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B UILDING B LOCKS OF M ATTER EDITORIAL BOARD Editor in Chief John S Rigden American Institute of Physics Editors Jonathan Bagger Johns Hopkins University Roger H Stuewer University of Minnesota B UILDING B LOCKS OF M ATTER A Supplement to the MACMILLAN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHYSICS John S Rigden Editor in Chief Building Blocks of Matter: A Supplement to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Physics John S Rigden, Editor in Chief For permission to use material from this product, submit your request via Web at http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you may download our Permissions Request form and submit your request by fax or mail to: ©2003 by Macmillan Reference USA Macmillan Reference USA is an imprint of The Gale Group, Inc., a division of Thomson Learning, Inc Macmillan Reference USATM and Thomson LearningTM are trademarks used herein under license For more information, contact Macmillan Reference USA 300 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor New York, NY 10010 Or you can visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.com Permissions Department The Gale Group, Inc 27500 Drake Road Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Permissions Hotline: 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253 ext 8006 Fax: 248-699-8074 or 800-762-4058 While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, The Gale Group, Inc does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein The Gale Group, Inc accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage retrieval systems—without the written permission of the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Building blocks of matter : a supplement to the Macmillan encyclopedia of physics / edited by John S Rigden p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-02-865703-9 (hardcover : alk paper) Particles (Nuclear physics) I Rigden, John S II Macmillan encyclopedia of physics QC793.2 B85 2003 539.7’2—dc21 2002013396 Printed in the United States of America 10 CONTENTS Preface vii Introduction ix Reader’s Guide xiii List of Articles xvii List of Contributors xxiii Common Abbreviations and Acronyms xxix Building Blocks of Matter Time Line 503 Glossary 509 Index 515 v EDITORIAL AND PRODUCTION STAFF Deirdre Graves, Brigham Narins (Project Editors) Shawn Beall (Editorial Support) Patti Brecht, Joseph Pomerance (Copy Editors) Carol Roberts (Indexer) Robyn Young (Project Manager, Imaging and Multimedia Content) Pam Galbreath (Art Director) GGS Information Services (Typesetter) Mary Beth Trimper (Composition Manager) Evi Seoud (Assistant Production Manager) Rhonda Williams (Buyer) Macmillan Reference USA Frank Menchaca (Vice President) Hélène G Potter (Director of New Product Development) Jill Lectka (Director of Publishing) vi PREFACE The concepts and ideas of elementary particle physics are abstract, and they are typically expressed in the language of mathematics However, the goal of elementary particle physics is very simple, and all the efforts of elementary particle physicists are directed toward that simple goal: to identify the basic building blocks of matter and to understand how they interact to produce the material world we observe that may be unknown to the reader, both in the field of physics and in related sciences A list of common abbreviations and acronyms at the beginning of the book is included to aid readers unfamiliar with those used in the book Numerous tables, figures, illustrations, and photographs supplement the information contained within the articles and provide visual tools to better understand the material presented This encyclopedia contains articles intended for a broad audience of general readers and is designed to edify and give readers an appreciation for one of the most active and productive areas of physics throughout the twentieth century and to the present time On the one hand, most of the articles have been written in ordinary language and provide a solid base in particle physics concepts and history for those who are new to the field On the other hand, some topics in particle physics are difficult to express in everyday words, and in the articles on such topics, symbols appear and even an occasional equation Even these articles, however, are written so that the reader with little physics background can capture a general sense of the topic covered Entries are arranged alphabetically and include extensive cross-references to refer the reader to additional discussions of related topics In each article, a bibliography directs the reader to books, articles, and Web sites that provide additional sources of information The articles themselves focus on particular topics that, taken together, make up the intellectual framework called elementary particle physics Articles such as those on accelerators, quarks, leptons, antimatter, and particle identification provide a working base for the study of particle physics Articles such as those on quantum chromodynamics, neutrino oscillations, electroweak symmetry breaking, and string theory bring readers to subjects that fill the conversations of contemporary particle physicists Finally, articles such as those on the cosmological constant and dark energy, supersymmetry, and unified theories discuss the key topics replete with many exciting questions left to be answered Several features of the encyclopedia are designed to help the general reader navigate the language of physics and mathematics included in the articles on the more complex topics A glossary in the back of the book provides definitions for terms vii PREFACE Articles also detail the history of particle physics, including the discovery of specific particles, such as the antiproton and the electron In addition to the historical articles, a time line is included to provide an overview of the development of the field of particle physics This time line of research and development in what is now called particle physics extends back almost three millennia The time line demonstrates the commanding grip that the desire to identify the basic building blocks of matter has had on the minds of past and present scientists Biographical articles of physicists who have made seminal contributions to our understanding of the material world complete the encyclopedia’s coverage of the history of particle physics The selection of physicists for the biographies was based on the desire to provide a historical background for the topics presented in this encyclopedia, and so no living physicist was included Since experimentation is a vital part of particle physics, detailed articles discuss the technologies used to discover particles, including current accelerator types and subsystems Articles also profile the international laboratories that house these accelerators, describing experiments, both historic and current, conducted at these labs Articles on case studies are included to provide the reader with more in-depth information as to how these technologies contribute to the past and continuing search for particles Particle physics both affects and is affected by other sciences as well as by the political and philosophical environment Articles discuss the interac- viii tion of particle physics and cosmology, astrophysics, philosophy, culture, and metaphysics Also included are articles describing the spin-off technologies created in the search for particles as well as the funding of this research A reader’s guide in the beginning of the encyclopedia arranges the topics into broad categories and thereby helps organize the array of individual entries into a comprehensive field of study Additionally, the article on elementary particle physics provides an overview of the field and its current questions The authors of the articles contained in this encyclopedia work in the top particle physics laboratories and are professors at renowned colleges and universities Not only does this encyclopedia provide a comprehensive coverage of the field of particle physics, but it also brings together articles from the top members of the physics and scientific community This collection of articles would not have been possible without the effort of those who contributed, and I thank each of the authors Jonathan Rosner, University of Chicago, has responded to personal requests I made of him, and I thank him Also, I am grateful to both editors, Jonathan Bagger, Johns Hopkins University, and Roger H Stuewer, University of Minnesota, for their work and advice Lastly, the Macmillan editor, Deirdre Graves, has been devoted in her assistance throughout the project We, the editors, thank her John S Rigden BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INTRODUCTION Physicists distinguish between classical and modern physics The classical era began in the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century and extended throughout the eighteenth and most of the nineteenth centuries By then there were rumblings among some prominent physicists that their subject was complete, that no more basic physics remained to be discovered Then, in 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X rays, and abruptly, although perhaps unknowingly, the modern era of physics began During the following year Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity, and in 1897 the work of several physicists culminated in the discovery of the electron, which is generally credited to J J Thomson With the first subatomic particle, the electron, to account for, physicists knew that a new era was under way measurements had established that hydrogen was the least massive of the chemical elements, and in 1815 William Prout proposed that hydrogen was the building block of all the chemical elements Prout’s idea had supporters through the nineteenth century, but it was finally discredited with the discovery of isotopes early in the twentieth century The idea of basic building blocks of matter is at least 2,600 years old In the sixth century B.C.E Thales proposed that all things reduced to water, and, coming out of the Greek-Roman eras and for centuries to come, the four basic elements were thought to be earth, water, fire, and air The atomic hypothesis, originating in the fifth century B.C.E., lingered in the background for centuries until experimental support, through the work of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century chemists, brought atoms to the fore as the basic building blocks of matter By the early years of the nineteenth century, quantitative What makes a particle elementary? Simply put, it contains no parts The electron has no hidden constituents The electron is elementary The proton, long considered to be an elementary particle, does have parts—three quarks The proton is not elementary There are currently twelve elementary particles that physicists believe make up the observable matter throughout the universe: six quarks—up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom—and six leptons—electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, and tau neutrino—all of which fit nicely into three groups, called generations, each One of the major themes of twentieth-century physics, a spectacular period in the history of physics, has been the continuation, although greatly intensified, of the ancient quest to identify and understand the fundamental constituents of matter The electron, discovered in 1897, was the first elementary particle, and, after a century that saw “elementary” particles come and go with great profusion, the electron was and remains truly elementary ix INDEX Mainz Microtron, 29 MIT-Bates Linear Accelerator, 29 radio frequency cavities in, 26, 26 scientific topics addressed at, 27–29 SLAC, 29–30 (see also SLAC) storage rings as, 27 see also specific accelerators and laboratories Accelerators, fixed-target: proton, 2, 30–34, 174–175 antiprotons used in, 33 beam types, 32 charged meson beams used in, 32 fixed targets vs colliding beams, 31 hyperon beams used in, 33 ion beams used in, 34 ion sources for, 30 linear vs circular, 30 muons used in, 33–34 neutral beams used in, 33 neutrinos used in, 33 polarized beams used in, 34 primary proton beams used in, 32 radio frequency cavities in, 30 selected, 31t target types, 31–32 see also specific accelerators and laboratories Ackley, Lewis, 311 Action at a distance, 256 ACTs (airshower Cerenkov telescopes), 180–181 ADONE, 10 Advanced Computer Project, 255 AEC (Atomic Energy Commission), 92, 264–265, 312–313 AGASA, 182 AGILE, 181 AIGO, 184 Airshower Cerenkov telescopes (ACTs), 180–181 Algebra, abstract, 337–338, 339 ALICE, 129 Allibone, T E., 22 Alpha decay, 393, 424–425 see also Radioactivity Alpher, Ralph, 76, 151–152 Alternating gradient focusing, Alvarez, Luis, 24–25, 311, 313 AM (anapole moment), 94 Amaldi, Eduardo, 120, 293 AMANDA (Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array), 169, 184, 408 Ambler, Ernest, 260 Americium, 23 AMS, 182 Anapole moment (AM), 94 Anaximander, 317 Anaximenes, 156 Anderson, Carl D., 23, 34–36, 35, 144, 201, 322, 496 516 Anderson, Philip, 319 Andromeda Nebula, 45 Angular momentum conservation, 132, 135, 330 Annihilation and creation, 36–37 Anomaly cancellation, 447 Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA), 169, 184, 408 ANTARES, 184 Anthropic Principle, 289 Antimatter, 37–40 in accelerators, concept/configuration of, 37–39, 37–39ff and cosmology, 152–153 Dirac’s prediction of, 23, 37–38, 40–41, 152, 154, 200–201 ratio to matter, 39–40, 80, 154 (see also CP symmetry violation) see also specific antiparticles Antiparticles See Antimatter Antiprotons, 33 Antiprotons, discovery of, 24, 40–42, 348 the accelerator and experiment, 41–42, 42f disputed credit for, 42 early observations, 41 and rest energy, 220–221 theoretical context of, 40–41 Anyons, 392 “Are Mesons Elementary Particles?” (Fermi and Yang), 252 ARGUS, 167 Arkani-Hamed, Nima, 451 Armstrong, Stephen, 244–245 Arrow of time, 70–71 Artin, Emil, 339 Associated Universities, Inc (AUI), 92 Aston, Francis, 473 Astrophysics, 42–47 galaxies/dark matter, 45–47, 46f, 47t (see also Dark matter) quasars/other active galaxies/galactic black holes, 46–47 stars/nucleosynthesis, 43 subdisciplines, 42–43 white dwarfs/neutron stars/stellar black holes, 43–45, 44t Asymmetric B factory (ABF), 56 Asymptotic freedom, 47–50, 48–50ff, 86 definition of, 309 discovery of, 94 quantum chromodynamics, 375, 405 Atheism, 318 ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC Apparatus), 70, 103–110, 178 collaboration on, 108 computing/data analysis, 108–109, 109f detector functioning, 104–105ff, 104–108, 107f questions addressed by, 103–104 Atomic bomb, 125, 208, 252, 312, 413 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 92, 264–265, 312–313 Atomism, 317–318, 368 Atoms, 50–52 atom-nuclear interaction, 50–51 chemical properties of, 210–211 definition of, 50 exotic, 51 Rutherford’s model of, 21, 51, 211, 307, 347, 353, 425 structure of, 50–52 Thomson’s models of, 472, 473 Auger, Pierre, 120, 293 AUI (Associated Universities, Inc.), 92 AXION, 185 Axions, 52–53, 349 B B factories, 55–57, 56f, 167, 299–300, 342, 436–437 Baade, Walter, 74, 456 BaBar (formerly PEP-II), 56–57, 130, 156, 178, 186, 434, 435 Bahcall, John, 327 BAIKAL, 184 Balamurali, V., 233 Bardeen, John, 278–279, 488 Barkov, Lev, 94 Baryogenesis, 80, 152–153, 212, 480 Baryon number See Conservation laws Baryons, 355, 358, 376, 443 conservation of, 132–133 density of, 77–78, 80–81, 83, 83f, 164–165, 480 and the eightfold way, 204 magnetic moment of, 357, 405 octet/decouplet, 262–263ff, 263 see also Quarks Basic interactions and fundamental forces, 57–59 see also specific interactions and forces Beam-beam interaction (BBI), Beam cooling, 136–137 Beam transport, 60–65, 60f, 62–64ff Becker, Herbert, 335–336 Becquerel, Henri, 411–412, 413 Beijing accelerator laboratory, 65–67, 67f Beijing Electron-Positron Collider (BEPC), 65, 66, 67f Beijing Spectrometer (BES), 65, 66–67 Bekenstein, Jakob, 450 Bell, John, 370 Belle (formerly KEK-B), 56–57, 186 Belle detector, 156 Bémont, Gustave, 413 Benefits of particle physics to society, 67–71 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INDEX arrow of time, 70–71 ATLAS experiment, 70 (see also ATLAS) mass spectroscopy, 69 medical applications of accelerators, 69, 290, 437 quantum field theory, 69 Standard Model as foundational, 68–69 supersymmetry, 70 synchrotron radiation, 69 unification of Theory of Matter, 70 unification of Theory of Matter and gravity, 71 universal condensate/origin of mass, 70 World Wide Web, 69 Bentsen, Lloyd, 440 BEPC (Beijing Electron-Positron Collider), 65, 66, 67f Berkelium, 23 Berners-Lee, Tim, 69, 290 BES (Beijing Spectrometer), 65, 66–67 BESS, 182 Beta decay Fermi’s theory of, 251, 330, 493–494 as a parity violation, 222, 346–347, 346f, 463, 493–494 Pauli on, 325, 365, 445 weak interaction in, 277, 445 see also Neutrinos; Radioactivity Betatrons, 17, 24 Bethe, Hans, 141, 259, 325, 432, 475 Bevatron, 24, 25, 41–42 BFKL equation, 94 BGO (bismuth and germanium oxide), 295 Big Bang, 71–79, 179 and the age of the universe, 74–75 and baryon density, 77–78 and cosmic acceleration/dark energy, 75 and Cosmic Microwave Background, 76–79 and the cosmological constant, 71–72, 73–74 and the cosmological principle, 71–72 and dark matter, 75–76, 342–343 de Sitter cosmology, 73 and the distance scale, 73–74 in elementary particle physics, 354, 360 Friedmann-Lemtre cosmology, 71–73 Gamow’s cosmology, 151–152 and general relativity theory, 71, 72, 151 incompleteness, as a theory, 283 (see also Inflation) BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER photons from (see Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation) and the thermal history of the universe, 77–78 see also Big Bang nucleosynthesis Big Bang nucleosynthesis, 79–83, 81f, 83f, 152, 165 BINP (Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics), 93–95, 217 Bismuth and germanium oxide (BGO), 295 Bjørken, James, 307 Black holes, 179 entropy/information of, 450–451 galactic, 46–47 mass of, 44 stellar, 43–45, 44t Blackett, Patrick, 201, 373–374 Blazars, 46 BNL See Brookhaven National Laboratory Bohr, Niels, 51, 68–69, 200, 211, 307, 330, 336, 353–354, 364 Bohr-Sommerfield orbit theory, 363–364 Boomerang experiment, 287 Borexino, 183 Born, Max, 200, 353–354 Bosons gauge, 84–87, 444–445 glueballs, 376 Goldstone, 90–91, 385 quantum statistics of, 391 see also Bosons, Higgs; Mesons Bosons, Higgs, 87–89, 122, 133 mass of, 279–280, 348, 445–446, 468 prediction of, 358 search for, 214–215, 240–246, 242–243ff, 245, 320, 348–349, 382 Bothe, Walther, 335–336 Boyle, Robert, 317 Brahe, Tycho, 455 Branes, 450, 450f, 451 Breit, Gregory, 431–432 Breit-Wigner formula, 422–423 A Brief History of Time (Hawking), 158 Brobeck, William, 24 Broken symmetry, 89–91, 133, 445 see also CP symmetry violation; Spontaneously broken symmetry Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), 91–93, 217 Alternating Gradient Synchrotron, 19, 92–93 Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor, 92 Brookhaven Medical Research Reactor, 92 Cosmotron, 24, 92 discoveries at, 92 g–2 experiment at, 238, 238–239 High Flux Beam Reactor, 92 J/ particle discovered at, 65–66, 92, 250, 297–298, 402 National Synchrotron Light Source, 92–93 Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, 20, 92, 92–93, 396 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope, 92–93 Brookhaven Science Associates, 92 Brout, Robert, 87–88 Brown muck, 276–277 Brownian motion, 347 Bubble chambers, 25, 170, 190, 193 Budker, Gersh, 18, 93, 94 Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (BINP), 93–95, 217 Bunce, Gerry, 239 Bunsen, Robert, 209 Burles, S., 83 Bush, George, 440 C Cabibbo, Nicola, 127, 205 Calabi-Yau compactification, 447 Calabi-Yau manifolds, 449 California Institute of Technology (Caltech), 21 Californium, 23 Calorimeters, 187–188, 229–230, 350, 351f electromagnetic, 104, 105, 172–173, 176–177 hadron, 172, 173, 176–177 Caltech (California Institute of Technology), 21 Cancer, 23, 290, 437, 491 Candelas, Philip, 447 CANGAROO, 181 CAPRICE, 182 Case study: gravitational wave detection, LIGO, 97–103, 98–99ff, 102f Case study: LHC collider detectors, ATLAS and CMS, 103–110, 104–107ff, 109f see also ATLAS; CMS Case study: long baseline neutrino detectors, K2K, MINOS, and OPERA, 110–115 Case study: Super-Kamiokande and the discovery of neutrino oscillations, 112–113, 115–119, 116ff CAT, 181 Cathode rays, 209–210 Causal reductionism, 319 Cavendish Laboratory, 22, 125, 472 CBA (Colliding Beam Accelerator), 19 CC (charged current), 183–184, 414 CDF detector, 229, 229, 230–232, 233, 255 517 INDEX CDMS (Cold Dark Matter Search), 185, 190, 255 CEBAF (Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility), 29, 29f, 469–471 CELESTE, 181 Central Design Group, 440, 442 Cepheids, 73, 74, 281 Cerenkov radiation, 170, 176 CERN (European Laboratory for Particle Physics), 94, 119–123, 217 budget of, 266 conflict within, 245 creation of, 119, 292–293 discoveries/research at, 121–122 g–2 experiment at, 237 goals of, 120–121 international collaboration at, 119–120, 122–123, 157, 289, 293–295 Intersecting Storage Rings, 17f, 18, 120, 122 ISOLDE, 121 location of, 121f Low Energy Antiproton Ring, 121 member countries, 119, 122 proton synchrotron, 120, 123 Super Proton Synchrotron, 110, 120, 123 supersymmetry research at, 461 synchrocyclotron, 120 top quark research at, 229 users of, 120 see also K2K experiment; Large Electron Positron Collider; Large Hadron Collider; MINOS; OPERA CESR See Cornell Electron Storage Ring Chadwick, James, 23, 123–125, 124, 325 neutrons discovered by, 252, 330, 335–337, 425 and Rutherford, 123–124, 125, 335, 336–337 Challenger shuttle, 261 Chamberlain, Owen, 24, 41, 42, 252 Charge conjugation, C See Symmetry principles Charge conservation, 132, 135 Charged current (CC), 183–184, 414 Charmonium, 126–127, 126f Charpak, George, 170, 194, 290 Cherenkov, Pavel, 407 CHESS (Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source), 141 CHORUS, 190 Christenson, James, 154, 155 CKM (Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa) matrix, 127–129, 190–191, 276 Classical physics assumptions of, 416 and Gibbs’s paradox, 389 vs quantum mechanics, 386, 388 vs special relativity, 416–417 518 CLEO, 139, 141, 178 CLIC, 500 Cline, David, 19 Cloud chambers, 34–35, 170, 192–193, 322, 373–374 CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background), 76–79, 179 CMBR (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation), 141–143, 150, 343 CMS (Compact Muon Spectrometer), 70, 103–110, 178, 178f collaboration on, 108 computing/data analysis, 108–109 detector functioning, 104–108, 104f, 106f questions addressed by, 103–104 COBE satellite, 76 Cockcroft, John Douglas, 22–23, 425 Cold Dark Matter Search (CDMS), 185, 190, 255 Cold War, 122, 294 Coleman-Mandual theorem, 459 Colliders See Accelerators, colliding beams: electron-positron; Accelerators, colliding beams: electron-proton; Accelerators, colliding beams: hadron; specific accelerators and laboratories Colliding Beam Accelerator (CBA), 19 Color conservation, 135 Communism, 312–313 Compactification See String theory COMPASS, 191 Compton, Karl T., 21–22 Compton effect, 207 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), 181 Computing, 108–109, 109f, 129–131 Conceptual reductionism, 319 Condon, Edward U., 22 Conservation laws, 132–136 absolute vs partial, 132–136 angular momentum, 132, 135, 330 definition of, 132 energy, 132, 135, 216, 220, 319, 330 and Feynman diagrams, 134, 134ff momentum, 132, 134–135, 216, 220, 320–321, 320–321ff, 417 and quarks, 398–400, 400f and special relativity, 337, 338, 339, 417 status of, 133t and symmetry, 320, 385, 462 Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF), 29, 29f, 469–471 Continuous wave (cw) machines, 26 Conversi, Marcello, 322 Cooksey, Donald, 22 Coolidge, W D., 21 Cooling, particle, 94–95, 136–138 Cooper, Leon, 278–279 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 352 Cornell Electron Storage Ring (CESR), 8, 9, 55, 139, 141, 217 Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS), 141 Cornell Laboratory for Elementary Particle Physics, 138–141, 140 CLEO, 139, 141, 178 Cornell Electron Storage Ring, 8, 9, 55, 139, 141, 217 creation of, 489–490 research at, 141 Cosmic acceleration, 75 Cosmic blackbody radiation, 76–79 see also Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), 76–79, 179 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), 141–143, 150, 343 Cosmic rays, 143–145 detection of, 181–182 in elementary particle physics, 354 heavier mesons, 145 hyperons, 145 light mesons, 144–145 and muons, 322 origins of, 179 pair production and positrons, 144 Cosmic strings, domain walls, 145–148, 148f Cosmological constant and dark energy, 75, 148–150, 154, 165–166, 180, 288, 343, 481–482 Cosmological principle, 71–72 Cosmology, 150–154 accelerating universe, 154 antimatter/baryogenesis, 152–153 early, 151 Gamow’s model of, 151–152 inflation models of, 153–154, 179, 285–286ff, 343, 481 particle physics’s impact on, 289, 342–343 see also Big Bang; Universe Coulomb, Charles Augustin, 256, 352–353 Cowan, Clyde, 87, 325, 331 Cowan, Clyde, Jr., 414 CP eigenstates, 55–56 CP symmetry violation, 154–156, 464 and B meson decay, 55–57, 56f and the CKM matrix, 127–129, 190–191 discovery of, 80, 92, 122, 154–155, 342 in elementary particle physics, 356, 360 in heavy hadrons, 276–277, 276f in quantum chromodynamics, 155 Crab Nebula, 44 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INDEX Creation See Annihilation and creation CRESST, 184–185, 190 Crocker Radiation Laboratory, 23 Cronin, James, 55, 154, 155 Crookes, William, 194, 209 Culture and particle physics, 156–159 Curie, Irène, 23, 335–336, 337 Curie, Jacques, 413 Curie, Marie, 336, 407, 413, 424 Curie, Pierre, 407, 413 Curium, 23 Cw (continuous wave) machines, 26 Cyclotron Group, 490 Cyclotrons, 22–24, 159–160ff, 159–161, 198f, 199 invention of, 158, 160, 199, 311, 311, 312 D D-branes, 450, 450f, 451 D0 detector, 229, 230–232 Dalitz, Richard, 403 Dalton, John, 51, 318, 352 DAMA, 185 Damping rings, 3, 137 DAQ (data acquisition) systems, 129 Dark energy See Cosmological constant and dark energy Dark matter, 163–166, 179 baryonic, 164–165 and the Big Bang, 75–76, 342–343 candidates for, 47t, 153–154, 165, 343 and dark energy, 165–166 and density of matter in the universe, 164 detection of, 184–185 dominance of, 75–76 in elementary particle physics, 360–361 evidence of, 45–46, 46f, 163–164 particle, 165 weakly interacting massive particle, 481 Data acquisition (DAQ) systems, 129 Davis, Raymond, Jr., 331 DC (drift chambers), 194 DC accelerators, 196–197, 196f DC electric fields, 290–291 DC magnetic fields, 291 De Broglie, Louis, 293 De Rerum Natura (On the nature of things; Lucretius), 317 De Sitter, Willem, 149, 151, 207, 284 De Sitter cosmology, 73 Deep-inelastic experiment, 306–307, 307f Dehmelt, Hans, 51 Delbrück, Max, 374 Democritus, 51, 317, 477 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER Deng Xiaoping, 66 Department of Energy (DOE), 265, 440–442 Descartes, René, 352 DESY (Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron Laboratory), 166–169, 217 ARGUS, 167 DORIS, 55, 166–167 H1 detector, 167–168, 168, 178 Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator, 167–169, 168 (see also Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator) HERMES, 168 history of, 166–167 international use of, 293 Positron Electron Tandem Ring Accelerator, 11, 167, 168 Tera Electronvolt Superconducting Linear Accelerator, 12, 169, 500 ZEUS, 167–168, 168, 178 Detection of Internally Reflected Cherenkov Light (DIRC), 187, 408 Detectors, 169–174 calorimeters, 172–173 as cameras, 169–170 Cerenkov/transition radiation in, 170 ionization in, 170, 349–350 for muon identification/measurement, 173–174, 173–174 for particle identification, 172 pixel, 171 scintillation counters, 171–172, 172, 176–177, 194–195, 414 silicon strip, 171 and subsystems, 174–179 tracking, 170–171, 173, 230 wire chambers, 170–171 see also Detectors, astrophysical; Detectors, collider; Detectors, fixedtarget; Detectors, particle; specific accelerators and laboratories Detectors, astrophysical, 179–185 of cosmic rays, 181–182 of dark matter, 184–185 of gamma rays, 180–181 goals of research, 179–180 of gravity waves, 184 of neutrinos, 182–184 of proton decay, 183 selected, 180t Detectors, collider, 185–188 see also Accelerators, colliding beams: electron-positron; Accelerators, colliding beams: electron-proton; Accelerators, colliding beams: hadron; specific accelerators and laboratories Detectors, fixed-target, 188–192 active target material for, 190–191ff vs colliders, 188f, 189 geometry of, 189–190, 189–190ff goals for, 190–191 see also Accelerators, fixed-target: electron; Accelerators, fixed-target: proton; specific accelerators and laboratories Detectors, particle, 192–196 bubble chambers, 25, 170, 190, 193 cloud chambers, 192–193 (see also Cloud chambers) drift chambers, 194 Geiger-Mueller tubes, 194 scintillation counters, 171–172, 172, 176–177, 194–195, 414 silicon vertex, 195, 350, 351f spark chambers, 195–196 Deuteron, 432 Deutsch, Martin, 305 Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron Laboratory See DESY Devices, accelerating, 196–198ff, 196–199 Dicke, Robert, 76, 142 Differential Microwave Receiver (DMR), 143 Diffusion cloud chambers, 193 Dikansky, Nikolay, 94 Dilation/modulus See String theory Dimensions, extra, 362, 448–449, 448f, 450f, 451 Dimopoulos, Savas, 451 Dipole magnets, 4, 62, 62f, 234–235, 235ff Dirac, Paul, 144, 199–202, 200 antielectrons postulated by, 373–374 antimatter predicted by, 23, 37–38, 40–41, 152, 154, 200–201 attitude to particle physics, 201–202 electromagnetic radiation theory of, 200 on magnetic moments, 405 monopoles predicted by, 201 Nobel Prize won by, 199, 200 quantum mechanics pioneered by, 199–200, 200, 364 transformation theory of, 200 DIRC (Detection of Internally Reflected Cherenkov Light), 187, 408 Direct Observation of Nu-Tau (DONUT), 225–228, 226–227ff Distance scale, 73–74 Distances, measuring, 281 Dixon, Lance, 447 DMR (Differential Microwave Receiver), 143 DOE (Department of Energy), 265, 440–442 Domain walls See Cosmic strings, domain walls DONUT (Direct Observation of NuTau), 225–228, 226–227ff 519 INDEX DORIS, 55, 166–167 Doroshkevich, Andrei, 76 DRIFT, 185 Drift chambers (DC), 194 Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research), 294 Dvali, Gia, 451 DZero, 255 E E-Print Archive, 131 E158, 191 E391A, 190–191 EAS (extended airshower) array detectors, 180–181, 182 Ebert, H., 209 ECFA (European Committee for Future Accelerators), 293 Eddington, Arthur Stanley, 73–74 Edlefsen, N E., 22 EG&G, Inc., 441–442 EGRET, 181 Eigenstates, 369 Eightfold way, 203–205, 203–205ff, 403 Einstein, Albert, 68, 205–208 on Brownian motion, 347 Compton effect discovered by, 207 cosmological constant postulated by, 71–72, 165–166 EPR paper, 208 general relativity (gravitational) theory of, 57, 148–149, 151, 207 (see also Relativity, general) inertia of energy theory of, 206 letter to Roosevelt, 208 Nobel Prize won by, 206, 207 on Noether, 339 photoelectric effect discovered by, 206 quantum theory of light, 207 radiation theory of, 208 reputation of, 208 special relativity theory of, 206, 207 wave-particle duality theory of, 207, 347 see also Relativity Electrodynamics, Maxwell’s theory of, 57, 209, 416, 478 Electrolysis, 209 Electromagnetic fields, 256 charged particle motion in, 60–61, 60f sources of, 57 and symmetry, 464–465 Electromagnetic force, 352, 444 and gauge invariance, 87, 90 gauge symmetry of, 213 Glashow-Weinberg-Salam model, 385 photons as carriers of, 58–59 520 and special relativity, 416 strength over distances, 57 vs weak force, 211, 212–213 see also Grand Unified Theory Electromagnetic theory vs classical mechanics, 353 Electron-neutrinos, 228 Electron Stretcher Accelerator (ELSA), 29 Electrons, 228 charge of, 347, 348 cooling of, 94–95, 137 discovery of, 209–211 e- vs e+, 6–7 vs hadrons, 230–231 identification of, 349t, 350, 351f magnetic moment of, 348, 433 mass of, 347 quantum theory of, 52, 157, 200, 200, 330, 378 rest energy of, 5, 6t scattering of, 260–261, 305–307, 377, 391 size of, 12 spin of, 52, 236, 347, 348, 364 structure of, 347–348 synchrotron radiation from, wave characteristics of, 347 wave functions of, 52 Electrostatic generators, 24 Electroweak force, 27, 58 see also Bosons, gauge Electroweak phase transition, 211–212 Electroweak symmetry breaking (EWSB), 103, 211, 212–215, 467–468 see also Higgs mechanism Electroweak theory in elementary particle physics, 358–359 and Higgs field/mechanism, 88, 278–279, 467–468 phase transition, 211–212 proposal of, 428 and unification, 478–479 W particles predicted by, 37 (see also W bosons) and weak force/quark decay, 402 see also Bosons, Higgs; Electroweak symmetry breaking “Elementary Particles” (Fermi), 252 Ellis, Charles D., 125 ELSA (Electron Stretcher Accelerator), 29 EMBL (European Molecular Biology Laboratory), 293 Energy, 215–217 and accelerators/detectors, 217 center-of-mass, 217–220, 218–219ff conservation of, 132, 135, 216, 220, 319, 330 conservation of, and relativity, 337, 338, 339, 417 and creation of new particles, 216 of interest in elementary particle physics, 216–217 kinetic, 215–216, 221 laboratory, 218–219, 219f and mass, 215, 220 matter’s conversion into, 353 rest, 217, 220–221, 417 virtual processes, 216, 483–485, 483–485ff Energy Doubler, 254–255 Englert, Berthold-Georg, 434 Englert, Francois, 87–88 Entanglement, quantum, 388 Epicurus, 317, 318 EPR paper (Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen), 208 ESA (European Space Agency), 293 ESO (European Southern Observatory), 293 ESRF (European Synchrotron Radiation Facility), 293 European Committee for Future Accelerators (ECFA), 293 European Laboratory for Particle Physics See CERN European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), 293 European Organization for Nuclear Research, 119 European Southern Observatory (ESO), 293 European Space Agency (ESA), 293 European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), 293 EWSB See Electroweak symmetry breaking Experiment: discovery of the tau neutrino, 221–228, 326, 331, 342, 402 Direct Observation of Nu-Tau, 225–228, 226–227ff elusiveness of neutrinos, 222 proposal of, 224–225 subatomic zoo, 222–223 tau neutrino beam, making of, 225–228 third-generation and the Standard Model, 223–224, 229 Experiment: discovery of the top quark, 228–233, 255, 402 collaboration on, 232–233, 299 the discovery, 231–232 the experiments, 230–231 race for the top quark, 229 top production/decay, 229–230 Experiment: g–2 measurement of the muon, 233–240 background/history of, 236–237ff, 236–238 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INDEX at Brookhaven National Laboratory, 238, 238–239 magnetic moments, 234–235, 235ff organization of, 239 Experiment: search for the Higgs boson, 240–246 Large Electron Positron Collider research, 240–245, 242–243ff Tevatron and Large Hadron Collider research, 245, 245–246 Experimental physics, 264 “Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay” (Wu), 493–494 Extended airshower (EAS) array detectors, 180–181, 182 Extraction systems, 4–5, 246–247 F Fadin, Victor, 94 Fajans, Kasimir, 425 Family, 249–251, 250t Far Infrared Absolute Spectrometer (FIRAS), 142 Faraday, Michael, 68, 209, 352–353 Federation of Atomic Scientists, 490 FEL (free-electron laser), 471 Feld, B T., 252 Fermi, Enrico, 251–253 beta decay/radioactivity theory of, 23, 251, 251, 325, 330 neutron experiments of, 251, 252 Nobel Prize won by, 251, 254 nuclear chain reaction built by, 251, 252 statistics of, 52, 251 weak interaction theory of, 222, 251–252, 277 Fermi constant, 251–252, 277 Fermi-Dirac particles, 52 Fermi-Dirac statistical mechanics, 251 Fermilab (Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory), 1, 19, 217, 253–256 creation/opening of, 253–254, 489, 490–491 detectors at, 177–178 Energy Doubler, 254–255 funding/status of, 253–254, 255–256 research, scope of, 254, 255 top quarks discovered at, 205, 223–225, 228–233, 255, 402 Universities Research Association, Inc management of, 253, 255–256 see also Tevatron Fermions, 228, 323, 401 Ferromagnets, 211 Feynman, Richard, 39, 57, 213, 259, 259–261, 307, 431, 433, 475 Feynman diagrams, 134, 134ff, 256–259 classical vs quantum field theory, 256–257, 256–257ff BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER Feynman rules, 257 invention of, 483 lines/vertices of, 256–258ff, 257–258 and perturbation theory, 258 and quantum electrodynamics, 380 Financial markets, 290 Fine-structure constant, 380–381, 380t FIRAS (Far Infrared Absolute Spectrometer), 142 Fitch, Val, 55, 154, 155 Fitzgerald, George, 210 Flambaum, Victor, 94 Flavor invariance, 136 Flavor symmetry, 261–264, 262–263ff FOCUS, 190, 191f FODO cells, 64 Foley, H M., 236 Follin, James, 152 Fowler, Ralph, 199 Fowler, William, 24 Fractional quantum Hall effect, 392 Fragmentation See Jets and fragmentation Frank, Ilya, 407 Franklin, Benjamin, 21, 135, 352–353 Free-electron laser (FEL), 471 Friedman, Jerome, 305, 306, 306–307, 401, 434 Friedmann, Alexander, 72, 151 Friedmann equation, 281 Friedmann-Lemtre cosmology, 71–73 Fubini, Sergio, 295 Funding of particle physics, 264–266, 266f G G–2 experiment See Experiment: g–2 measurement of the muon Galaxies, 45–47, 46f, 47t Galilei, Galileo, 352 Gallex, 183 Gamma radiation, 143 Gamma Ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST), 181, 437 Gamma rays, 179, 180–181, 413 Gamow, George, 22, 76, 151–152, 393 Gaseous discharge by ionization, 472, 472–473 Gauge hierarchy problem, 214–215, 461 Gauge principle, 277 Gauge theory, 267–269, 444–445 and color charge, 376–377 gauge invariance, 135, 267–268, 370 gauge symmetry breaking, 213, 267, 269, 445 gauge transformation, 267–268, 445 quantum chromodynamics as, 269 GEANT4, 130 Geiger, Hans, 124, 424 Geiger-Mueller (G-M) tubes (Geiger counters), 194 Gell-Mann, Murray on CP violation, 155–156 on the eightfold way, 203–205 on parity symmetry, 213 quarks postulated by, 222–223, 260–261, 262, 398, 401, 403 on SU(3) symmetry, 262 on weak interactions, 260–261 General Electric, 21 General relativity theory See Relativity, general GEO, 184 Georgi, Howard, 152–153 Gerlach, Walther, 236 Ghiorso, Albert, 23 Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 389 Gibbs’s paradox, 389 Giesel, Friedrich, 413 Ginzburg, Vitalii, 279 Ginzton, Edward, 434 Glaser, Donald A., 193 Glashow, Sheldon Lee, 37, 87, 152–153, 213, 297, 428 see also Electroweak theory Glashow-Weinberg-Salam (GWS) model, 385 GLAST (Gamma Ray Large Area Space Telescope), 181, 437 Globular clusters of stars, 74–75, 281–282 Gluons, 12, 228, 358 and color charge, 376–377 prediction/observation of, 299–300 as strong force carriers, 58–59 strong interaction of, 358–359 see also Bosons, gauge Goeppert-Mayer, Maria, 488 Goldberg, Hayim, 403 Goldhaber, Maurice, 152, 337 Goldstone, Jeffrey, 213 Goldstone’s theorem, 90–91, 385 Goldwasser, Edwin L., 253 Goudsmit, Samuel, 52, 236, 364 Grand unified force, 58 Grand Unified Theory (GUT), 77, 80, 269–273, 271–273ff and baryon number, 480 and cosmology, 152–153, 480–481 on gauge fields, 269 inflation models of, 153–154, 481 and running charges, 422 and the Standard Model, 271–273 and supersymmetry, 461 as a theory of everything, 319 Gravitational fields, 57 Gravitational force See Gravity Gravitational theory See Relativity, general; String theory 521 INDEX Gravitational wave detection, 97–103, 98–99ff, 102f Gravitons, 58, 349, 371 Gravity, 352, 444 gravitons as carriers of, 58, 349 quantum, and string theory, 449, 449f strength over distances, 57 as a unified theory, 477 weakness of, 460–461 see also Grand Unified Theory Gravity waves, 180, 184 Green, Michael, 447 Greenberg, Oscar W., 401 Greenlee, Herb, 233 Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin (GZK) energy, 182 Grids, computing, 130–131 GRO (Compton Gamma Ray Observatory), 181 Gross, David, 447 Group theory, 252, 263 Group Theory and its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra (Wigner), 488 Groves, Leslie R., 125, 312 Grunder, Hermann, 470 Gunn, James, 153 Guralnik, Gerald, 87–88 Gurney, Ronald W., 22 GUT See Grand Unified Theory Guth, Alan, 153, 283–284 GWS (Glashow-Weinberg-Salam) model, 385 GZK (Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin) energy, 182 H H- ions, 30 H1 detector, 167–168, 168, 178 Haag, Rudolph, 459 Hadley, Nick, 233 Hadron accelerators, Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator (HERA), 14–16, 15f, 20, 167–169, 168, 186, 289 Hadrons, 348 discovery of, 377 vs electrons, 230–231 heavy, 275–277, 276f, 394 quarks as bound in, 376 state vectors of, 262 see also Baryons; Mesons Hagen, C Richard, 87–88 Halpern, Otto, 432 Handedness, 314–315, 444 Hansen, W W., 265 Hansen, William, 434 Harrison-Z’eldovich spectrum, 287 Harvey, Jeff, 447 Hawking, Stephen, 77, 158, 450 522 Hayward, Raymond W., 260 HEGRA, 181 Heisenberg, Werner, 51–52, 68–69, 204, 353–354, 364, 474, 495–496 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 216, 390, 496 Helicity, 314 Helium, liquid, 260 HERA See Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator Herb, Ray, 24 Herman, Robert, 76, 151–152 HERMES, 168 Herring, Conyers, 488 Hertz, Heinrich, 210, 256, 423 HESS, 181 Hess, Victor, 143 Higgs, Peter, 87–88, 213, 284–285, 445 Higgs bosons See Bosons, Higgs Higgs condensate, 275 Higgs fields, 146–147, 148f, 279–280, 467–468 Higgs interactions See Bosons, Higgs Higgs mechanism, 91, 127, 169, 213, 246, 279, 381, 385, 467 Higgs particles, 70, 214 see also ATLAS Higgs phenomenon, 277–280, 438 High-energy physics See Particle physics, elementary Hilbert, David, 337, 338 Hincks, Edward, 323 HiRes, 182 Hirsch, E D., Jr., 403 Hitler, Adolf, 339 Hofstadter, Robert, 305–306 Holism, 318 Homestake, 183 Hoppes, Dale D., 260 Horowitz, Gary, 447 Hubble, Edwin, 71, 73–74, 149, 151, 281, 456 Hubble constant, 73–74, 280–282 Hubble Space Telescope, 74, 281 Hubble’s law, 73, 164 Hudson, Ralph P., 260 Hughes, Vernon W., 239 Huss, Chris, 447 Hydrogen bomb, 312 “Hyperkomplexe Grössen und Darstellungstheorie” (Noether), 339 Hyperons, 33, 145 Hypertension and salt, 92 I ICARUS, 183, 190, 191 ICECUBE, 184 IceCube projects, 169, 191 ICFA (International Committee for Future Accelerators), 294 ICTP (International Centre for Theoretical Physics), 427–428 “Ideal Theorie in Ringbereichen” (Noether), 339 IHEP (Institute for High-energy Physics), 217 ILL (Langevein-von Laue Institute), 293 Illiopoulos, John, 297 IMB (Irvine Michigan Brookhaven), 118, 415 Industrial Revolution, 353 Inflation, 153–154, 179, 283–288, 285–286ff, 343, 481 Influence on science, 288–290 INFN (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare), 169 Injector systems, 3, 290–292 Institute for High-energy Physics (IHEP), 217 Institute for Physical and Chemical Research, 474 Institute of Atomic Energy, 93 Insulin, 92 Interaction points (IP), 6, Interference, quantum, 387–388 Interferometer detectors, 97–103, 98–99ff, 102f International Atomic Energy Agency, 427–428 International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), 427–428 International Committee for Future Accelerators (ICFA), 294 International nature of particle physics, 292–295 see also CERN Internet See World Wide Web Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), 17f, 18, 120, 122 “Invariante Variationsprobleme” (Noether), 338–339 Invariants, relativistic, 221 Inverse square law of radiation, 281 Ionization chambers, 170 Ionization (muon) cooling, 137–138 IP (interaction points), 6, Irvine Michigan Brookhaven (IMB), 118, 415 ISABELLE See Colliding Beam Accelerator Isgur, Nathan, 276 Ising, Gustaf, 22 ISOLDE, 121 Isospin, 90, 91, 136, 204, 262–263ff, 400–401, 455 Isotope experiments, 183 ISR See Intersecting Storage Rings Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), 169 Iwanenko, Dmitri, 330 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INDEX J J/, 65–66, 92, 122, 250, 297–298, 402 Jacobson, Nathan, 337 James, William, 69 Janot, Patrick, 241 Japanese High-Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), 112, 217, 298–300, 299f Jefferson, Thomas, 470 Jefferson Lab, 29, 469–471, 470 Jensen, J Hans D., 488 Jets and fragmentation, 229–232, 300–304, 301–303ff, 377, 405, 436 JLC, 12, 500 Johnson, Lyndon B., 253 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (Dubna), 294 Joliot-Curie, Frédéric, 23, 335–336 Joliot-Curie, Irène, 23, 335–336, 337 Jung, Carl Gustav, 365 K K decays, 345 K2K experiment, 110, 112–113, 191, 327 Kaluza, Theodore, 448 Kamen, Martin, 23 Kamerlingh-Onnes, Heike, 34 Kamiokande, 118 Kapitza, Peter, 426 Kaufmann, Walter, 210 Kehoe, Bob, 233 KEK See Japanese High-Energy Accelerator Research Organization KEK-B (later named Belle), 56–57, 186 KEK Proton Synchrotron (PS), 110 Kellogg, Jerome, 432 Kemmer, Nicholas, 427, 497 Kendall, Henry, 305–308, 306, 307f, 401, 434 Kepler, Johannes, 352, 455 Kerst, Donald M., 24 Khriplovich, Iosif, 94 Kibble, Tom, 87–88 Kinetic theory of gases, 209 Kirchoff, Gustov, 209 Klein, Felix, 338–339 Klein, Oscar, 448 Klima, Boaz, 233 Knecht, Marc, 239 Kobayashi, Makoto, 127, 156 Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, 338–339 KOPIO, 190–191 Kotani, Masao, 475 KTeV, 255 Kuraev, Eduard, 94 Kurcharov, Igor, 93 Kurdadze, Lery, 94 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER Kurie, Franz, 22 Kusch, Polykarp, 236 L L-dopa, 92 Laboratory of New Acceleration Methods, 93 Lagarrigue, André, 122 Lamb, Willis E., Jr., 475 Lamb Shift, 475 Lambertson, Glen, 246, 247 Landau, Lev, 260, 279, 346 Langevein-von Laue Institute (ILL), 293 Langsdorf, Alexander, Jr., 193 Large Electron Positron Collider (LEP), 10, 11, 20 closing of, 122, 245 collaboration at, 294–295 Higgs boson research at, 88, 122 Higgs boson search at, 240–245, 242–243ff operation/size of, 120, 161, 499–500 Standard Model tested by, 122 supersymmetry research at, 461 Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 13, 15, 17f, 18–20 ALICE, 129 ATLAS, 70, 103–110, 105f, 107f, 109f building/location of, 123 detectors at, 103–110, 178, 178f energy levels of, 343, 417 experiments, overview of, 121f free-quark research at, 122 Higgs boson search at, 88–89, 246, 320 operation of, 120 supersymmetry research at, 461 Large Magellanic Cloud, 456, 457 Lark-Horovitz, Karl, 432 Larmor, Joseph, 209 Laser Interferometer GravitationalWave Observatory (LIGO), 97–103, 98–99ff, 102f, 184, 349 Lasers, 290, 471 Lattes, Cesar, 322–323 Lattice gauge theory, 169, 309–310 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 352 Lawrence, Ernest Orlando, 310–313 cyclotron invented by, 23–24, 158, 199, 311, 311, 312 on neutrons, 337 Nobel Prize won by, 311, 312 on resonance acceleration, 22 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (formerly Radiation Laboratory), 23–24, 264, 311–312 see also Bevatron Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, 312 Lawrencium, 23 LEAR (Low Energy Antiproton Ring), 121 Leavitt, Henrietta, 281 “Lectures, on Pions and Nucleons” (Fermi), 252 Lederman, Leon, 55, 254, 255, 325, 331, 402 Lee, Tsung Dao, 66, 213, 252, 260, 346, 493 Lemtre, Georges, 72, 73–74, 151 Lenard, Philip, 210 LEP See Large Electron Positron Collider Leptons, 10–11, 313–315 in the Big Bang (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis) charge of, 348, 443 conservation of, 133, 135, 313–314 discovery of, 313 families of, 249–251, 250t, 313, 325–326, 358, 359–360, 443–444 forces acting on, 58–59 generations of, 223–224, 270, 270t, 313, 314t mass of, 443t spin of, 444 tagging of, 231 see also Electrons; Muons; Neutrinos; Neutrons; Protons Leucippus, 317 Levy, Maurice, 205 LG (Local Group), 45 LHC See Large Hadron Collider Lie groups, 268 Light, wave-particle aspects of, 207, 347, 348, 353 see also Photons LIGO See Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory Linacs (linear accelerators), 2, 24–25, 196–197 Linde, Andrei, 153, 154 Linear accelerators (linacs), 2, 24–25, 196–197 LISA, 98, 184 Livdahl, Philip V., 254 Livingston, M Stanley, 22, 158 Local Group (LG), 45 Lockyer, Norman, 209 London, Fritz, 279 Lopuszanski, Jan, 459 Lorentz, Hendrik A., 34, 51, 209, 210, 416 Lorentz force, 60 Lorentz invariance, 149 Los Alamos Laboratory, 24 Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR), 121 Lucretius, 317 Luminosity, 3, 5, 6, 9–10, 10t, 28–29, 440 523 INDEX M M theory See String theory MACRO, 183–184 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 69, 357 Magnetically levitated (maglev) trains, 92 Magnets, 246 see also Dipole magnets; Quadrupole magnets Maiani, Luciano, 245, 297 Main Injector (MI), 110, 113–114, 255 Mainz Microtron (MAMI), 29 Maki, Ziro, 236 MAMI (Mainz Microtron), 29 Manhattan Project, 125, 312, 414, 488 Marsden, Ernest, 425 Marshak, Robert, 260 Maskawa, Toshihide, 127, 156 Mass of black holes, 44 conceptions of, 417 of decaying particles, 350–351 of electrons, 347 and energy, 215, 220 of Higgs bosons, 279–280, 348, 445–446, 468 of leptons, 443t origin of, 70 of protons, 347–348, 354 of quarks, 275, 443, 443t see also Neutrinos, mass of Mass spectroscopy, 69, 473 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 21–22 Mathematical surplus structure, 369, 370 Matter density of, and dark matter, 164 energy’s conversion into, 353 ratio to antimatter, 39–40, 80, 154 (see also CP symmetry violation) structure of, 52 Matthews, Paul, 427 MAUD committee, 125 Maxima experiment, 287 Maxwell, James Clerk, 57, 209, 352–353, 416, 423, 478 Maxwell’s equations, 348, 378–379, 416 McCarthyism, 312–313 McDaniel, Boyce, 139 McIntyre, Peter, 19 McMillan, Edwin M., 23, 24, 311 Medical Cyclotron, 23 Mendeleyev, Dmitry, 249 Meshkov, Igor, 94 Meson theory of nuclear forces, 495–497 Mesons B mesons, 55–57, 56f, 139, 141 composition of, 204, 443 524 discovery of, 23, 322 heavier, 145 K mesons, 32, 33, 145, 155, 203, 398 light, 144–145 mu mesons (see Muons) multiplet, 263–264 pi mesons, 32, 58, 145, 203, 252, 322–323 see also J/; Quarks Metaphysics, 317–319 Methodological reductionism, 318 MI (Main Injector), 110, 113–114, 255 Michelson, A A., 98, 416 Mid-Western Universities Research Association (MURA), 18 Milky Way, 45, 47, 73, 456 Millikan, Robert A., 34, 336, 373 Mills, Robert, 85 Mini-BooNE, 191 MINOS, 110, 113–114, 173, 191 MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 21–22 MIT-Bates Linear Accelerator, 29 “A Model of Leptons” (Weinberg), 279 Models of Elementary Particles (Feld), 252 Modulus See String theory Momentum, 319–321 and colliding beam accelerators, 320–321, 321ff conservation of, 132, 134–135, 216, 220, 320–321, 320–321ff, 417 definition of, 319–320 Monopoles, 201, 480–481 Monte Carlo simulations, 310 Morley, Edward, 416 Morse, William M., 239 Mosely, Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys, 425 Motz, Lloyd, 431 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 69, 357 Multi-turn injection, 30 Multiwire Proportional Counter (MWPC), 194 Muon (ionization) cooling, 137–138 Muon-neutrinos, 228–229 Muons, 145, 228–229 decay of, 331 detection of, 414–415 discovery of, 35, 92, 222, 321–323 in fixed-target accelerators, 33–34 g–2 measurement of, 233–240, 235–237ff, 238 identification/measurement of, 173–174, 173–174, 177, 187, 349t, 350 lifetime of, 11, 234 magnetic moments of, 420 MURA (Mid-Western Universities Research Association), 18 MWPC (Multiwire Proportional Counter), 194 N NA48, 189, 190f Nagoya University, 225–226 Nakagawa, Masami, 236 Nambu, Yochiro, 87–88, 213, 401 Narain, Meenakshi, 233 National Cancer Institute, 23 Naumov, Alexey, 93 NC (neutral current), 183, 414 Neddermeyer, Seth, 496 Ne’eman, Yuval, 204, 262, 403 Neon, 473 Neptunium, 23 Nernst, Walther, 207 NESTOR, 184 Neutral current (NC), 183, 414 Neutralinos, 349 Neutrinos, 325–327 and angular momentum, 330 atmospheric, 117, 182, 327 and beta decay, 330, 331 in the Big Bang (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis) collaborative research on, 111–112, 113, 114 as dark matter, 165 data analysis of, 119 detection of, 110–119, 182–184, 230, 235, 331, 355–356, 414 discovery of, 87, 221–228, 329–332 extragalactic, 182 in fixed-target accelerators, 33 flavors of, 328 handedness of, 314–315, 346–347, 444 identification of, 177 K2K experiment, 110, 112–113 mass of, 119, 165, 228, 250, 314, 325–328, 331, 347 MINOS, 110, 113–114, 173 mixing of, 119 OPERA experiment, 110, 113, 114 oscillation of, 110, 112–113, 115–119, 116ff, 165, 300, 326–329, 329f production of, 110–111 second and third, 235–236, 331 from supernovae, 182 tau, discovery of, 221–228, 226–227ff, 229, 326, 331, 342, 402 Neutrinos, solar, 182–183, 222, 332–335 in elementary particle physics, 361 measurement of, 327, 331, 332–333 oscillation of, 110, 333–334 standard model of, 332–333, 333f in stellar collapse, 415 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiments, 334–335, 334f Super-Kamiokande experiments, 334–335 Neutrinos at the Main Injector (NuMI), 255 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INDEX Neutron stars, 43–45, 44t, 456 Neutrons in the Big Bang (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis) discovery of, 252, 330, 335–337, 425 magnetic moment of, 357, 405–406 scattering of, 432 size of, 348 Newton, Isaac, 317, 352, 416 Newton, Theodore, 488 Newtonian physics See Classical physics Nielsen, Jason, 244–245 Niobium, 26 Nishijima, Kazuo, 155, 203 Nishina, Yoshio, 474 NLC, 12, 500 Nobelium, 23 Noether, Emmy, 337–340, 338 Noether’s Theorem, 320, 339–340 Nollett, K M., 83 November Revolution See J/ Novikov, Igor, 76 Nuclear force, 57 Nuclei fission of, 417, 425–426 meson theory of nuclear forces, 495–497 radioactive, 411, 425 spin of, 32 structure of, 52 types of, 410–411 Nucleons, 52, 57 NuMI (Neutrinos at the Main Injector), 255 Nyffeler, Andreas, 239 O Occhialini, Guiseppe, 201, 322, 373–374 Oddone, Piermaria, 56 Office of Naval Research, 264 Office of Scientific Research, 264 Okubo, Susumu, 204 Oliphant, Marcus, 24 Olive, K A., 83 O’Neill, Gerald, 17 Ontological reductionism, 318 Onuchin, Alexey, 94 OPERA, 110, 113, 114, 191 Operation Greenhouse, 414 Oppenheimer, J Robert, 125, 259, 312–313, 374, 432 Outlook, 341–344 OWL, 182 P Pais, Abraham, 155, 403 PAMELA, 182 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER Pancini, Ettore, 322 Panofsky, Wolfgang, 25, 66, 434 Parity, 462–464, 463f beta decay as a violation of, 346–347, 346f, 493–494 conservation of, 132, 493–494 definition of, 345 invariance of, 89 and K decays, 345 nonconservation of, 94, 345–347, 346f violations in weak interactions, 213, 346, 347 Parke, Stephen, 245 Parkhomchuk, Vassli, 94 Parkinson’s disease, 92 Particle Data Group, 128 Particle identification detectors (PID), 408 Particle physics and culture, 156–159 funding for, 264–266, 266f impact of, 289–290, 341–342 (see also Benefits of particle physics to society) international nature of, 292–295 (see also CERN) outlook for, 341–344 and philosophy, 368–370 (see also Metaphysics) see also Particle physics, elementary Particle physics, elementary, 351–363 accelerators, 355–357 ancient Greek, 352 Big Bang, 354, 360 and the chemical industry, 353 vs classical mechanics, 353 colliders, 357–358 cosmic rays, 354 CP symmetry violation, 356, 360 dark matter, 360–361 electroweak theory, 358–359 energy of interest in, 216–217 expansion of the universe, 360 forces in, 352 (see also Electromagnetic force; Gravity; Strong force; Weak force) general relativity, 353 geometry of space/time, 362 Grand Unified Theory, 359 groups of particles (see Baryons; Leptons; Mesons) as a human endeavor, 352 neutrino detection, 355–356 nineteenth-century, 353 quantum chromodynamics, 357–359 quantum electrodynamics, 355, 358 quantum mechanics, 353–355 quarks, 357 questions in, 351–352 Renaissance, 352–353 rest energy, 220–221 solar neutrinos, 361 special relativity, 353 spin, 355 Standard Model, 357–359, 359f supersymmetry, 361–362 technology, 357–358 twentieth-century, early, 353–355 twentieth-century, late, 357–359 twentieth-century, mid, 355–357 twenty-first-century, 359–363 weak interaction, 356 see also specific particles and theories Particle Physics Data Grid, 131 Particles, 347–349 and antiparticles, 348 charges of, 80 classification by quark content, 399f, 400–401 decay of, in beams, 343–344 decaying, mass of, 350–351 definition of, 347 elementary, designation as, 264 identification of, 172, 176–177, 186–187, 349–351, 349t, 351f individuality of, 368 massless (Goldstone), 90–91 matter vs force, 228 parities of, 80 real vs virtual, 257–258, 483 relativistic theories vs localization of, 369 sources of, 291 spin of (see Angular momentum conservation) strange, 203–204, 203f subatomic zoo, 222–223 virtual, 27–28, 28f, 216, 369, 483–485, 483–485ff see also Detectors, particle; specific particles Partons, 260–261 see also Jets and fragmentation Pati, Jogesh, 428 Pauli, Wolfgang, 363–365 on beta decay, 365, 445 on electron wave function, 52 Exclusion Principle of, 50, 348, 363–364, 364, 391 on neutrinos, 87, 124, 222, 325, 326, 327–328, 329–330 Nobel Prize won by, 364, 364 Pauli Exclusion Principle, 50, 348, 363–364, 364, 391 Peebles, P James E., 142, 152 Peierls, Rudolf, 325, 374 Penrose, Roger, 77 Penzias, Arno, 76, 142 Peoples, John, 233, 255 PEP (Positron Electron Project), 434, 436 525 INDEX PEP-II See BaBar Periodic table, 425 Perl, Martin, 235, 331, 415, 415, 435 Perrin, Jean, 210 Perturbation theory, 258, 309, 419–420, 447, 475 Pestrikov, Dmitri, 94 PET See Positron emission tomography PETRA (Positron Electron Tandem Ring Accelerator), 11, 167, 168 Phase stability, Phase transitions, 365–368, 366f, 368f Philosophy and particle physics, 368–370 see also Metaphysics Phipps, T E., 236 Photoelectric effect, 206 Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), 195 Photon Factory, 299 Photons, 228 behavior predicted by quantum mechanics, 354 from the Big Bang (see Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation) electromagnetic interaction of, 358–359 as electromagnetism carriers, 58–59 in fixed-target accelerators, 33 GMB, 182 virtual, 28, 28f see also Gamma rays Physics Research Division, 490 Piccioni, Oreste, 42, 322 PID (particle identification detectors), 408 Pierre Auger Project, 255 Pions, 110–111, 122, 187, 417, 497 Pixel detectors, 171 Planck, Max, 68, 207, 370–371, 378 Planck satellite, 287 Planck scale, 370–373 Plesset, Milton S., 374 Plücker, Julius, 209 Plutonium, 23 PMTs (photomultiplier tubes), 195 Podolsky, Boris, 208 Poincaré, Henri, 210, 412 Polarization, definition of, 32 Polchinski, Joseph, 450 Polonium, 413, 424 Pontecorvo, Bruno, 236, 323, 328 Positron Electron Project (PEP), 434, 436 Positron Electron Tandem Ring Accelerator (PETRA), 11, 167, 168 Positron emission tomography (PET), 69, 92, 290, 295 Positrons, 23, 35, 36, 144, 354, 373–374 Powell, Cecil, 144, 322 Pre-Socratics, 317 Price, Paul B., 201 526 Priestly, Joseph, 352 Probability, quantum, 387 Proton accelerators See Accelerators, fixed-target: proton Proton synchrotron (PS), 18, 110, 120, 123 Protons for cancer therapy, 491 composition of, decay of, 116–117, 155, 183, 415 magnetic moment of, 357, 405–406 mass/spin/charge of, 347–348, 354 size of, 306–307, 307f, 348 structure of, 28, 347–348 Protopopov, Igor, 94 Prout, William, 209 PS (proton synchrotron), 18, 110, 120, 123 Pulsars, 44 Q QCD See Quantum chromodynamics QED See Quantum electrodynamics QFT See Quantum field theory QSO (quasi-stellar objects), 46 Quadrupole magnets, 4–5, 61–63, 62ff Quantization, 386–387 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD), 375–378 and asymptotic freedom, 47–50, 48–50ff, 375, 405 and axions, 52–53 color charge and gauge theory, 269, 376–377, 401 CP symmetry violation in, 155 in elementary particle physics, 357–359 hadrons in, 376 and jets, 300–304, 301–303ff, 377, 436 lattice QCD, 169, 309–310 and phase transitions, 367 and Planck scale, 372 and quantum electrodynamics, 59 and quantum field theory, 385 and quantum statistics, 390–391 quark families in, 250 quark-gluon plasma in, 393–397, 395–397ff running charges in, 421–422, 421f and SU(3) symmetry, 446 and technicolor, 468–469 and vacuums, 377–378, 394–396, 395f see also Asymptotic freedom Quantum electrodynamics (QED), 348, 364–365, 378–382 and asymptotic freedom, 47 and axions, 52–53 in elementary particle physics, 355, 358 and the fine-structure constant, 380–381, 380t and gauge symmetry, 86, 213, 379 and Maxwell’s equations, 378–379 and perturbation theory, 475 and quantum field theory, 384–385, 384f quantum loop corrections, 380–381 and quantum theory of electrons, 378–379 renormalization of, 378–380, 433 as a Standard Model component, 381–382 success of, 378 see also Bosons, gauge Quantum field theory (QFT), 69, 382–386, 383–384ff applications of, 382 vs classical field theory, 256–257, 256–257ff and philosophy, 368–369 and quantum chromodynamics, 385 and quantum electrodynamics, 384–385, 384f and quantum statistics, 390 renormalization of, 385, 419 symmetry in, 385 Quantum gravity, 77 Quantum mechanics, 51–52, 364–365, 386–389 vs classical mechanics, 386, 388 as counterintuitive, 386 and determinism, 369–370 Dirac as a pioneer of, 199–200, 200, 364 electromagnetic radiation theory, 200 entanglement in, 388 Fermi-Dirac vs Bose-Einstein statistics, 199–200 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 216, 390, 496 Heisenberg’s invention of, 364 interference in, 387–388 invention of, 353–355 mathematical formalism of, 388 probability in, 387 quantization in, 386–387 quantum tunneling, 392–393, 393f and string theory, 449, 449f subatomic, 388 transformation theory, 200 and unification, 478 Quantum statistics, 389–392 Quantum tunneling, 392–393, 393f Quantum zero point motion, 277 Quark-gluon plasma, 393–397, 395–397ff Quarks, 52, 398–402 bottom, 126, 127, 205, 223, 229, 342, 401, 443 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INDEX bound state of (see Baryons; Hadrons; Mesons) charm, 126, 141, 205, 223, 228–229, 250, 342, 401–402, 443 (see also J/) color of, 10, 135, 376–378, 401 (see also Quantum chromodynamics) and conservation laws, 398–400, 400f definition of, 398 discovery of, 398, 398t, 399f, 403–406 down, 127, 223–224, 228, 357, 443 evidence of, 377–378 families of, 249–251, 250t, 325–326, 358, 359–360, 443–444 flavors of, 127–128, 136, 205, 205f, 261–264, 262–263ff, 375, 399t forces acting on, 58–59 forces between, 126, 398, 404, 444 Gell-Mann’s postulation of, 222–223, 260–261, 262, 398, 401, 403 generations of, 270, 270t heavy, 275–277 interactions of (see Quantum chromodynamics) jets of, 229–232, 300–304, 301–303ff, 377, 405, 436 mass of, 275, 443, 443t particle classification by content of, 399f, 400–401 spin of, 126, 357, 400, 444 strange, 127, 223, 228–229, 250, 357, 443 structure of, 348 top, discovery of, 205, 223–225, 228–233, 255, 299, 402 up, 223–224, 228, 357, 443 Quasars, 46–47 Quasi-stellar objects (QSO), 46 R Rabi, Isidor I., 120, 250, 293, 323, 431–432 Radiation Cherenkov, 187, 350, 407–408, 408f electromagnetic, 200 inverse square law of, 281 for therapy, 290 see also Radiation, synchrotron Radiation, synchrotron (SR), 2–3, 26, 409–410 from colliders, electron-positron, 9, 409 damping of, 137 from electrons, uses of, 69, 410, 435–436, 437 Radiation Laboratory (later named Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), 23–24, 264, 311–312 see also Bevatron BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER Radiations from Radioactive Substances (Rutherford, Chadwick, and Ellis), 125 Radio waves, 423 Radioactivity, 410–411 discovery of, 411–413 Rutherford’s explanation of, 413, 423, 424–425 Radioisotopes, 23 “Radiological Use of Fast Protons” (R Wilson), 491 Ramsay, Norman, 253, 432 Reagan, Ronald, 440 Redshift, 71, 73, 354 see also Hubble’s law Reductionism, 318–319, 477 Reines, Frederick, 87, 325, 331, 414–415, 415, 435 Relativity, 36, 415–418 see also Relativity, general; Relativity, special Relativity, general and the Big Bang, 71, 72, 281, 284 and the cosmological constant, 148–149 Einstein’s proposal of, 151, 353, 418 particles predicted by, 348–349 and string theory, 447 and symmetry, 464 and unification, 478 Relativity, special and conservation laws, 337, 338, 339, 417 Einstein’s proposal of, 206, 207 and elementary particles, 353, 416–418, 418f and rest energy, 215, 220, 417 Renormalization, 69, 378–380, 381–382, 385, 419–422, 432 Resonances, 422–423 acceleration of, 3, 22, 247 Breit-Wigner, 430–431 and scattering, 484, 484f Retherford, Robert C., 475 Rf (radio frequency) cavities, 30, 197–199, 197ff Richarz, F., 209 Richter, Burton, 65–66, 298, 401–402, 434 Riemann, Friedrich, 464 Roberts, B Lee, 239 Roentgen, Wilhelm, 210 Rohm, Ryan, 447 Roll, Peter G., 142 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 208 Rosen, Nathan, 208 Rowland, Henry, 52 Royal Society, 339 Royds, Thomas, 424 Rubbia, Carlo, 19, 122 Ruben, Samuel, 23 Running charges, 421–422, 421f Russell, Henry Norris, 52 Rutherford, Ernest on accelerated particles, sources of, 21 atomic theory of, 21, 51, 211, 307, 347, 353, 425 and Chadwick, 123–124, 125, 335, 336–337 fusion achieved by, 426 on neutrons, 335, 336–337 Nobel Prize won by, 423, 424 on radio waves, 423–424 radioactivity explained by, 413, 423, 424–425 reputation of, 425 S S-matrix, 429–430, 430f SAGE, 183 Sakata, Shoichi, 204, 236 Sakharov, Andrei, 80, 152, 155, 212, 464, 480 Salam, Abdus, 37, 88, 213–214, 284–285, 427–429, 428 see also Electroweak theory Salimov, Rustam, 94 Salt and hypertension, 92 Sandage, Alan, 74 SC (synchrocyclotrons), 120, 160–161 Scalar fields, 284–285 Scaling, 377 Scattering, 260–261, 305–307, 377, 391, 429–431, 430f, 484, 484f Schmidt, Gerhard D., 412, 424 Schramm, David, 153 Schreiffer, John, 278–279 Schrödinger, Erwin, 51–52, 68–69, 199, 200, 353–354 Schwartz, Melvin, 331 Schwarz, John, 447 Schwinger, Julian, 236, 259, 260, 380, 431, 431–434, 475 Schwitters, Roy, 298, 442 Science, impact of particle physics on, 289–290 Science wars, 158 Scintillation counters, 171–172, 172, 176–177, 194–195, 414 Seaborg, Glenn, 23, 311 Segrè, Emilio, 23, 24, 38, 40, 42, 311 Seitz, Frederick, 488 SEP (solar energetic particles), 144 Serber, Robert, 24 Serpukhov, 294 SESAME, 295 Seyfert galaxies, 46 Shatunov, Yuri, 94 Shochet, Mel, 233 Sidorov, Veniamin, 93–94 527 INDEX Silicon detectors, 171 Silicon strips, 175 Silicon vertex detectors, 195, 350, 351f Simulation, computer, 129–130 Skrinsky, Alexander, 18, 93–94 SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center), 25, 29–30, 217, 434–437, 435 electron annihilation experiments at, 36 energy levels of, 291 establishment of, 306, 434 Positron Electron Project, 434, 436 Stanford Linear Collider, 11–12, 434, 436 Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory, 435–436 top quark research at, 229 upgrades to, 434 (see also Stanford Positron Electron Asymmetric Ring) SLC See Stanford Linear Collider SLD experiment, 500 Slipher, Vesto, 73 Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 255 SM See Standard Model Smakhtin, Vladimir, 94 SNO See Sudbury Neutrino Observatory Snowmass Study, 440 Soddy, Frederick, 413, 424 Sohnius, Martin, 459 Solar energetic particles (SEP), 144 Sommerfield, Arnold, 363 Soudan II, 183 Source theory, 433–434 Southeastern Universities Research Association (SURA), 470 Southern California Edison Company, 21 Spark chambers, 195–196 SPEAR See Stanford Positron Electron Asymmetric Ring Special relativity theory See Relativity, special Spectroscopy, 52 Spin, 251 of electrons, 52, 236, 347, 348, 364 in elementary particle physics, 355 isotropic, 90, 91, 136, 204, 262–263ff, 400–401, 455 of leptons, 444 of nuclei, 32 of protons, 347–348, 354 of quarks, 126, 357, 400, 444 Spontaneously broken symmetry, 146–147, 271, 465 SPS (Super Proton Synchrotron), 110, 120, 123 SR See Radiation, synchrotron SSC (Superconducting Supercollider), 19–20, 255, 320, 437–442, 439f, 441f SSRL (Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory), 435–436 STACEE, 181 528 Standard Model (SM), 10–11, 442–446 B mesons as tests of, 436–437 completeness of, 70, 103, 362, 402, 447 confirmation of, 438, 446 development of, 228 dissatisfaction with, 158 electroweak interactions, 381–382, 445–446 as elementary particle physics, 357–359, 359f establishment of, 277 experimental testing of, 279 forces, 444 (see also Electromagnetic force; Gravity; Strong force; Weak force) as foundational, 68–69 and the Grand Unified Theory, 271–273 hadronic light-by-light contribution, 239 Higgs boson as critical to, 240 Large Electron Positron Collider as testing, 122 left-handed particles, 444 leptons/quarks in, 223–224, 229, 442–443 (see also Leptons; Quarks) matter content of, 270t, 460, 460t parity violation in, 347 particle content of, 381–382, 381t (see also Bosons, Higgs; Leptons; Photons; Quarks; W bosons; Z bosons) quantum chromodynamics, 446 (see also Quantum chromodynamics) renormalization of, 381–382 spontaneously broken symmetry of, 146, 271 and supersymmetry, 460, 460t and symmetry, 91 (see also Bosons, Higgs; CP symmetry violation) and unification, 478–479 (see also Electroweak theory) see also Electroweak theory; Quantum chromodynamics; Quantum electrodynamics Standard Solar Model (SSM), 332–333, 333f Stanford Linear Accelerator Center See SLAC Stanford Linear Collider (SLC), 11–12, 434, 436, 499–500 Stanford Positron Electron Asymmetric Ring (SPEAR), 11, 18–19, 65–66, 298, 434–435 Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL), 435–436 STAR TPC, 171f Starobinsky, Alexei, 283 Stars black holes, stellar, 43–45, 44t composition of, 43 evolution of, 43, 281–282 globular clusters of, 74–75, 281–282 lifetimes of, 43 neutron, 43–45, 44t, 456 nucleosynthesis in, 82 pulsars, 44 supernovae, 74, 281, 455–459, 457 white dwarfs, 43–45, 44t, 458 see also specific stars and clusters Steigman, Gary, 83, 153 Steinberger, Jack, 331 Stern, Otto, 236 Stern-Gerlach experiment See Experiment: g–2 measurement of the muon Stochastic cooling, 3, 18, 138 Stochastic stacking, 138 Stoney, George Johnstone, 209 Storage rings, 3, 7, 7f, 17–18 in colliders, electron-positron, 6, 7–9, 7f as fixed-target accelerators, 27 Intersecting Storage Rings, 17f, 18 vs synchrotrons, 139 Strangeness, 400 Strathdee, John, 428 String theory, 341, 371–372, 418, 446–452, 446f black hole entropy/information, 450–451 breaking/joining of strings, 448, 448f vs cosmic strings, 148 extra dimensions in, 448–449, 448f, 450f, 451 future of theory/experiment, 451 history of, 447 incompleteness of, 447 low-energy strings, 451 and particle physics, 447–448 and quantum gravity, 449, 449f string duality/branes, 449–450, 450ff, 451 types of, 448 and unification, 479 vibration of strings, 448 Strominger, Andrew, 447, 450 Strong CP problem, 377–378 Strong force, 58–59, 87, 352, 357, 444 see also Grand Unified Theory Strong interactions See Quantum chromodynamics SU(2), 204, 262–263ff, 262–264, 381, 444–446 SU(3), 204–205, 262–263ff, 262–264, 381, 444, 446, 452–455, 453–454ff Sudarshan, George, 260 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), 183, 190, 192f, 250, 334–335, 334f Sukhina, Boris, 94 Sun, 43, 353, 393 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER INDEX Super-Kamiokande, 112–113, 115–119, 116ff, 183, 190, 300, 327, 334–335, 408 Super-many-time theory, 475 Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), 110, 120, 123 Superconducting Supercollider See SSC Superconductors, 277–279, 290 Supernovae, 74, 281, 455–459, 457, 458 Superstring theory See String theory Supersymmetry, 70, 165, 214, 280, 361–362, 391–392, 459–462, 460t, 465 SURA (Southeastern Universities Research Association), 470 Sussking, Leonard, 468 Sverdrup Corporation, 441–442 Swann, William F G., 311 Symmetry conservation laws yielded by, 320, 385 electroweak symmetry breaking, 103, 211, 212–215, 467–468 (see also Higgs mechanism) flavor, 261–264, 262–263ff of heavy quarks, 276–277, 276f Lorentz, 459 Poincaré, 459 in quantum field theory, 385 space-time, 459 (see also Supersymmetry) spontaneously broken, 146–147, 271, 465 see also CP symmetry violation; SU(2); SU(3); Symmetry principles Symmetry principles, 462–465 broken symmetry, 89–91, 133, 367, 445 (see also CP symmetry violation; Spontaneously broken symmetry) charge conjugation, 132, 463–464 chiral symmetry, 91 and conservation laws, 462 continuous vs discrete symmetries, 462–463 gauge symmetries, 213, 267, 269, 379, 445, 464–465 isospin symmetry, 90, 91, 262 parity, 462–464, 463f, 493–494 and phase transitions, 366–367, 366f time reversal invariance, 463, 464 see also Supersymmetry Synchrocyclotrons (SC), 120, 160–161 Synchrotron radiation See Radiation, synchrotron Synchrotrons, 2, 139, 292 T ‘t Hooft, Gerard, 214, 433, 468 TAMA, 184 Tamm, Igor, 407 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER Tandem accelerators, 196, 197f TASSO (Two-Art Solenoid Spectrometer), 167 Taylor, J B., 236 Taylor, Richard, 305, 306, 306, 401, 434 TDC (Time-to-Digital Converter), 194 Technetium, 23 Technicolor, 467–469 Technipions, 215 Technology, impact of particle physics on, 290 see also specific technologies Teller, Edward, 312–313, 432 Tera Electronvolt Superconducting Linear Accelerator (TESLA), 12, 169, 500 Tevatron, 19, 255 design of, 491 Higgs boson search at, 88, 245, 245–246 luminosity of, 440 size/power of, 161, 220, 229, 438 top quark research at, 229, 229 Thales, 156, 317 Theoretical physics, 264 Theory of everything (TOE), 80, 288–289, 319, 368f Theory of Matter, 70–71 Third World Academy of Sciences, 428 Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, 29, 469–471, 470 Thomson, Joseph John, 51, 68–69, 209, 210–211, 335, 353, 424, 471–473, 472 Thorium, 412–413, 424 Tigner, Maury, 139, 440 Tikhonov, Yuri, 94 Time Projection Chamber (TPC), 171, 171f, 183 Time reversal, charge conjugation, and parity (TCP) conservation, 132, 463–464 Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC), 194 Ting, Samuel C C., 65–66, 294–295, 297, 401–402, 434–435 Tisza, Laslo, 260 TOE See Theory of everything Tomonaga, Sin-itiro, 259, 260, 380, 431, 433, 473–475, 474, 495 Townsend, Paul, 447 TPC (Time Projection Chamber), 171, 171f, 183 Tracking detectors, 170–171, 173, 175–176, 230 Transformation theory, 200 Transition radiation, 170, 176 Transition Radiation Tracker (TRT), 105 Translation invariance, 89 Transuranium elements, 23 Triggering, 129 TRISTAN, 299–300 TRT (Transition Radiation Tracker), 105 Tully, Chris, 245 Tumaykin, German, 94 Turlay, René, 154, 155 Turner, M S., 83 Tuve, Merle, 24 Two-Art Solenoid Spectrometer (TASSO), 167 U UCS (Union of Concerned Scientists), 308 Uhlenbeck, George, 52, 236, 364 UKDMC, 185 Unified theories, 477–479 see also Grand Unified Theory Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), 308 Universal condensate, 70 Universe, 480–482 age of, 74–75, 281–282 expansion of, 81, 142, 149–150, 281, 354, 360, 458–459 (see also Inflation) fluctuations of, 286–287 phase transitions in early universe, 367–368, 368f see also Big Bang; Big Bang nucleosynthesis; Cosmology Universities Research Association, Inc (URA), 253, 255–256 Uranium, 23, 24, 125, 412–413, 417, 424 Urey, Harold C., 337 V Vacuum energy, 481–482 see also Cosmological constant and dark energy Vacuum polarization, 419, 419 Vacuums, 369, 377–378, 394–396, 395f Vafa, Cumrun, 450 Vainshtein, Arkady, 94 Van de Graaff, Robert J., 21–23, 24 Van der Meer, Simon, 18, 19, 122 Van der Waal forces, 57 Veltmann, Martinus, 468 VERITAS, 181 Vertex detectors, 195, 350, 351f Vertex tagging, 231 Video games, 92 Villard, Paul, 413 VIRGO, 184 Virgo cluster, 45, 281 Virtual processes, 27–28, 28f, 216, 257–258, 369, 483–485, 483–485ff Von Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich, 151 529 INDEX W W bosons discovery of, 37, 122, 342 mass of, 445 scattering of, 214–215 weak interaction of, 228, 250, 358–359, 445 see also Bosons, Higgs Walker, T P., 83 Walton, Ernest Thomas Sinton, 22–23, 24, 425 Ward, John, 213, 428 Warship design, 290 Water Cherenkov detectors, 115–116 see also specific detectors Weak force charged current, 183–184, 414 vs electromagnetic force, 211, 212–213 in elementary particle physics, 352 neutral current, 183, 414 in the Standard Model, 444 W and Z particles as carriers of, 58–59, 228, 250, 358–359, 445 see also Bosons, Higgs; Grand Unified Theory; W bosons; Z bosons Weak interactions in elementary particle physics, 356 Fermi on, 222, 251–252, 277, 493–494 Gell-Mann on, 260–261 Glashow-Weinberg-Salam model, 385 parity violations in, 213, 315, 346, 347, 493–494 Weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP), 481 530 Weinberg, Steven, 37, 88, 152–153, 213–214, 284–285, 428, 468 see also Electroweak theory Weisskopf, Victor F., 475 Wetness, 319 Wheeler, John Archibald, 259, 371 Whipple observatory, 181 White dwarfs, 43–45, 44t Wideröe, Rolf, 17, 22, 24 Wiechert, Emil, 210 Wiegand, Clyde, 41 Wigner, Eugene, 432, 487–489, 488 Wilczek, Frank, 153 Wilkinson, David, 142 Williams, John, 24 Wilson, Charles T R., 34, 143, 192 Wilson, Kenneth, 141, 309 Wilson, Robert R., 24, 76, 138, 142, 157, 253–254, 311, 489, 489–492 see also Fermilab WIMP (weakly interacting massive particle), 481 Wire chambers, 170–171 Witherell, Michael S., 255 Witten, Edward, 447 World War I, 208 World Wide Web (WWW), 69, 123, 131, 255, 265, 290 Wright, Jim, 440 Wu, Chien-Shiung, 260, 346, 492, 492–494 Wu, Sau-Lan, 244–245 WWW See World Wide Web X X rays and dark matter, 164 discovery of, 21, 210, 412, 473 research on, 141 sources of, 265, 436 (see also Radiation, synchrotron) uses of, 410, 412, 437 X-ray lasers, 169 Y Yang, Chen Ning, 85, 213, 252, 260, 346, 493 Yang-Mills theory, 94 Yoshimura, Motohiko, 153 Ypsilantis, Thomas, 41 Yukawa, Hidekei, 23, 58, 144, 252, 322, 474, 495–497, 496 Z Z bosons discovery of, 122, 342 mass of, 445 scattering of, 214–215 weak interaction of, 228, 250, 358–359, 445 see also Bosons, Higgs Z factories, 499–500 see also Large Electron Positron Collider; Stanford Linear Collider Zacharias, Jerrold, 432 Zeeman, Pieter, 209 Zeeman effect, 51, 363–364 Zolotorev, Mark, 94 Zweig, George, 156, 260–261, 398, 401, 403 Zwicky, Fritz, 163, 456 BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER ... LOCKS OF M ATTER A Supplement to the MACMILLAN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHYSICS John S Rigden Editor in Chief Building Blocks of Matter: A Supplement to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Physics John S Rigden, ... energies In turn, higher energies were required to probe the innards of particles such as the proton as well as to create new particles with substantial masses such as the W and Z as well as the top... Hubble Constant Inflation Neutrino, Solar Quark-Gluon Plasma Universe Basic Interactions Accelerator Types Accelerators, Accelerators, Accelerators, Accelerators, Accelerators, Colliding Beams: Electron-Positron