Chemical process equipment selection and design, 3rd edition

Chemical Process Equipment This book is dedicated to the memory of Dr James R Fair, who passed away in October 2010 Dr Fair was responsible for the material in Chapters 13 and 15 as well as providing advice to the authors Dr Fair was a colleague at Monsanto of both Dr Roy Penney and Dr James R Couper He will be sorely missed since we relied on his advice and counsel during the preparation of this book’s manuscript Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design Third Edition James R Couper W Roy Penney James R Fair Stanley M Walas AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK First edition 1988 Second edition 2005 Revised second edition 2010 Third edition 2012 Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Application submitted British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-396959-0 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com Typeset by: diacriTech, Chennai, India Printed in the United States of America 12 13 10 Contents ix PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION x PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION CONTRIBUTORS xi xii CHAPTER RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 PROCESS CONTROL 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 19 31 33 DRIVERS FOR MOVING EQUIPMENT TRANSFER OF SOLIDS FLOW OF FLUIDS 111 Piping 121 Pump Theory 123 Pump Characteristics 126 Criteria for Selection of Pumps 128 Equipment for Gas Transport 130 Theory and Calculations of Gas Compression Ejector and Vacuum Systems 152 References 159 121 139 Conduction of Heat 161 Mean Temperature Difference 163 Heat Transfer Coefficients 165 Data of Heat Transfer Coefficients 171 Pressure Drop in Heat Exchangers 183 Types of Heat Exchangers 184 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 187 Condensers 195 Reboilers 199 Evaporators 201 Fired Heaters 202 Insulation of Equipment 211 Refrigeration 214 References 220 CHAPTER 9.1 9.2 9.3 53 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 61 68 DRYERS AND COOLING TOWERS Interaction of Air and Water 223 Rate of Drying 226 Classification and General Characteristics of Dryers 230 Batch Dryers 234 Continuous Tray and Conveyor Belt Dryers 236 Rotary Cylindrical Dryers 239 Drum Dryers for Solutions and Slurries 246 Pneumatic Conveying Dryers 247 Flash and Ring Dryers 249 Fluidized Bed Dryers 253 Spray Dryers 259 Cooling Towers 266 References 275 CHAPTER 10 MIXING AND AGITATION 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 83 Properties and Units 83 Energy Balance of a Flowing Fluid Liquids 86 FLUID TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT CHAPTER HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS 161 17 Slurry Transport 61 Pneumatic Conveying 63 Mechanical Conveyors and Elevators Chutes 76 Solids Feeders 77 References 81 CHAPTER 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 Motors 53 Steam Turbines and Gas Expanders 54 Combustion Gas Turbines and Engines 57 References 60 CHAPTER 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 CHAPTER The Feedback Control Loop 31 Control Loop Performance and Tuning Procedures Single Stream Control 34 Unit Operation Control 37 Bibliography 51 CHAPTER 4.1 4.2 4.3 FLOWSHEETS Pipeline Networks 88 Optimum Pipe Diameter 92 Non-Newtonian Liquids 93 Gases 99 Liquid-Gas Flow in Pipelines 103 Granular and Packed Beds 106 Gas-Solid Transfer 110 Fluidization of Beds of Particles with Gases References 118 Block Flowsheets 17 Process Flowsheets 17 Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID) Utility Flowsheets 19 Drawing of Flowsheets 19 References 29 CHAPTER 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 xiii Process Design Equipment Categories of Engineering Practice Sources of Information for Process Design Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices Material and Energy Balances Economic Balance Design Safety Factors Safety of Plant and Environment Steam and Power Supply Design Basis 10 Laboratory and Pilot Plant Work 12 Other Sources of Information 15 CHAPTER 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 84 v A Basic Stirred Tank Design 277 Vessel Flow Patterns 279 Agitator Power Requirements 281 Impeller Pumping 281 Tank Blending 281 Heat Transfer 287 277 223 vi CONTENTS 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 Vortex Depth 288 Solid Suspension 289 Solids Dissolving 294 Gas-Liquid Dispersions 295 Liquid-Liquid (L-L) Dispersions 298 Pipeline Mixers 303 Compartmented Columns 307 Fast Competitive/Consecutive (C/C) Reactions Scale-Up 321 References 326 CHAPTER 11 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 315 CHAPTER 15 329 Processes and Equipment 329 Liquid-Particle Characteristics 330 Theory of Filtration 330 Resistance to Filtration 337 Thickening and Clarifying 341 Laboratory Testing and Scale-Up 342 Illustrations of Equipment 343 Applications and Performance of Equipment 355 References 359 CHAPTER 12 DISINTEGRATION, AGGLOMERATION, AND SIZE SEPARATION OF PARTICULATE SOLIDS 361 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Screening 361 Commercial Classification with Streams of Air or Water 368 Size Reduction 368 Equipment for Size Reduction 370 Particle Size Enlargement (Agglomeration) 378 References 396 Bibliography 397 CHAPTER 13 DISTILLATION AND GAS ABSORPTION 399 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 Introduction 399 Vapor-Liquid Equilibria 400 Single-Stage Flash Calculations 402 Evaporation or Simple Distillation 406 Binary Distillation 407 Batch Distillation 419 Multicomponent Separation: General Considerations 421 Estimation of Reflux and Number of Trays (Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland Method (1932, 1948, 1940)) 423 Absorption Factor Shortcut Method of Edmister (1947–1949) 426 Separations in Packed Towers 427 Basis for Computer Evaluation of Multicomponent Separations 433 Special Kinds of Distillation Processes 439 Tray Towers 454 Packed Towers 460 Efficiences of Trays and Packings 464 Energy Considerations 476 References 485 CHAPTER 14 EXTRACTION AND LEACHING 14.1 14.2 Introduction 487 Equilibrium Relations 488 Calculation of Stage Requirements 494 Countercurrent Operation 497 Leaching of Solids 501 Numerical Calculation of Multicomponent Extraction 503 Equipment for Extraction 507 Pilot-Testing 526 References 527 487 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 ADSORPTION AND ION EXCHANGE Adsorption Processes 529 Adsorbents 529 Adsorption Behavior in Packed Beds 536 Regeneration 537 Gas Adsorption Cycles 543 Adsorption Design and Operating Practices Parametric Pumping 547 Ion Exchange Processes 548 Production Scale Chromatography 554 General References 558 529 544 CHAPTER 16 CRYSTALLIZATION FROM SOLUTIONS AND MELTS 561 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 Some General Crystallization Concepts 562 Importance of the Solubility Curve in Crystallizer Design 563 Solubilities and Equilibria 563 Crystal Size Distribution 566 The Process of Crystallization 566 The Ideal Stirred Tank 574 Kinds of Crystallizers 577 Melt Crystallization and Purification 584 References 589 CHAPTER 17 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 CHAPTER 18 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 591 PROCESS VESSELS 655 Drums 655 Fractionator Reflux Drums 656 Liquid-Liquid Separators 657 Gas-Liquid Separators 657 Storage Tanks 664 Mechanical Design of Process Vessels 667 Bins and Hoppers 669 References 675 CHAPTER 19 19.1 19.2 CHEMICAL REACTORS Design Basis and Space Velocity 591 Rate Equations and Operating Modes 591 Material and Energy Balances of Reactions 596 Nonideal Flow Patterns 597 Selection of Catalysts 602 Types and Examples of Reactors 608 Heat Transfer in Reactors 623 Classes of Reaction Processes and Their Equipment Biochemical Reactors and Processes 642 References 652 MEMBRANE SEPARATIONS Membrane Processes 677 Liquid-Phase Separations 683 677 630 CONTENTS 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10 19.11 19.12 Gas Permeation 684 Membrane Materials and Applications 684 Membrane Cells and Equipment Configurations 686 Industrial Applications 687 Subquality Natural Gas 687 The Enhancement of Separation 690 Permeability Units 693 Derivations and Calculations for Single-Stage Membrane Separations 697 Representation of Multistage Membrane Calculations for a Binary System 703 Potential Large-Scale Commercialization 706 References 707 CHAPTER 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 GAS-SOLID SEPARATIONS CHAPTER 21 COSTS OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT 731 APPENDIX A DATA 743 UNITS, NOTATION, AND GENERAL APPENDIX B FORMS 753 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION 709 Gas-Solid Separations 709 Foam Separation and Froth Flotation 717 Sublimation and Freeze Drying 719 Separations by Thermal Diffusion 720 Electrochemical Syntheses 722 References 729 APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRES OF EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS 799 INDEX 819 vii This page intentionally left blank Preface to the Third Edition extensively updated and revised compared to the second and revised second editions of the book Dr Wayne J Genck, President of Genck International, a renowned international expert on crystallization has joined the contributors, replacing John H Wolf, Retired President of Swenson Process Equipment Company Older methods and obsolete equipment for the most part have been removed If the reader has an interest in older material, he or she might consult previous editions of this book This book is not intended as a classroom text, however, with some modifications and addition of examples and problems, it could be used for teaching purposes This edition of the book contains revised and updated information from both the second edition and the revised second edition, as well as new material as of early 2010 The authors and collaborators have included information essential to the design and specification of equipment needed for the ultimate purchasing of equipment The vast amount of literature has been screened so that only time-tested practical methods that are useful in the design and specification of equipment are included The authors and collaborators have used their judgment about what to include based upon their combined industrial and academic experience The emphasis is on design techniques and practice as well as what is required to work with vendors in the selection and purchase of equipment This material would be especially helpful to the young engineer entering industry, thus bridging the gap between academia and industry Chapters 10, 13, 14, 15, and 16 have been James R Couper W Roy Penney ix INDEX crosscurrent, 495 dispersed phase selection, 508 equilibria, 488–494 extract reflux, 499–500 features and applications of, 510 immiscible solvents, 495–497 minimum reflux, 500 minimum solvent/feed ratio, 498–499 minimum stages, 500–501 model for, 500 multicomponent, 503–507 single stage, 494–495 stage requirements, 494–497 Extractive distillation, 442–444, 446 additive selection, 442 ethanol/isopropanol/water process, 444, 446 examples of processes, 446 isoprene recovery, 444 McCabe-Thiele diagram, 430 methylcyclohexane/toluene/phenol process, 446 selection of additive, 442 vapor liquid equilibria, 450 Extractors, loads and diameters of, 521 Extrusion, 384–386 ring, 385 ring applications, 385 screw, 385 Extrusion pelleting equipment, 392–393 Extrusion processes, 384–386 F Falling film evaporators, 201 Fan-pulsed dust collector, 712, 713 Fans, 130, 133–134, 732–739 application range, 133, 142 blade shape, 145 characteristics of, 144 controls, 144 efficiency, 133, 145 laws of, 144 performance, 144 Fast competitive/consecutive (C/C) reactions, 315 in agitated reactor, 322 design methods of, 319–321 Fauser-Montecatini converter, 624 Feed rate reactor control, 46, 49 Feed tray location, distillation, 426 Kirkbride equation, 426 Feed tray, location of, 426 Feedback control, 31–33 Feedback control loop controller characteristics, 33 measurement characteristics, 32–33 process characteristics, 32 response characteristics, 31–32 valve characteristics, 32 Feeders, granular solids, 35 Feeders, solids See Solids feeders Fenske-Underwood equation, 418, 423 Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland method, 423–426 Fermentation, 649 characteristics, 642 equipment sketch, 651 flowsketches, 650 industrial products of, 652 operating conditions, 644 process types, 642–643 products, commercial, 649 reactors, 649 Fermenter, 649 flowsketches of, 650 sketch of, 651 standard specifications of, 652 Fibrous materials, rotary cutters for, 375–376 Fick’s law of diffusion, 698 Film coefficients, heat transfer, data, 167–169 Filter cakes compressibility, 339 permeability, 339 porosity, 339, 342 resistivity of, 335, 339, 342 specific resistances of, 339, 341 Filter media, 337–338 porosities and permeabilities, 339 Filter medium, 337–338 Filtering centrifuges, 349, 353, 357 Filters, pressure, 339–341 commercial sizes, 349 Filtration, 683 constant pressure, 330 constant rate, 330, 334 data sheet, testing, 345 example, with centrifugal pump, 334 laboratory testing, 336, 342–343 process with centrifugal charge pump, 335 scaleup, 342–343 SCFT concept, 343 test data, example, 334 theory of, 330–337 Filtration equation, 337, 339 constants of, 334 Filtration equipment application and performance, 355–359 belt, 350, 354 cartridge, 346 double drum, 349, 350 horizontal rotary, 356 Kelly, 349 leaf, 349 plate and frame, 347–349 rotary disk, 351, 356 rotary drum, 351 Sparkler, 347–348 Sweetland, 347–348 Vallez, 346, 347–348 Fired heaters, 202–211, 732–739 box size, rule, 205 description of equipment, 202–205 design of, 206–211 equations and relations for, 207–208 heat fluxes and temperatures, 210 peak temperatures, 206 procedure for rating, 209–210 reactors, 615 825 sketches, 212 tube and box configuration of, 212 types of, 203 Fittings, 87 pipe, resistances, 87 Fittings resistances, several sets of, 90 Fixed bed reactors, 613–616 heat transfer in, 619 Fixed bed solid catalysis, 636 Flags, 23 Flame reactor, 614 Flash conditions, 404–405 example, 405 Ks dependent on composition, 406 Flash dryers, 249–252 Flat screens, 367 Flight conveyors, 74 Floating solids, wetting of, 288–289 Flocculants, 333 Flocculating agents, 330, 333, 341 Flocculation, 381 Flory-Higgins equation, 532 Flow control, 34–36, 36 fluids, 35–36 Flow number, agitation, 285 Flow of fluids, 83–119 beds of particles with gases, 111–118 energy balance, 84–86 gases, 99–103 gas-solid transfer, 110–111 granular and packed beds, 106–110 isentropic flow, laminar flow, 99–100 liquid-gas flow in pipelines, 103–106 liquids, 86–88 non-Newtonian liquids, 93–99 optimum pipe diameter, 92–93 pipeline networks, 88–92 properties and units, 83–84 transitional flow, 97 viscoelastic behavior, 95 Flow quantities, 83 Flow rates, 125 distribution, 90 particle size and ratio of, 118 principles, 88 Flowsheets, 17–29 block, 17, 18 drawing of, 19–29 equipment symbols, 21–24 mechanical, 17 mechanical (P & ID), 19 process, 17–19, 26 process, checklist, 19 symbols, 21–24, 28 utility, 19 Fluid catalytic vessels, 621 Fluid handling equipment, efficiencies of, 150 Fluid jet pulverizer, 378 Fluid mixing, impellers for, 280 Fluid viscosity, 129–130 Fluidization, 111–118 bed expansion and fluctuation, 112, 116 behavior, 112 characteristics, 112 definition, 111 826 INDEX Fluidization (Cont.) freeboard in vessel, 118 kinds of particles, 116 minimum bubbling rate, 115 minimum bubbling velocity, 112, 113–114, 115 regimes, 115 sizing equipment, 112–118 TDH (transport disengagement height), 113–114, 118 vessel dimensions, 116–117 viscosity, 118 Fluidized bed agglomeration, 386–389 performance data, 394–395 sketches, 396 spouted bed, 394–395 Fluidized bed catalysis, 636–637 Fluidized bed dryers, 232, 236–237, 253–259, 260–262 continuous, 263–264 gas velocity, 259 performance, batch, 257 performance, continuous, 263–264 performance, data of, 262 sizing, 265–266 sizing, example, 265–266 thermal efficiency, 257 Fluidized bed processes examples of, 618 for production of alumina, 634 Fluidized bed reactors, 620–623 control, 620 conversion of petroleum fractions, 632 ebullating beds, 622 mechanism, 622 multistage, 622 noncatalytic, 622, 633 operating data, 621 processes, 632 Fluidized beds, 629–630 heat transfer coefficients in, 646–648 noncatalytic solids, 633 reaction systems, 634 Fluidized pneumatic systems, 64 F-method, heat transfer, 163–164 example, 174 formulas, 163 Foam control, 649 Foam fractionation, 717–718, 718 Foam separation, 717–719 data, 717, 717 equipment, 718 Forced circulation reboilers, 201 Forced draft towers, 271, 273 Force-mass relations, 83 Formic acid, 450 Fouling factors, heat transfer, 165–167 data, 165 ranges of, 175 4-blade flat blade (4BF) impeller, 279, 298 4-blade pitched blade (4BP) impeller, 279, 298 pumping rate of, 286 Reynolds number for, 285 vortex depth for, 292 Fourier equation, 161 Fractional extraction, 500 applications of, 505 batch method of, 504 Fractionation See Distillation Free variables, number of, 423 Freeze drying, 232, 237, 719–720 cycle lengths, 720 products, 720, 720 Freundlich isotherm, 533 Friable materials, dense-phase transfer of, 66 Friction, 84 Friction factor, 83, 84, 96, 99, 307 Colebrook equation, 86 granular beds, 107 in laminar and turbulent flows, 99 non-Newtonian fluids, 96 Reynolds numbers and, 83, 90 Rounds equation, 88 Schacham equation, 87 transitional flow, 97 Friedel correlation, 105 Froth flotation, 717–719, 719 equipment, 718 Froths, 717 Fuel cells, 723–725 characteristics, 727 Fugacity coefficient, 400, 401 Fuller-Kinyon pump, for fine powders, 67 Funnel flow, 669 G Gas absorption, 399 Gas adsorption, 545–547, 547 cycles, 543–544 Gas compression, theory and calculations of, 139–152 Gas dispersion, 279, 289 Gas expanders, 56–57 Gas flow in pipe lines, 99–103 adiabatic, 101–102 isentropic, 99–100 isothermal, 100–102 nonideal, 101–103 Gas flow rate, 35 fluidization, 111 Gas handling equipment, 130 Gas hourly space velocity (GHSV), 591 Gas permeation, 684 membranes for, 685–686 Gas phase adsorption, 537–539 Gas separation, membrane processes, 679, 681–682 Gas stream, 662 Gas transport, equipment for, 130–139 Gas treating plant, 19 Gas turbines, 56 Gases circulating, 633–636 emissivity of, 207 Gas/hold-up correlation, 315 Gasification, of coal, 707 Gas-liquid dispersions, 295–298 Gas-liquid reactions, 612–613, 631–633 with solid catalysts, 637–642 Gas-liquid separators, 657–664 deentrainers, wire mesh, 661–664 droplet sizes, 657–658 drum with tangential inlet, 665 empty drums, 659–661 entrainment, 658, 661 example, empty drum, 659–661 example, sieve tray, 662 key dimensions, 662–663 Gas-liquid-solid reactions, 649 Gas-phase separations, 679, 681–682 Gas-solid flow See also Pneumatic conveying choking velocity, 110 pressure drop, 110–111, 111 Gas-solid fluidization characteristics of, 113–114 hydrodynamics of, 112 Gas-solid reactions, 613–616 Gas-solid separations, 709–717 arrangement of collection equipment, 717 baghouse, 711–714, 712–713 cyclone and inertial separators, 709–711, 710, 714 dynamic scrubber, 716 electrochemical syntheses, 722–729 electrostatic precipitator, 716–717, 716 equipment arrangement, 717 fan-pulsed collector, 712, 713 foam separation, 717–719 freeze drying, 720 froth flotation, 718–719 multiclones, 710 orifice scrubber, 714 pulsed-jet collector, 712, 713 sublimation, 719–720 thermal diffusion, 720–722 venturi scrubber, 714, 714–715 wet scrubbers, 714–716, 714–715 Gas-solid transfer choking velocity, 110 pressure drop, 110–111 Gauges of plates, sheets and wires, 748 Gear pumps, 127, 130, 134–135 Geared turbines, 56 General instrument symbols, 28 Geometrical variable effect, on power drwa, 281 GHSV See Gas hourly space velocity Gibbs energy, 723 Gilliland correlation, trays, 425 Molokhanov equation, 425 Glass-lined vessels, 298 Globulation, 381 Glossary biochemical, 649 centrifugal pumps, 126 Gradient, liquid, bubblecap trays, 460 Graesser extractor, 520 Graesser raining bucket contactor, 520 INDEX Granular beds, 106–110 See also Packed beds liquid-gas concurrent flow in, 108 single phase fluids, 107–108, 108 two-phase flow, 108–110 Granular materials angle of inclination, 68 angle of repose, 63, 68, 70–71 bulk densities, 68, 70–71 characteristics of, 70 Granular solids, 63 Granulators, 382, 394, 396 applications, 382, 388 capacity and power needs, 382 fluidized bed and spouted bed, 394–396 products, 388 rotating disk, 382 rotating drum, 382–383, 384 tumbling, moisture requirement, 386 Grashof number, 171 Gravitational constant, 743 Grinders, 732–739 Grinding materials, 378 Gyratory crushers, 370 H Haber-Bosch-Mittasch converter, 624 Hammer mills, 372 Hapman conveyor, 73 Harp coils, 279 Harvester, 586 Hazen-Williams formula, 90 HE-3 agitated vessel, 297 HE-3 impeller flow number correlation for, 285 low viscosity blending with, 288 pumping rate of, 286 Head loss, 125 Heads, vessel design example, 673 formulas, partially full, 672 thickness, formulas, 671 types, 673 Headspace gas, 288–289 Hearth furnaces, 617–620, 631 Hearth reactors, 620, 631 Heat exchangers, 161–221, 732–739 control, 38, 40 design of, 189, 191 effectiveness in, 171 example of tubular, 166–167 F-method in multipass and cross flow, 168–169 performance of, 174 with phase change, 40, 40 pressure drop in, 183–184 TEMA classification for, 189–190 temperature differences of, 163 thermal conductivities of, 162 types, 184–187 without phase change, 38, 39 Heat transfer, 205–206, 287–288 behavior, 629 direct contact, 171–177 to stirred-tank reactors, 635 surfaces, 279 units of quantities, 177 Heat transfer coefficients, 161–162, 165–171, 288 on agitated side, 639 in agitated tanks, 638 behavior of, 113–114 correlations for agitated vessels, 289 data, 171–183, 639 dimensionless groups, 171 in fluidized beds, 646–648 fouling factors, 165–167 with immersed coils, 639 individual film coefficients, 167–169 inside stirred tanks, 640 jacketed vessels, 638 metal wall resistance, 169–171 natural convection, 178 overall coefficients, 165 between particle and gas, 645 at walls of packed vessels, 645 Heat transfer coefficients, film convection and radiation, 177–182 equations, 177, 178 Heat transfer coefficients, overall, 172–174 air coolers, 184–186, 186 condensers, 187 data, 171–183 evaporators, 202 range of values, 165 Heat transfer, fluidized beds, 629–630 data, 643–644 experimental work survey, 648 horizontal tubes, 648 submerged coils, 646 vertical tubes, 647, 648 walls, 645–646 Heat transfer media, 163 Heat transfer, packed beds, 623–628 overall coefficient, 643–644 thermal conductivity, 623–628 at the wall, 600, 645 Heat transfer, reactors, 623–630 fixed beds, 613–616 fluidized beds, 620–623, 629–630, 648 immersed coils, 639 jacketed vessels, 623 overall coefficients, 638–639 packed bed thermal conductivity, 623–628 between particle and fluid, 628–629 stirred tanks, 609, 623, 635, 640 walls, 628–629, 645 Heaters, fired, 732–739 Heat-up time, 288 coefficient and, 290 helical ribbon and, 291 Hedstrom number, 97 Height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP), 423, 431, 470 data, 481–482 value of, 475 Height equivalent to theoretical stage (HETS), 494, 511 827 Height of a transfer unit (HTU), 429, 431, 433, 470, 511 Cornell et al correlation, 470 data, 481–482 Heights equivalent to a theoretical tray (HETP), 423, 431 Helical coils, 279 Helical Element Mixer (HEM), Kenics, 305, 305 Helical ribbon impeller, 279, 281 heat transfer coefficients for, 288 and heat-up time, 291 HEM See Helical Element Mixer Henry’s law constant, 431 Heptane/toluene/MEK separation, 452 Heterogeneous catalysts, 603 HETP See Height equivalent to a theoretical plate HETS See Height equivalent to theoretical stage High-efficiency impellers, 296 Hollow cylinder, 162 Hollow fiber module, for reverse osmosis, 688 Hollow-shaft self-gassing impeller, 279 Homogeneous catalysts, 602–603 Homogeneous gas reactions, 630 Homogeneous liquid reactions, 630 Horizontal belt filters, 349, 351 typical performance data for, 354, 356 Horizontal knockout drum, 663 Horizontal plate design, 346, 347–348 Horizontal rotating extractor, 517 Horizontal tanks, 667 Horizontal vacuum filters, 346, 348 HTU See Height of a transfer unit Humid specific heat, 226 Humid volume, 226 Humidity, 226 relative, 226 Hydraulic diameter ratio, on backmixing, 313 Hydraulic efficiency, 123 Hydrocarbon isomers, separation of, 721, 722–723 Hydrochloric acid electrolysis, 723, 726 Hydrocyclones, 349, 355, 368, 657 liquid, 509 performance graph, 367 sizing, 355 Hydrofining reactor, 628 Hydroformer, fluidized bed, 632 Hydrogenation reactor, 604 Hyperbolic fan assisted towers, 271, 273 Hyperfiltration, 677, 684 I Ideal Adsorbed Solution (IAS) theory, 532 Ideal gas, 139–146 Ideal stirred tank, 574–577, 576, 579 IGCC See Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Impact disintegrators, performance of, 377 828 INDEX Impellers anchor, 279 axial flow, 277 centrifugal pumps, 133 diameter, 322–323 for fluid mixing, 280 high-efficiency, 296 multiple See Multiple impellers power, 284, 295 pumping, 281 radial, 298 Reynolds number on blend time, 286 speed, 301, 322–323 types, 279, 280 Impellers, agitation kinds, 279 location, 279 Impingement device, 714 IMTP See Intalox metal tower packing Indirect drying, 232, 244 Individual continuous stirred tank, 596 Individual film coefficients, heat transfer, 167–169, 176 correlations, 179–182 ranges of, 175 Induction motors, 53 squirrel-cage ac, 73 Industrial chemical reactors, 592–594 Industrial fermentation, 642 Industrial filters, typical applications of, 353 Industrial gas-liquid-solid reaction processes, 649 Inertial collectors, 711 Inert-purge cycle, 544 Information sources, Infrared drying, 237 In-line rotor stator mixers, 299 Installation cost factors, 93 Instrumentation, identification letters for, 29 Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society of America (ISA), 19, 24 Insulation, 211–214 economic thickness, 212 high temperature, 213 low temperature, 213 medium temperatures, 213 Intalox metal tower packing (IMTP), 471 Integral mode, 33 Integral of square error (ISE), 33 Integral of the time weighted absolute error (ITAE), 33 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), 707 Integro-differential equation, 339 Ion concentration, 649 Ion exchange, 529, 548–554 application of, 552 design practices, 550–554 equilibria, 548–550 equipment, 554 fixed bed, 553 for hard water, 552 membranes, 554 operating practices, 550–554 parametric processing of, 551 properties of materials, 540–541 selectivity example, 552 selectivity scales, anions and cations, 540–541 Ion exchange equipment, 554 continuous processes, 550 fixed bed arrangements, 550 performance, Uranium recovery, 557 sizing example, 552 ISA See Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society of America ISE See Integral of square error Isentropic compression, 144 Isentropic efficiency, 148–149 Isentropic enthalpy change, 149–150, 153 Isentropic temperature, 150, 155 Isoprene recovery, 444, 449 vapor-liquid equilibria, 445 Isothermal rate equations, 597 Isotope separation, thermal diffusion, 720 ITAE See Integral of the time weighted absolute error J Jacketed pipe scraped crystallizers, 578, 581–582 Jacketed reactor control, 44, 46, 48 Jacketed tubular reactor, 625 Jacketed vacuum dryer, 236 Janecke coordinates, 489, 492 Jaw crushers, 370, 376 Jet compressors, 133 Jet effect, 657 K Kelly filter, 347–349 Kenics Helical Element Mixer (HEM), 305, 305 drop size for, 307, 311 pressure drop for, 307 Kenics HEV mixer, Darcy friction factor for, 308 Kenics static mixers, 305–307, 306–307 Kenics vortex tab mixer, 305 Kettle reboilers, 199–200 Kilns, 617–620, 631 Knockout drums, 662 with wire mesh deentrainer, 665 Knudsen diffusivity, 605 Knudsen formula, 605 Koch reactors, 613 Kozeny equation, 338–339 Krauss Maffei plate dryer, 237 Kremser-Brown formula, 427 Kremser-Brown method, 427 Kureha double-screw purifier, 586, 588 Langmuir equation, 452 Langmuir model, 534 Langmuir-Hinshelwood rate equations, 606 Large storage tanks, 655, 667 Laser diffraction, 365–366 Leaching, 487, 501–503 batch, 526 battery, 524 Bollman bucket type, 524 Bonotto tower, 524 continuous equipment, 524 equipment, 523–526, 524 example, calculation, 505 Hansa-Muehle bucket type, 524 Hildebrandt tower, 524 processes, 509 settling tanks, 525 of solids, 501–503 Length of unused bed (LUB), 536, 537 Level control, 36, 37 Lewis-Matheson method, distillation, 433 LHSV See Liquid hoiurly space velocity Linear velocities, 66 Liquid hoiurly space velocity (LHSV), 591 Liquid holdup in packing, 464 Liquid knockout drum, 663 Liquid liner compressors, specifications of, 148 Liquid phase adsorption, 545, 548 Liquid seal ring compressors, 141–142 Liquid slurry systems, 607 Liquid storage tanks, 655 Liquid-gas flow, in pipelines homogeneous model, 103–104 separated flow models, 105–106 Liquid-gas flow, pressure drop and void fraction in, 106–107 Liquid-liquid dispersions, 298–303, 300 Liquid-liquid equilibria, 501 Liquid-liquid extraction See Extraction, liquid-liquid Liquid-liquid reactions, 630–631 Liquid-liquid separators, 657–658, 659 Liquid-particle characteristics, 330 Liquid-phase separations, 678, 683–684 Liquids composition, 406 distribution, 456, 463–464 drums, 655 extraction, 488 velocities in pipelines, 86 Lockhart-Martinelli correlation, 105 Lockhart-Martinelli parameters, 108 Louver dust collector, 711, 712 Low pressure, pneumatic conveying, 64 LUB See Length of unused bed M L Laboratory testing, 229–230 data with vacuum leaf filter, 336 Laminar flow, 86 non-Newtonian, 97, 99 Magnesium sulfate/water diagram, 570–571 Make-up water, 269 Marine propellers, 294 Marshall model, 536, 542 Mass flow bin, 669 INDEX Mass transfer, 174, 529 design procedures for equipment, 612 from fluid to solid, 536 resistances, 229 Mass transfer coefficient, 299, 428–429, 473 data, 628 gas dispersion, 296 Mass transfer efficiency of acetone-water, 475, 482–483 corrugation angle on, 411 Mass transfer zone (MTZ), 536, 537 adsorption, 536 Material and energy balances, 3–4 distillation, 407–408, 417 of packed bed reactor, 600 of reactions, 596–597, 598 Material balance control, 34–35, 35 Material balance of chemical reactors, 596–597 Materials, handling, 68–69 Maximum mixedness, 600 volume ratio to segregated flow, 601 Zwieterings equations, 600 Maximum-mixedness model, 600 relative volumes of, 601 McCabe Delta-L law, crystallization, 573 calculation example, 575 McCabe-Thiele diagram construction of, 502 distillation, 420 McCabe-Thiele method, 704–705, 704 Mean residence time (MRT), 613 Mean temperature difference, 163–165 example, 164–165 F-method, 163–164 formulas for, 171 logarithmic, 163 multipass exchangers, 163 shell-and-tube numbers selection, 164 single pass exchanger, 163 Mechanical conveyors, 68–76 and elevators, 68–76 pneumatic conveying compared with, 63 Mechanical draft towers, 271 Mechanical energy balance, 84 Mechanical flowsheet, 17 Mechanical mixer, 277 Mechanical scrubbers See Wet dynamic scrubbers Mechanical seals, 127, 135 Mechanical separators, 732–739 Mechanically agitated compartmented column (MSAC) components of, 307 operational characteristics of, 309 Mechanistic model, 472 Melt crystallization, 584–589 Brennan-Koppers purifier, 586 Brodie crystallizer-purifier, 586 Kureha purifier, 586 multistage, 584 MWB process, 584 Phillips process, 585 Schildknecht column, 584 TNO bouncing ball process, 586 Melt purification See Melt crystallization Membrane processes enhancement of separation, 690–693, 701 equipment and configurations, 686–687 gas permeation, 684 industrial separations, 687 liquid–phase separations, 683–684 membrane materials, 684–686 multicomponent separation, 702–703 permeability units, 693–697 permeate withdrawal, 691 reverse osmosis, 678 single–stage separation, 697–703 suspensions and solutions, 677 taper configuration, 690 terms and units, 698 Membrane separations, 677 enhancement of, 690–693, 701 expected vs actual, 702 gas permeation See Gas permeation industrial applications, 687 liquid-phase, 678 multistage See Multistage membrane separation single-stage See Single-stage membrane separation subquality natural gas See Subquality natural gas systems, 677–683 technology, 677, 705 Membranes, 554, 677–708 applications, 684–686 cells, 686–687 cellulose acetate, 682 continuous, 692–693 equipment configurations, 686–687 gas permeation, 684 hollow fiber, 678, 682, 686, 688 materials and applications, 684–686 performance, 685 Permasep, 688 plate and frame, 686 prism, 684 properties, 556, 682–683 in separation and purification, 679 structures, 678, 682 tubular, 687 types, 682 Membranes permeability, 693–697, 695 porous media and, 696–697 Mercury cell, 725, 725 Merkel diagram See Enthalpyconcentration chart MESH equations, 433–435, 438 Mesh pads, installations of, 660 Metal catalysts, 604 Metal wall resistance, heat transfer, 169–171 Metallic catalysts, 604 Metallic membranes, 686 Metallwerk Buchs (MWB) crystallization process, 584, 586 Methanol synthesis, 621 Methanol/water separation, 477 Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), 454, 456, 636 829 Methylcyclohexane, with relative volatility, 447–448 Methylcyclohexane/toluene/phenol separation, 446 Methylene chloride, AlCl3 crystals in, 296 Methylethylketone/water equilibria, 451 Microbial processes See Fermentation Microfiltration, 683–684 Mild thermal cracking, temperature and conversion profiles of, 636 Minimum bubbling conditions, 115 Minimum fluidization, 111 Miscible liquids, 678 behavior of, 679 Mist eliminators, 714 Mixed suspension, mixed product removal (MSMPR) crystallizers, 563, 574 Mixers, pipeline See Pipeline mixers Mixing, 277 basic tank design, 277–279 coefficient of variation, 304–307, 306–307 compartmented columns, 307–315 design methods, 319–321 effect of density, 287 flow number, 285 gas-liquid dispersions, 295–298 heat transfer, 287–288 impeller power, 284 impeller pumping, 281 impeller Reynolds number, 286 impeller spacing, 281 impeller speeds, 279 impeller types, 279 internal heat transfer surface, 279 Kenics mixers, 305–307, 311 liquid-liquid dispersions, 298–303 multiple impellers, 285–287 off-bottom clearance, 281, 284 off-center location, 277–278 Penney plot, 297 pipeline mixer, 303–307, 315, 318 power number, 282–283 power requirements, 281 pumping rate, 286 scale-up, 315, 321 solids dissolving, 294–295 solids suspension, 289–294 staged chemical reactor, 317 static mixers, 305–307 tank blending, 281–287 vessel flow patterns, 279–281 vortex depth, 288–289 Mixing-rate constants, 286 Mixtures fugacity coefficient in, 401 multicomponent, 406–407 Moist air recycle effects, in belt conveyor drying, 231 Moisture content, critical, 229 Molal heats of vaporization distillation of substances with, 412 at normal boiling points of organic compounds, 414–417 unequal, 414–417 830 INDEX Molecular distillation, 451–453, 455 apparatus and operating conditions, 452 equipment sketches, 455 Hickman still, 455 operating conditions, 452 rate of evaporation, 452 Molecular sieves capacity decline with use, 539 properties, 538 Mollier diagram, 56–57 Moody’s formula, efficiency, 124 Motors, 53–54 applications, 54 and couplings, 732–739 selection of, 54 types, 53 Moving bed reactors of catalyst, 629 catalytic cracking of gas oils, 616 cracking and recovery of shale oil, 630 MRT See Mean residence time MSMPR crystallizers See Mixed suspension, mixed product removal crystallizers MTBE See Methyl tertiary-butyl ether MTZ See Mass transfer zone Multibed catalytic reactors, 613 Multiclone separator, 710, 710 Multicomponent distillation, 433 absorption factor method, 426–427 azeotropic, 444–451 bubblepoint (BP) method, 435–437 computer program references, 433 concentration profiles, 422 distribution of non-keys, 424 Edmister method, 426–427 extractive, 442–444 feed tray location, 426 free variables, number of, 423 Lewis-Matheson method, 433 MESH equations, 433–435 molecular, 451–453 nomenclature, 434 number of theoretical trays, 425 packed towers, 460–464 petroleum, 440–442 reflux, minimum, 425 reflux, operating, 425 SC (simultaneous correction) method, 438–439 sequencing of columns, 422–423 short cut design example, 424–425 SR (sum rates) method, 437–438 Thiele-Geddes method, 433, 435 tray towers, 454–460 trays, minimum number, 423 Wang-Henke method, 435–437 Multicomponent extraction calculation procedure, 507 example, 508 material balance, 503, 506 numerical calculation of, 503–507 Multicomponent fractionation, design of, 424–425 Multicomponent mixtures, 406–407 Multicomponent separation, 421 basis for computer evaluation of, 433–439 number of free variables, 423 sequencing of columns, 422–423, 422 Multicyclones, 664 Multipass exchangers, temperature difference, 163 Multipass heat exchangers, 171 Multiple feeds and products, distillation, 413 Multiple impellers, blend time for, 285–287 Multiple vacuum pan dryer, 245 Multiple-hearth furnaces, 620, 631 Multistage membrane separation, 694, 703 analytical method, 705 number of stages, 705 operating lines, 705 phase behavior, 704 Multistage turbines, efficiencies of, 55 MWB crystallization process See Metallwerk Buchs crystallization process N Naphthalene purification, crystallization, 586, 588 Naphthali-Sandholm method, 433, 450 SC (simultaneous correction), 439 Natural circulation evaporators, 201 Net positive suction head (NPSH), pumps, 125 centrifugal pumps, 128, 130 positive displacement pumps, 127 various pumps, 139 Neutralization, acid/base, 315 Newtonian fluids, 63, 279 impellers with, 281 Newton-Raphson method, 231, 402–403, 406, 435 Newton’s equations, 658–659 Nitric acid reactor, 612 Nitrogen fixation, 616, 633 Nitrotoluene isomers separation, 585 Node, definition of, 88 Non self-regulating response, 32 Noncatalytic reactions with solids, 633 Noncatalytic solids, fluidized beds of, 633 Noncoalescing systems, 299–300 Nonflow reaction, material and energy balances of, 598 Nonideal gases density of, 83 isothermal flow of, 103 work on, 148–150, 154 Nonisothermal liquid flow, pressure drop in, 88 Non-Newtonian liquids, 93–99 Bingham, 95, 97–98 classifications of, 93 dilatant, 95 laminar flow, 96–97, 99 pipeline design, 96–99 pressure drop in lines, 98, 99 pseudoplastic, 94 rheopectic, 95, 95 sizing of pipelines for, 96 slurries, 63 thixotropic, 94, 95 viscoelastic, 95 viscosity behavior, 93–96 Nonsettling slurries, 63 Notation, 4, 744 NRTL equation, 488 NTU See Number of transfer units Nucleation rates, 569–574, 575 mechanisms, 570 Number of theoretical stages (NTS), 510 Number of transfer units (NTU), 266, 430, 432, 510 Numerical data, 17 Numerous empirical correlations, 33 Nusselt number, 171, 623 O O2 controller, 48 O’Connell method, 464, 475 Octane/toluene/phenol equilibria, 445 Off-bottom clearance, effect of, 281 Oil-water separator, design of, 659 On-bottom movement suspension, 290 Open-circuit grinding, 369 Open-loop procedure, 34 Open-loop response, tuning parameter values from, 34, 35 Operating conditions, 643–649 of flowsheet flags, 25 Operating reflux, 425 Optimum pipe diameter, 92–93 Optimum reflux ratio, 409 economic, 414 Orifice scrubbers, 714, 714 Orifices, flow through, 87–88 Osmosis, 677–678, 679, 683–684 equation, 680 equipment for, 681, 684 membranes for, 678, 682 performance data of, 685 water/ethanol mixture by, 689 Osmotic pressure calculation example, 680 concentration effect, 679 equation, 680 molecular weight effect, 679 Overall heat transfer coefficients, 165, 172–173 ranges of, 174 P Packed bed reactors, 600 Packed beds, 106–110 friction factor, 107 permeability, 107 porosity, 107 single phase fluids, 107–108 supports in vessels, 612 INDEX thermal conductivity, 623–628, 641–642 two-phase flow, 108–110 wall heat transfer coefficient of, 640 Packed column hydraulic performance of, 464 and internals, 465 Packed towers, 460–464, 466, 470–476 efficiency, 470–476 internals, sketches, 460, 465 kinds of packing, 461–463 liquid distribution, 463–464 liquid holdup, 464 packing size selection, 461 pressure drop, 464 random packings, 470, 479 structured packings, 460, 472, 474, 479–480 Packed towers, extraction, 510–516 capacity, 511 efficiency, 518 sizing example, 519 Packed towers, separations in, 427–433, 428 absorption example, 432 absorption or stripping, 431–433 distillation, 429–431 distillation example, 430 equimolal counterdiffusion, 427 mass transfer coefficients, 428–429 mechanism, diagrams, 428 stagnant film diffusion, 427 Paddle blending granulator, 389 Pall rings, 461, 464 capacity and pressure drop, 468 Pan dryers, performance of, 245 Parametric pumping, 547–548, 550 cycles, 551 data, 547 schematic, 547 Paravisc impeller, 279, 281 Partially miscible liquid distillation, 444 Partially miscible systems, 414 separation of, 415–416 Particle dryers, residence time distribution in, 237 Particle size classification, air, 368 classification, wet, 368 distribution, 361 enlargement, 378–396 measurement with sieves, 361 range, 346, 677 reduction, 368–370 surface average, 112 PB See Proportional Band PBI See Polybenzimidazole Pebble heater, 613, 629, 633 Pebble mills, 378 Peclet number, 171, 598, 601 function of, 602 in packed beds, 599 Peristaltic pump, 130, 134–135 Permasep membranes, 688 Permeability of filter media, 337, 339 ratio of, 699 transient vs steady-state behavior in, 699 units, 693–697 Permeable membrane, 684 Permeate phase, 677, 690 Permeation coefficient, 698 differential See Differential permeation Pervaporation, 677, 679, 684 Petroleum distillation, 439–454, 440 design data, 443 economic optimum reflux ratio for, 414 flowsketch of crude distillation, 440 linear velocities, 443 overflash, 443 pressure drop, 443 pseudocomponent mixtures, 440 refinery block diagram, 440 stripping steam usage, 443 TBP (true boiling point) curve, 440–441 tray requirements, 443 Petroleum products compositions, 752 Petroleum properties correlations, 441 Petroleum refinery flowsketch, 17, 440 Pfaudler Retreat Curve (PRC) impeller, 298 PFBC See Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion PFR See Plug flow reactor pH measurement, 48, 50 Phase contacting operations, 399 Phase diagrams, 565–566 nitrotoluene isomers, 585 salt solutions, 568 using the, 569 Philips crystallization process, 585, 587 Phosgene synthesis, 635 Phthalic anhydride synthesis, 634 PID controller See Proportional-integralderivative controller Pilot fixed bed reactors, 600 Pilot plant column, specifications of, 586 Pilot plant spray dryer, 270 Pilot plant testing, 229–230 Pilot plant work, 12–15 Pilot-testing, extraction, 526–527 Pinch technology, 478 Pinenes separation, chromatographic, 557 Pin-paddle mixers, 385–386 PIP criteria See Process Industry Practices criteria Pipe, chemical reactors, 608 Pipe fittings resistance, 97 velocity head factors of, 89–90 Pipe size, economic optimization of, 92–93 Pipeline design, for non-Newtonian liquids friction factor, 96 laminar flow, 97, 99 scale up, 97 transitional flow, 97 turbulent flow, 98 Pipeline mixers, 303 design methods of, 304–305 as reactors, 321 scale-up, 318 831 Pipelines adiabatic and isothermal flow of gas, 102 economic optimum design of, 86 flow of oil, 91–92 liquid-gas flow in, 103–106 liquid-gas mixtures in, 104 Lockhart-Martinelli parameters, 108 networks, 88–92 non-Newtonian liquids, 96 optimum economic size, 92–93 typical velocities and pressure drops in, 87 velocities in, 86 Piping, 121–123 dimensions, 121 schedule number, 121 Piston pump See Positive displacement pumps Plastic behavior, 63 Plastic random packings, 460 Plastic viscosity, 63 Plate and frame filters, 343, 347–348 sizes, commercial, 349 Plate compact exchangers, 183 Plate exchangers, 163, 174, 183 Plate-and-frame exchangers, 184 Plate-and-frame filter, 346, 347–349 Plate-and-frame membrane modules, 687 Plate-fin exchangers See Compact exchangers Plates, fractionating See Trays Plug flow reactor (PFR), 596 comparison with CSTR, complex reactions, 610 material and energy balances of, 599 rate equation for, 596 volume ratio to CSTR, 612 Pneumatic conveying, 63–68 advantages of, 65 compared with mechanical conveyors, 63 components of, 67 dense phase transfer, 66 equipment, 64–66 flow rates, 64 operating conditions, 66–68 pilot plant, 66 power requirements, 64 pressure drop, 68 vacuum and low pressure, 64 Pneumatic conveying dryers, 232, 237, 247–249, 257 performance, 255–256 pilot plant size, 247 sizing example, 258–259 sketches, 257 Pneumatic transfer line, power requirement of, 69 Podbielniak contactor, 521 Podbielniak extractor, 517, 523, 523 Poiseuille equation, 86, 103 Polanyi method, 535 Polybenzimidazole (PBI), 707 Polyethylene blending of, 310 reactor, 630 Polytropic efficiencies, 150–151 832 INDEX Polytropic head, 149 Polytropic temperatures, 155 Pore size distribution, 605 Porosities of filter cakes, 340 of filter media, 337, 339 Positive displacement pumps application range, 137 characteristics, 127 discharge curves, 134–135 efficiency, 128 steam consumption, 129 Potential large-scale commercialization, 706–707 Power law behavior, non-Newtonian, 63 Power number, mixing, 282 Power requirement for pipelines, 88, 91 Power supply, 8–10 generation with steam, 11 from a hot gas stream, 12 Power-law behavior, 63 Poynting factors, 400 Prandtl number, 171, 623, 628 Precipitation, 570 conditions of, 566–569 Pressure, 404–406 bubble-point temperature and, 403 control, 36–37, 38 dependence, 339–341, 342 dewpoint temperature and, 403–404 Pressure drop, 61, 254 in Bingham flow, 100 capacity and, 468 comparison of, 469 at critical velocity, 62 cyclone separators, 709 equations, 91 in flow of nitrogen and powdered coal, 111–112 gas-solid flow, 110–111, 111 generalized model, 467 granular beds, 108 heat exchanger example, 194–195 heat exchangers, 183–184 for Kenics HEM mixer, 307 liquid-gas flow, 106–107 in nonisothermal liquid flow, 88 non–Newtonian flow, 96 in packed beds, 464 power consumption and, 68 through adsorbent bed, 537, 539 two-phase flow correlations of, 105 wire mesh pads, 662 Pressure drop, pipelines two-phase flow, 105 typical values, 87 Pressure filters commercial sizes, 349 for primarily discontinuous operation, 347–348 Pressure pneumatic systems, 64, 65 Pressure recovery, 122 Pressure regulators, 36 Pressure swing absorption (PSA), 681, 707 Pressure vessel, ASME code for, 667 Pressure-swing cycle (PSA), 541, 544 Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC), 707 Pre-stroke deadtime, 32 Prillable materials, 394 Prilled granules, 386 Prilling, 386–396 equipment size, 395 flowsketch, 395 operating data, 386 operations, 394 products of, 394 size distribution, 386 Prism membrane separation process, 684 Process and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID), 19 operating conditions in, 23 toluene dealkylation unit in, 19, 26 Process control, 31–51 compressor/turbine control, 48–51 control loop, 33 control loop performance, 33–34 derivative response, 34 distillation column control, 42–43 extraction control, 43–44, 47 feedback control, 31–33 flow control, 35–36 integral response, 34 level control, 36 material balance control, 35 open loop response, 35 pH control, 48, 50 PID response, 33, 34 pressure control, 36–37 proportional response, 33, 34 reactor control, 44–47, 48–49 single-stream control, 34–37 temperature control, 38, 39–40 unit operation control, 37–51 Process design, codes and standards of, physical property and thermodynamic data, sources of information for, of vessels, 667 Process equipment, selection of motors for, 54 Process flowsheets, 17–19, 20, 24 checklist, 19 manufacture of benzene, 26 Process Industry Practices (PIP) criteria, 19 Process piping, capital investment in, 92 Process responses, 32 Process simulators, Process vessels, design of, 667–669 Propane on carbon, 532, 532 Propeller pump, 137–138 Proportional band (PB), 33 Proportional mode, 33 Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller, 33, 34 derivative mode, 33 integral mode, 33 proportional mode, 33 response characteristics of, 34 Proprietary ammonia reactor design technology, 615 Proprietary equipment, 1, 157 PSA See Pressure swing absorption; Pressure-swing cycle Pseudoplastic behavior, 63 Pseudoplastic liquids, 94 Pseudoplasticity, 63, 94–95 Pseudosublimation, 719 Psychometric chart, 223 application example, 226 wide temperature range, 225 Pulsed extractors, 510, 514 amplitude of pulse, 518 frequency, 518 hole size, 518 interfacial tension effect, 518 packing size, 518 pulsing modes, 518 Pulsed jet baghouse collector, 712, 713 Pumping impeller, 281 systems, 125–126 Pumps, 123–130, 732–739 application ranges, 142 characteristic curves, 125, 126, 130, 158 characteristics, 126–128, 136 control, 50 criteria for selection of, 128–130 dimensionless groups, 123 efficiency, 136 efficiency, Moody’s formula, 123–124 glossary, 157–158 operating points of single and double, 125 parallel operation, 126, 140 performance, 136 performance capability of, 128 performance curves with specific speed, 126 performance, dimensionless, 123–124 performance, typical, 136 seals, 135 selection criteria, 128–130 series operation, 126 theory, 123–126 vacuum, 732–739 Purification, steps for culture growth, 650 Pyrolysis gases, 171 Q q, distillation feed condition, 409 q-line, McCabe-Thiele diagram, 497 Questionnaires vendors, index, 799 Quick opening trim, 32 R Radial flow converter, 622 Radial impellers, 298 Radiant fluxes and process temperatures, 206 INDEX Radiant gas temperature, 213 Raffinate, 487 Raffinate phase, 677 Random packings, 461 characteristics of, 461 survey of efficiencies of, 462–463 Rangeability, 122 Raoult’s law, 400–401 Rapid mixing, 315 Raschig rings, 461 Rate coefficient, 594 Rate equations, chemical basic, 591–596, 595–596 integrals of, 597 plug flow reactor, 596, 652 stirred tanks, 596 Rate of reaction in single tank, 596 Rates, chemical reactions, 591–596 basic equations, 595–596 constant pressure, 595 constant volume, 595 integrals of equations, 597 Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism, 595 law of mass action, 595 plug flow reactor, 596, 652 simultaneous reactions, 595 solid catalyzed, 595 stirred tanks, 596 temperature effects, 595 Rayleigh distillation, 406 multicomponent, 406–407 Raymond flash dryer, 255–257 performance, 255–256 Raymond mill, 371 RDC See Rotating disk contactor Reaction engineering principles, 608 Reactive distillation, 453–454 Reactors, 44–47 external condenser reactor control, 46, 48 external heat exchange reactor control, 46, 48 feed rate reactor control, 46, 49 jacketed reactor control, 44, 46, 48 pipeline mixers as, 321 Reactors, chemical, 608–623 classification, 608 ebbulating bed, 634 fermentation, 642–652 fired heater, 612, 613, 615, 635 fixed bed, 613–616 flame, 614 fluidized bed, 620–623, 632 gas-liquid, 611, 612 immiscible liquids, 609, 611 mixed, 612, 636 moving bed, 616–617, 630 pebble heater, 613 rotary kiln, 619, 631, 633 stirred tanks, 609 stirred tanks, batch and continuous, 609–611 stirred tanks, typical proportions, 609, 609 tubular flow, 611–612 Reactors, fermentation, 642 Real processes and gases, 146–148 Reboilers, 199–201 design example, 200 design procedures, 201 guide to selection, 199 sketches, 166 Reciprocating compressors, 138, 140 efficiencies of, 151 sizes of commercial equipment, 146–147 Reciprocating pumps See Positive displacement pumps Recuperators, 184 Redler belt conveyors, 73, 75, 78 compared with zippered belt conveyors, 81 Redler conveyors, 73, 75 sizing calculation, 81 Refinery gases, separation of, 684 Reflux, distillation, 409 estimation of, 423 minimum, ratio, 409, 414, 424–425 operating, 425 optimum, ratio, 409, 414 Reflux drums, 656 holdup, 656 sketch, typical, 656 Reflux ratio, optimum, 409 Refractories, properties, 213–214, 215 Refrigerant cooler, 40, 40 Refrigerants, 216, 217–220 characteristics, 15 data, 227 performance comparative, 216, 219 Refrigeration, 214–220, 732–739 ammonia absorption, 218, 220 cascades, 217, 218 circuits, 217 compression, 214, 217, 217, 220 thermodynamic diagrams, 218 Regenerators, 184 Regulator operation, 31 Reject phase, 677 Relative absolute humidity, 226 Relative coefficient of variation, for Kenics static mixers, 305–307, 306–307 Relative humidity (RH), 226, 230 Relative saturation See Relative humidity Relative volatility, 400–401, 448–449, 699, 702–703 correlation example, 403 of three binary systems, 447–448 vapor-liquid equilibria, 400–401 Relay method, 34 Residence time distributions (RTDs), 597–600 commercial and pilot equipment, 600 CSTR battery, 601 dispersion model, 601 dryers, 239 laminar flow, 601–602 in particle dryers, 237 Peclet number, 597, 599, 600 PFR, 599 variance, 597, 599, 600 Residual enthalpy, 152 833 Residual entropy, 152 Resistance to filtration cake resistivity, 338–339, 340 compressibility–permeability (cp) cell measurements, 339, 340 filter medium, 337–338 pressure dependence, 339–341 pretreatment of slurries, 341 Retreat Curve Impeller (RCI), 298 Reverse osmosis See Osmosis Revolving screens, 367 Reynolds number, 83, 84, 86, 171, 428–429, 623, 628 effective thermal conductivity, 640 and friction factors, 90, 105 minimum fluidization, 115 non-Newtonian flow, 96 RH See Relative humidity Rheopectic fluids, 95 time-dependent rheological behavior of, 95 Rheopectic liquids, 94–95, 95 Ring dryers, 252–253 Ring extruders, 392 Ripple trays, 456 Rising film evaporator, 201 Rocha model, 472 mechanistic, 475 Rod mills, 372–378, 379 Roll compactors, 383–384 Roll crushers, 370–372 performance of, 370–372, 376 Roll presses, 391 commercial sizes, 391 product list, 391 Roll pressing equipment, 391 alphabetical list of materials by, 391 Roller mills, 378, 380 Rolling drum granulator, 383, 384 Rosin-Rammler-Sperling (RRS) equation, 361, 363, 566, 573 Rotary compression equipment, 384 Rotary compressors, 138–139 performance data, 147 Rotary cutters, for fibrous materials, 375–376 Rotary cylindrical dryers, 239–246 Rotary drum filters, 346, 349, 350 Rotary dryers, 237 design details, 249 performance, 250–251 scaleup, 248 sketches, 247–248 tray type, 243–244 Rotary feeders, 65 Rotary kiln reactors, 619, 631, 633 Rotary multitray dryer, 237 Rotary sifters, 367 Rotary tabletting machines, operation and specifications of, 383 Rotary tray dryer, 243–244 performance of, 245 Rotary vacuum filter operation, 336–337 typical performance data of, 358 834 INDEX Rotating cylinder, 365 Rotating disk contactor (RDC), 515, 520, 522 capacity, 520 design example, 521 design of, 521 formulae for sizing, 522 formulas, 522 Rotating ring pelletizers, applications of, 392 Rotor-stator units, 298, 302 scale-up of, 303 Roughness factor, pipelines, 86 Rounds equation, friction factor, 84, 88 RRS equation See Rosin-RammlerSperling equation RTDs See Residence time distributions Rules of thumb, xiii–xx compressors and vacuum pumps, xiii conveyors for particulate solids, xiii cooling towers, xiii–xiv crystallization from solution, xiv disintegration, xiv distillation and gas absorption, xiv–xv drivers and power recovery equipment, xv drying of solids, xv–xvi evaporators, xvi extraction, liquid-liquid, xvi filtration, xvi fluidization of particles with gases, xvi–xvii heat exchangers, xvii insulation, xvii mixing and agitation, xvii particle size enlargement, xvii–xviii piping, xviii reactors, xviii refrigeration, xviii size separation of particles, xviii–xix utilities, common specifications, xix vessels (drums), xix vessels (pressure), xix vessels (storage), xix Run-away response, 32 S Saddles, 461 Safety factors, 6–7 equipment design, table, Safety, plant, 7–8 checklist about chemical reactions, checklist of startup and shutdown, and environment, 7–8 potential hazards, Salicylic acid purification, 719 Salt cake furnace, 619 Salting out process, 567, 570 Sand cracking reactor, 622 Sand filters, 344, 345 Saturated solution, 569 Sawtooth impeller, 279 SC method See Simultaneous correction method Scale-up analysis for agitated vessels, 321 using geometrical similarity, 322–324 Scale-up of static mixer reactor, 323 Scanning methods, 368 Scatchard-Hildebrand equation, 401, 402 SCFT concept See Standard cake formation time concept Schacham equation, friction factor, 87 Scheibel extractor, 515, 520 Schildknecht column, 584, 587 Screens, separating, 361–368 capacity, 367 efficiency, 367 flat, 367 performances of, 367, 367 primary, 361 reciprocating, 367 revolving, 367 rotary sifter, 367 sieve analysis, 361, 363 sketches, 365 Screw conveyors, 69–73 sizing calculation, 72 sizing data, 71, 72 types of screws, 70, 72–73 Screw extruders, 385, 392 Screw pumps, 129–130, 134, 141 performance, 128, 129 Sedimentation behavior, 329, 329 equipment, 356–357 equipment sketches, 343, 346 Sedimentation centrifuges, data of, 357, 358–359 Sedimentation equipment, 329, 346, 356–357 performances of, 344 Sedimentation methods, 367 Sedimentation rates, 333, 341 Segregated flow, 600–601 volume ratio to CSTR, 601 volume ratio to maximum mixedness, 600 Segregated flow model, 600 relative volumes of, 601 residence time distribution, 602 Segregation, 372 Selectivity constant, 548 Self-regulating response, 31 Semi-permeable membrane, 678, 684 Separation process, 608 Separation, solid-liquid See also Filtration chief mechanical means, 329 clarifying, 341–342 comparison of equipment, 331 experimental selection routine, 332 flocculants, 333 slurry pretreatment, 341 thickening, 341–342 Separators, 657–664 cyclones, 662 mechanical, 732–739 wire mesh, 661 Separators, liquid-liquid, 657 dispersed phase criteria, 657, 659 droplet sizes, 657–658 example, calculation, 658 Series operation, of pumps, 126 Servo operation, 31 Settling rate, 63 Newton’s equation, 658 Stokes’ equation, 658 Settling tanks, performance of, 525 Settling velocities See also Terminal velocityof spheres, 62, 62 Shale oil reactor, 616, 630 Shallow beds mixing in, 254 reactor, 614 Shear modulus, 96 Shell and tube heat exchangers, 184, 187–195 advantages, 187–189 construction, 187 design, 189 design procedure, 191 process design of, 200 rating of, 194 sketches, 188 TEMA classification, 189 tentative design of, 189–195 tube counts, 192 tube side or shell side, 189 Shell Turbogrid tray, 456 Sherwood number, 428 SI units, 83 Sieve analysis, 361, 363 disadvantages, 361 Sieve tray extractors, 516–518 capacity, 517 diameters, 517, 518 efficiency, 517, 518 pulsed, 518 sizing example, 519 Sieve tray towers diameter of, 517 efficiency, 517 static extractors, 518 Sieve trays, 458, 459–460 assembly in a tower, 457 comparison with other types, example, 459 malfunctions, 459 operating ranges, 459 specifications, 459 Silica gel adsorbents, 530 natural gas with, 542–543 Silver-Bell-Ghaly method, 199, 204 Simple distillation, 406–407 Simple rate equations, reactor sizes for, 601–602 Simultaneous correction (SC) method, 435, 438–439, 439 algorithm flowsketch, 439 Single drum dryer, 252, 254–255 Single pass exchanger, temperature difference, 163 INDEX Single phase fluids, 107 Single stage units, 54 Single stream control flow control, 34–36, 36 level control, 36, 37 pressure control, 36–37, 38 Single-stage flash calculations, 402–406 Single-stage membrane separation area calculation, 701 calculations, 700–701, 705 enhancement of, 701 mole fraction relationships, 698–702 multicomponent calculations, 702–703 with perfect mixing, 697 terms and units, 698 two-component calculations, 703 Single-stage turbines, efficiencies of, 55 Single-suction pumps, 129 Sintering, 381, 389–396 process sketch, 388 6-blade disk (6BD) impeller, 279, 281, 288 viscosity blending with, 288 vortex formation, 291 Size enlargement, 378–395 benefits of, 381 prilling, 386–395 product shapes, 385 products, 385 Size enlargement equipment, 381–384 Briquetters, 383–384 disk granulators, 388 extruders, 384–386 fluidized bed, 386–389 gear pelletizer, 387 paddle blender, 386, 389 pin mixer, 385–386 roll presses, 383–384 rotating drum, 383 spouted bed, 386–389 tumblers, 381–383 Size reduction, 368–370 operating ranges of equipment, 370 power requirement, example, 369 size distribution of product, 368 surface energy, 369 work index, 369 work required, 369 Size reduction equipment, 370–378 attrition mills, 375–376, 378 ball mills, 372 Buhrstone, 378 colloid, 378 fluid energy mill, 380 gyratory, 370 hammer mills, 372 jaw crushers, 370 jet mills, 373, 377 mikro-pulverizer, 377 pebble mills, 378 rod mills, 372–378 roll crushers, 370–372, 376, 379 roller mills, 378 tube mills, 372 tumbling mills, 372 used in chemical process industries, 372 Size separation, 361–397 Sizing reflux accumulators factors for, 656 Sliding vane compressor, 139 Slurries, 620 drum dryers for, 246–247, 252 Slurry flow rate, 355 Slurry pretreatment, 333, 341 action and effects of, 333 Slurry reactors, 641 Slurry transport, 61–63 critical velocity, 61 pressure drop, 61 Small-scale reactors advantages of, 652 Soave equation of state, 400, 401 Sodium carbonate/water diagram, 570–571 Sodium chloride, dissolving of, 297 Sodium sulfate/water diagram, 570–571 Solid belts, 238 Solid catalysts, 603 gas-liquid reactions with, 637–642 physical characteristics of, 605 Solid culture processing, 643 Solid-liquid separation See also Filtration applications and performance of equipment, 355–359 clarifying, 341–342 comparison of equipment, 331 equipment, illustrations, 343–355 experimental selection routine, 332 laboratory testing and scale-up, 342–343 liquid-particle characteristics, 330 processes and equipment, 329–330, 329, 356 resistance to filtration, 337–341 slurry pretreatment, 333, 341 theory of filtration, 330–337 Solids circulating, 633–636 dissolving, 294–295 noncatalytic reactions with, 633 suspension, 289–294 Solids feeders, 77–81 types of, 80–81 Solids flow problems, 674 Solids loading, effect of, 293 Solid-suspension separations, 677, 678 Solubilities and equilibria, 563–566, 564, 566 Solubility of solids data, 561 phase diagrams, 565–566 supersaturation, 569, 565 Solubility parameters, activity coefficients from, 402 Solvent, 487 Solvent extraction distribution coefficients of, 491–492 process, 488 representation of, 495 Space velocity, 591 Spaced buckets elevators, 73, 77 Specific speed, pumps, 125, 129 835 Specification forms, index, 753 Spheres second-order reactions in, 607 zero-order reaction in, 607 Spiral compact exchangers, 183 Spiral heat exchangers, 184 Spiral screws, 139 Spiral wound membrane module, for reverse osmosis, 688 Spouted beds, 112, 386–389 performance of, 394–395 Spray dryers, 237, 259–266, 269 arrangements and behavior, 267 atomizers, 264 characteristics of, 260 design of, 266 operating variables, 264 particles-sizes, 264 performance, 268 pilot plant performance, 270 pilot unit, 266, 270 product density, 264 product number, 266, 270 residence time, 266, 271 residence time distribution, 237 sizing example, 271 sketches, 267 thermal efficiency of, 264–266 variables effects on operation of, 270 Spray scrubbers, 714, 714–715 SR method See Sum-rates method Standard cake formation time (SCFT) concept filtration, 343 Standard sieves, 361, 362 Standards and codes, 2–3, Stanton number, 171 Steady-state response characteristics, 31 Steam ejectors, 732–739 Steam generator, 9, 11 Steam heated shelves, vacuum dryers with, 240–241 Steam heater, 40, 40 Steam jet ejectors, 133 arrangements, 152–155 steam consumption, 155 theory, 155–157 Steam regeneration of activated carbon beds, 542–543 estimation of, 543 Steam supply, 8–10 characteristics, generation, power generation, 9, 11 Steam turbines, 48–49, 54–57 advantages, 54 data sheet, 58 efficiency, 55, 56 salient features of, 54 steam requirement, calculation, 57 theoretical steam rates, 56 Steam, water properties, 745 Steam-heated air, 238 Sterilization, 644 836 INDEX Stirred tank, crystallization model, 574–577 applicability of the model, 577 data analysis, example, 578 multiple tanks, 577 Stirred tank design, 277–279 baffles, 277 impellers, 277–279, 278 sketch, basic, 278 Stirred tank impellers descriptions, 280 location, 278 sketches, 278, 280 Stirred tank reactor, 609 Stirred tanks, 623, 631, 637, 649 Stoichiometric equation, 723 Stoichiometric front, 536, 537 Stokes equation, 116, 658 Stokes law, 62, 367, 657 Storage tanks, 655, 664–667, 666–667 API standard sizes, 666 buried, 667 granular solids, 667 horizontal, 667 large sizes, 667 pressure, 667 supports, 667 vertical, 667 Stripping See Absorption Strong acids, 603 Structured packings, 461 characteristics of, 463 Sublimation, 719–720 equipment, 720 process of, 720 products, 719 of salicyclic acid, 720 of salicylic acid purification, 719 substances amenable to, 720 Subquality natural gas, 687–690 upgrading, 707 Substance, fugacity coefficient of, 401 Sulfur dioxide oxidation reactors, 604, 607, 619 reaction equilibria, 619 temperature profiles, 604 Sulfur isotope separation, 722 Sulzer Metallwerk Buchs (MWB) process, 584, 586 Sum-rates (SR) method, 435, 437–438, 437 algorithm flowsheet, 437 Supercooling, maximum, 565 Supersaturation, 569, 572 crystal growth rate and, 562 data of, 564, 565, 569 thermodynamic analysis, 569 Surface treatment, effect of, 474, 403–484 Surge, 51 Surge limit, 137 Surge tank, purpose of, 36 Suspensions non-Newtonian behavior of, 63 solid, 289–294 Sweetland filter, 347–349 Swenson fluid bed crystallizer, 580, 581–582 Symbols, flowsheet, 21–24 Synchronous motors, 53 Synthetic fuel reactors, 615, 626 System curve, 125 T Tabletting machines, 384 Manesty, 383 product shapes, 390 Sharples, 383 US Pharmacopeia specifications, 384 Tank blending, 281–287 Tank, chemical reactors, 608 Taper configuration, 690, 690 TDH See Transport disengaging height TEMA classification, heat exchangers, 189 Temperature, 644, 668–669 bubble-point, 403 dewpoint, 403–404 flash at fixed, 404–405 Temperature control, 39 Temperature difference, 163–165 logarithmic mean, 163 multipass exchangers, 163 Temperature profiles, heat exchangers, 161, 165 Temperature profiles, reactors ammonia synthesis, 213 cement kiln, 631 cracking of petroleum, 633 endo- and exothermic processes, 625 jacketed tubular reactor, 625 methanol synthesis, 621 phosgene synthesis, 635 reactor with internal heat exchange, 619 sulfur dioxide oxidation, 604 visbreaking, 592–594 Temperature sensors, 32 Temperature-swing cycle (TSA), 544 Terminal velocity, 658 Ternary azeotropic systems, at atmospheric pressure, 453–454 Ternary mixture, vaporization and condensation of, 405 Ternary system equilibria in, 489, 492–494 examples of, 493–494 TFR See Tubular flow reactors Theoretical trays for absorption process, 432 actual number of, 425–426 efficiencies of, 426 minimum, 418, 423 numbers of, 430 Thermal conductivity, 161–162 insulating materials, 214 packed beds, 641–642 Thermal diffusion separation, 720–722 cell sketch, 721 hydrocarbon isomers, 721, 722–723 isotopes, 722 performance, 721 separations by, 720–722, 722–723 sketch of liquid, 722 sulfur isotopes, 722 Thermal efficiencies of dryers, 236 Thermal homogenizer mixer, 310 Thermal process, 389–396 Thermal resistances, 162 Thermal swing cycle, 537, 544 adsorbent bed by, 542 Thermodynamic diagram method, 148 Thermogravitational column, 721, 721 Thermosiphon reboilers, 199–200 calculation example, 179–182 horizontal shell side, 200–201 vertical, 201 Thickeners, 329, 341 performance, 344 sketches, 343 Thiele modulus, 606 Thiele-Geddes method, 433 Thixotropic fluids, 95 Thixotropic liquids, 95 Three-bladed Marine Propeller (MP) impeller, 279 Through circulation dryers, 234, 240–241 performance of, 245–246 Tielines, liquid-liquid equilibria, 417, 494, 497 equations for, 496–497 Hand correlation, 494, 496 Ishida correlation, 494, 496 Othmer and Tobias correlation, 494, 496 TNO bouncing ball purifier, 586, 588 Toluene, removing from air, 529, 530 Tough organic materials, attrition mills for, 375–376 Tower extractors, 514 with rotary agitators, 515 without agitation, 513 Transition-metal organometallic catalysts, 604 Transport disengaging height (TDH), 118 Tray dryer arrangements, 239 Tray towers, 458 bubblecap trays, 460 countercurrent trays, 454–457 crossflow trays, 457 sieve trays, 459–460 Tray-by-tray procedures, 433 Trays column efficiency, 470 efficiency calculation, 467 efficiency for, 464–470, 473, 475 entrainment corrections, 470, 476 multicomponent systems, 470 Murphree tray efficiency, 470 pressure drop, 467 Trays, fractionating assembly of sieve trays, 457 bubblecap, 460 capacity, F-factor, 472 cartridge, 454 design data sheet, 459 dualflow, 454 efficiency, 426 ripple, 454 sieve, 459–460 turbogrid, 454 types, 454 valve, 457–459 INDEX Trays function, 399 Tray-truck dryers, 240–241 Trickle bed reactors, 641 Trickle reactors, 617 Tridiagonal matrix, 435 Trommels, 367 True boiling point (TBP), 438, 440 TSA See Temperature-swing cycle Tsukushima, crystallization equipment, 582–583, 584 Tube count table, heat exchangers, 192 Tube mills, 372, 379 Tubular belt conveyor, 79 Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA), 19 Tubular flow reactors (TFR), 596, 611–612 configurations, 614 construction of, 612 of pipe diameters, 612 Tubular heat exchangers example of, 166–167 sketches, 166–167 TEMA classification, 187 tube count table, 192 Tubular membrane modules, 687 Tubular reactor model, 601 Tubular shaker collector, 711, 712–713 Tumbling machines, granulation in, 386 Tumbling mills, 361, 372 Tuning parameter values from closed-loop response, 34, 34 default and range of, 34, 35 from open-loop response, 34, 35 Tuning procedures, 33–34 Tunnel dryer, 230 Turbine impeller, 127, 283 Reynolds number of, 283 Turbine pumps, 127, 127, 130, 134–135 Turbine wheel, 365–366 Turbines, 732–739 and compressors, 48–51, 50–51 Turbogrid trays, 454 Turndown operation, 38 Turner equation, leaching, 496 Twinned crystallizer, 582–583, 584 Two-phase fluid flow, 107–110 correlations, 105 granular beds, 106–110 homogeneous model, 103–104 Lockhart-Martinelli method, 106 patterns, 103 pressure drop, calculation example, 100 segregated flow model, 600 void fraction, 106 Two-stage ejector, 156 Two-stage reciprocating compressors, 146–147 Tyler sieves, 362 U Ultrafiltration, 677–678, 683–684 applications, 642, 680 equipments, 681, 684 membranes, 678, 683 Unbaffled vessels, 289 vortex depth in, 293 Under-ground storage tanks, 667 Underwood minimum reflux binary, 424–425 multicomponent, 417 Underwriter laboratory standard, 664, 666, 666–667 Uniform suspension, 290 UNIQUAC equation, 488 Unit operation control air coolers and cooling towers, 38–40, 39 combustion, 47–48, 49 distillation columns, 42–43, 44–46 evaporators, 41–42, 44 feed rate reactor control, 49 liquid-liquid extraction, 43–44, 47 pH measurement, 48, 50 process condensers, 40, 41–42 process vaporizers, 40–41, 43 reactors See Reactors turbines and compressors, 48–51, 50–51 Unit operation control, heat exchangers with phase change, 40 without phase change, 39 Unit permeation rate, 702 Units, conversion of, 700–701 Universal Oil Products (UOP), 545, 549 Upflow fixed beds, 641 Uranium recovery, 488 Urea crystallizer, 564, 567, 573, 577 Utilities, typical characteristics, 12, 15 Utility flowsheets, 19 V Vacancy solution model, 532 Vacuum disk filter, 350 Vacuum drum dryers, 237, 254–255 Vacuum drum filters air flow rates, 336 applications, 357 cycle design, 354 flowsketch, 350 laboratory test data, 336 operation, calculation example, 336–337 performance, 358 sizes, commercial, 346 Vacuum filter, horizontal, 348 performance, 358 sizes, commercial, 346 sketches, 350–351 Vacuum filters applications, operating data of, 357 design and operating factors for, 346, 354, 356 Vacuum leaf filter, laboratory test data with, 336 Vacuum pneumatic systems, 64, 64–65, 66 Vacuum producing equipment, operating ranges of, 137 Vacuum pumps, 133, 138, 732–739 air leakage, 155 operating ranges, 128 steam jet ejectors, 152 837 Vacuum rotary dryers, 237 Vacuum systems air leakage, 155 other gas leakage, 155 Vallez filter, 346, 347–349 Valve characteristics, 32 Valve positioner, 32 Valve trays, 457–459 comparison with other types, example, 457 sketches of valves, 458 Valves, 32, 121, 123–126 in condensate line, 42 control, 121–123 friction in, 84 van der Waals equation of state, 103 van der Waals forces, 112 Vapor pressure of water, 226 Vaporization equilibrium ratio (VER), 400–401 Vaporizers, 40–41, 43 Vapor-liquid equilibria, 400–402 of azeotropic and partially miscible liquids, 451 binary data, 407 binary x - y diagrams, 401–402 measurement, 444 in presence of solvents, 444, 445 Raoult’s law, 400 relative volatility, 400–401 Vapor-liquid equilibrium data acetone/methanol, 445 acetone/water, 445 butadiene, 444 butane/2-butene in solvents, 444 butanol/water, 414 chloroform/acetone/MIBK, 445 cyclohexane/benzene in solvents, 447–448 ethane/butane/pentane, 405 ethanol/acetic acid, 412 ethanol/butanol, 403 ethanol/water, 445 heptane/methylcylohexane in solvents, 447–448 isoprene, 449 methylethylketone/water, 444 octane/toluene/phenol, 445 Vapor-liquid measurements, 402 Vapor-liquid separators, 657 horizontal drum design, 660 vapor velocity design factor for, 661 for vertical drum, 659 Variable-speed drives, 35, 36 Velocities in pipelines, typical, 86 Vendors questionnaires, list, Venturi scrubbers, 714, 714–715 VER See Vaporization equilibrium ratio Vertical bucket elevator extractor, 525 Vertical kilns, 617 Vertical knockout drum, 663 Vertical tanks, 667 Vertical tubes, 629 Vessels agitated See Agitated vessels cost of, 732–739 design of, 671 838 INDEX Vessels (Cont.) design pressure, 668–669 flow patterns, 279–281, 281 glass-lined, 298 unbaffled, 289 Vessels, process, 655–675 ASME code, 669 design example, 673 heads, 669 heads, types, 669, 673 mechanical design, 667–669 pressure, 667 shells, 669 temperature, 667 tensile strength, 668, 672 thickness formulas, 669 Vibrating plate extractor (VPE), 520 Virial equations, bubble-point temperature with, 407 Viscoelastic fluids, 95 Viscosity behavior, 93–96 of fluids, 303 ratio on blend time, 287 units, 83 Volatility, relative, 400–401, 419 Volumetric efficiency, 152 Vortex depth, 288 for 4BP impeller, 292 qualitative understanding of, 289 in unbaffled vessel, 293 Vortex formation, 6BD in water, 291 Vortex tab mixer, Kenics, 305 W Wang-Henke method, 435–437 algorithm flowsketch, 435 Water air interacting with, 223–226 azeotropic systems with, 453–454 cooling, tower, 266 cooling, typical conditions, 15 properties, 745 vapor pressure, 226 Water-cooled shell-and-tube phosgene reactor, 635 Wave front, adsorption, 536 Weight hourly space velocity (WHSV), 591 Weir equation, 467 Wet bulb temperature, 268 Wet classifiers, 368 Wet cyclone scrubbers, 714, 714–715 Wet dynamic scrubbers, 716, 716 Wet grinding, 370 Wet scrubbers comments about, 716 orifice scrubbers, 714 other types of, 716 spray scrubbers, 714 venturi scrubbers, 714 wet cyclone scrubbers, 714 wet dynamic scrubbers, 716 Wet-dry towers, 271 WHSV See Weight hourly space velocity Wilson equations, 532 activity coefficients from, 402 bubble-point temperature with, 407 Wilson-Lobo-Hottel equation, 207 application, 212 flowsketch of, 205 Winkler process, 622 Wire mesh deentrainers, 661–664 calculation example, 665 disengaging space, 662 key dimensions, 663 Koch-Otto York wire demister, 658 K-values, 661 pressure drop, 662 typical installations, 660 Wire mesh, pads of fine, 661–664 Work index, size reduction, 369 Wyssmont dryer, 237 X Xylenes separation by crystallization, 584 Z Zeolite catalysts, 622 Zero size population density, 575 Zippered belt conveyor, 75, 79 Redler belt conveyors compared with, 81 sizing calculation, 81 Zwietering equation, maximum mixedness, 600 Zwietering method, 293 This page intentionally left blank ... start-up on demand (Fawcett and Wood, 1982, pp 725–726 Chapter references refer to this book.) Continual monitoring of equipment and plant is standard practice in chemical process plants Equipment. .. Selection of Catalysts 602 Types and Examples of Reactors 608 Heat Transfer in Reactors 623 Classes of Reaction Processes and Their Equipment Biochemical Reactors and Processes 642 References 652... costs of equipment, rounds out the book Appendixes provide examples of equipment rating forms and manufacturers’ questionnaires Chemical process equipment is of two kinds: custom designed and built,