–1192 meetings, 1191 news media, 1191, 1211–1212 educational materials, 1190–1191 factual statements, 1188 hazard maps, 945, 1186, 1189–1190 posteruption, 1187 pre-eruption warning, see Crisis management; Forecast probabilities of several possible outcomes, 1189 response of public, 1234 risk warnings, 1187 syneruption, 1187 time window forecasts, 1188–1189 Water connate water, 803 emission concentration changes over time, 1146–1147 geothermal system chemistry, 825, 827–828 origins and system age, 828–829 1417 I NDEX history of theories in volcanic processes, 35–37 importance in volcanic eruptions, 165 isotopic determination of subduction versus primary magma water, 806–807 magma melting role, 52 meteoric water, 803, 808 phreatomagmatic fragmentation role, 508–509 plume behavior effects of external water, 532–534 formation, external interactions, 528 pressure-dependent solubility in magma, 169 pyroclastic fall interactions, 569 saturation, 152 silicate melt properties, effects density, 166 viscosity, 166–167 silicic magma evolution role, 127, 154–155 solubility in magma overview, 135, 150–151, 238–239 silicate melts, 151–152 subduction, 169 volcanic process effects, Water/rock ratio, definition, 858 Weather, see Climate, volcano effects Welding, see also Ignimbrite definition, 321 lava fountains, 324–326 pyroclastic fall deposits, 566 Werner, Abraham Gottlob, views of volcanoes, 24–25 White Island eruption of 1976–1982, 502 gas analysis, 811 Wind in the Earth, ancient views of volcanoes, 19–20 X Xenocryst, definition, 898 Xenolith definition, 15, 42, 45, 207, 220, 698 magma ascent rate estimation magma reactions, 215 transport, 214–215 Y Yardang, definition, 772 Yield stress definition, 321 preservation of agglutinate piles, 325–326, 329 Z Zoochorous definition, 1058 species colonization of new volcanic habitats, 1070 ... the manner of a textbook (or a novel), to obtain the ideal view of the complete subject of volcanoes Article Format Each article in the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes begins at the top of a right-hand... our growing awareness of the importance of volcanism to the past, present, and future history of Earth and its celestial partners, the publication of the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes is clearly needed... on the volcanic origin of columnar basalt Similarly, the editors of the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes have recruited the recognized authorities in each field or speciality of volcanology to contribute