Chemical process equipment selection and design (1990)

Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design Stanley M Walas Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering University of Kansas Butterworth-Heinemann Boston London Oxford Singapore Sydney Toronto Wellington To the memory of my parents, Stanislaus and Apolonia, and to my wife, Suzy Belle Copyright @ 1990 by Butterworth-Heinemann, a division of Reed Publishing (USA) Inc All rights reserved The information contained in this book is based on highly regarded sources, all of which are credited herein A wide range of references is listed Every reasonable effort was made to give reliable and up-to-date information; neither the author nor the publisher can assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData Walas, Stanley M Chemical process equipment (Butterworth-Heinemann series in chemical engineering) Includes bibliographical references and index Chemical engineering-Apparatus and supplies I Title 11 Series TP157.W334 1988 660.2’83 87-26795 ISBN 0-7506-9385-1 (previously ISBN 0-409-90131-8) British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Walas, Stanley M Chemical process equipment.-(ButtenvorthHeinemann series in chemical engineering) series in chemical engineering) Chemical engineering-Apparatus and supplies I Title 660.2’8 TP157 ISBN 0-7506-9385-1 (previously ISBN 0-409-90131-8) Butterworth-Heinemarm 313 Washington Street Newton, MA 02158-1626 Printed in the United States of America BUTTERWORTH-HEINEMANN SERIES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SERIES EDITOR ADVISORY EDITORS HOWARD BRENNER Massachusetts Institute of Technology ANDREAS ACRIVOS The City College of CUNY JAMES E BAILEY California Institute of Technology MANFRED MORARI California Institute of Technology E BRUCE NAUMAN Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute ROBERT K PRUD’HOMME Princeton University SERIES TITLES Chemical Process Equipment Stanley M Walas Constitutive Equations for Polymer Melts and Solutions Ronald G Larson Gas Separation by Adsorption Processes Ralph T Yang Heterogeneous Reactor Design Hong H Lee Molecular Thermodynamics of Nonideal Fluids Lloyd L Lee Phase Equilibria in Chemical Engineering Stanley M Walas Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems Daniel E Rosner Viscous Flows: The Practical Use of Theory Stuart Winston Churchill RELATED TITLES Catalyst Supports and Supported Catalysts Alvin B Stiles Enlargement and Compaction of Particulate Solids Nayland Stanley- Wood Fundamentals of Fluidized Beds John G Yates Liquid and Liquid Mixtures J.S Rowlinson and F.L Swinton Mixing in the Process Industries N Harnby, M.F Edwards, and A W Nienow Shell Process Control Workshop David M Prett and Manfred Morari Solid Liquid Separation Ladislav Svarovsky Supercritical Fluid Extraction Mark A McHugh and Val J Krukonis - Preface This book is intended as a guide to the selection or design of the principal kinds of chemical process equipment by engineers in school and industry The level of treatment assumes an elementary knowledge of unit operations and transport phenomena Access to the many design and reference books listed in Chapter is desirable For coherence, brief reviews of pertinent theory are provided Emphasis is placed on shortcuts, rules of thumb, and data for design by analogy, often as primary design processes but also for quick evaluations of detailed work All answers to process design questions cannot be put into a book Even at this late date in the development of the chemical industry, it is common to hear authorities on most kinds of equipment say that their equipment can be properly fitted to a particular task only on the basis of some direct laboratory and pilot plant work Nevertheless, much guidance and reassurance are obtainable from general experience and specific examples of successful applications, which this book attempts to provide Much of the information is supplied in numerous tables and figures, which often deserve careful study quite apart from the text The general background of process design, flowsheets, and process control is reviewed in the introductory chapters The major kinds of operations and equipment are treated in individual chapters Information about peripheral and less widely employed equipment in chemical plants is concentrated in Chapter 19 with references to key works of as much practical value as possible Because decisions often must be based on economic grounds, Chapter 20, on costs of equipment, rounds out the book Appendixes provide examples of equipment rating forms and manufacturers’ questionnaires Chemical process equipment is of two kinds: custom designed and built, or proprietary “off the shelf.” For example, the sizes and performance of custom equipment such as distillation towers, drums, and heat exchangers are derived by the process engineer on the basis of established principles and data, although some mechanical details remain in accordance with safe practice codes and individual fabrication practices Much proprietary equipment (such as filters, mixers, conveyors, and so on) has been developed largely without benefit of much theory and is fitted to job requirements also without benefit of much theory From the point of view of the process engineer, such equipment is predesigned and fabricated and made available by manufacturers in limited numbers of types, sizes, and capacities The process design of proprietary equipment, as considered in this book, establishes its required performance and is a process of selection from the manufacturers’ offerings, often with their recommendations or on the basis of individual experience Complete information is provided in manufacturers’ catalogs Several classified lists of manufacturers of chemical process equipment are readily accessible, so no listings are given here Because more than one kind of equipment often is suitable for particular applications and may be available from several manufacturers, comparisons of equipment and typical applications are cited liberally Some features of industrial equipment are largely arbitrary and may be standardized for convenience in particular industries or individual plants Such aspects of equipment design are noted when feasible Shortcut methods of design provide solutions to problems in a short time and at small expense They must be used when data are limited or when the greater expense of a thorough method is not justifiable In particular cases they may be employed to obtain information such as: an order of magnitude check of the reasonableness of a result found by another lengthier and presumably accurate computation or computer run, a quick check to find if existing equipment possibly can be adapted to a new situation, a comparison of alternate processes, a basis for a rough cost estimate of a process Shortcut methods occupy a prominent place in such a broad survey and limited space as this book References to sources of more accurate design procedures are cited when available Another approach to engineering work is with rules of thumb, which are statements of equipment performance that may obviate all need for further calculations Typical examples, for instance, are that optimum reflux ratio is 20% greater than minimum, that a suitable cold oil velocity in a fired heater is 6ft/sec, or that the efficiency of a mixer-settler extraction stage is 70% The trust that can be placed in a rule of thumb depends on the authority of the propounder, the risk associated with its possible inaccuracy, and the economic balance between the cost of a more accurate evaluation and suitable safety factor placed on the approximation All experienced engineers have acquired such knowledge When applied with discrimination, rules of thumb are a valuable asset to the process design and operating engineer, and are scattered throughout this book Design by analogy, which is based on knowledge of what has been found to work in similar areas, even though not necessarily optimally, is another valuable technique Accordingly, specific applications often are described in this book, and many examples of specific equipment sizes and performance are cited For much of my insight into chemical process design, I am indebted to many years’ association and friendship with the late Charles W Nofsinger who was a prime practitioner by analogy, rule of thumb, and basic principles Like Dr Dolittle of Puddleby-onthe-Marsh, “he was a proper doctor and knew a whole lot.” xi Contents LIST OF EXAMPLES ix CHAPTER TRANSFER OF SOLIDS 69 PREFACE x i 5.1 Slurry Transport 69 5.2 Pneumatic Conveying 71 Equipment 72 Operating Conditions 73 Power Consumption and Pressure Drop 74 5.3 Mechanical Conveyors and Elevators 76 Properties of Materials Handled 76 Screw Conveyors 76 Belt Conveyors 76 Bucket Elevators and Carriers 78 Continuous Flow Conveyor Elevators 82 5.4 Solids Feeders 83 References 88 RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY xiii CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 1.1 Process Design 1.2 Equipment Vendors’ Questionnaires Specification Forms 1.3 Categories of Engineering Practice 1.4 Sources of Information for Process Design 1.5 Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices 1.6 Material and Energy Balances 1.7 Economic Balance 1.8 Safety Factors 1.9 Safety of Plant and Environment 1.10 Steam and Power Supply 1 Design Basis 12 Utilities 12 1.12 Laboratory and Pilot Plant Work 12 References 15 CHAPTER FLOW OF FLUIDS 91 6.1 Properties and Units 91 6.2 Energy Balance of a Flowing Fluid 92 6.3 Liquids 94 Fittings and Valves 95 Orifices 95 Power Requirements 98 6.4 Pipeline Networks 98 6.5 Optimum Pipe Diameter 100 6.6 Non-Newtonian Liquids 100 Viscosity Behavior 100 Pipeline Design 106 6.7 Gases 109 Isentropic Flow 109 Isothermal Flow in Uniform Ducts 110 Adiabatic Flow 110 Nonideal Gases 11 6.8 Liquid-Gas Flow in Pipelines 1 Homogeneous Model 113 Separated Flow Models 114 Other Aspects 114 6.9 Granular and Packed Beds 117 Single Phase Fluids 117 Two-Phase Flow 118 6.10 Gas-Solid Transfer 119 Choking Velocity 119 Pressure Drop 119 6.11 Fluidization of Beds of Particles with Gases 120 Characteristics of Fluidization 123 Sizing Equipment 123 References 127 CHAPTER FLOWSHEETS 19 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Block Flowsheets 19 Process Flowsheets 19 Mechanical (P&I) Flowsheets 19 Utility Flowsheets 19 Drawing of Flowsheets 20 References 31 Appendix 2.1 Descriptions of Example Process Flowsheets 33 CHAPTER PROCESS CONTROL 39 3.1 Feedback Control 39 Symbols 39 Cascade (Reset) Control 42 3.2 Individual Process Variables 42 Temperature 42 Pressure 42 Level of Liquid 43 Flow Rate 43 Flow of Solids 43 Flow Ratio 43 Composition 43 3.3 Equipment Control 43 Heat Transfer Equipment 44 Distillation Equipment 47 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Towers 50 Chemical Reactors 53 Liquid Pumps 55 Solids Feeders 55 Compressors 55 References 60 CHAPTER FLUID TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT 129 7.1 Piping 129 Valves 129 Control Valves 129 7.2 PumpTheory 131 Basic Relations 131 Pumping Systems 133 7.3 Pump Characteristics 134 7.4 Criteria for Selection of Pumps 140 7.5 Equipment for Gas Transport 143 Fans 143 Compressors 145 Centrifugals 145 Axial Flow Compressors 146 Reciprocating Compressors 146 Rotary Compressors 149 7.6 Theory and Calculations of Gas Compression 153 Dimensionless Groups 153 Ideal Gases 153 Real Processes and Gases 156 Work on Nonideal Gases 156 CHAPTER DRIVERS FOR MOVING EQUIPMENT 61 4.1 Motors 61 Induction 61 Synchronous 61 Direct Current 61 4.2 Steam Turbines and Gas Expanders 62 4.3 Combustion Gas Turbines and Engines 65 References 68 V Vi CONTENTS Efficiency 159 Temperature Rise, Compression Ratio, Volumetric Efficiency 159 7.7 Ejector and Vacuum Systems 162 Ejector Arrangements 162 Air Leakage 164 Steam Consumption 165 Ejector Theory 166 Glossary for Chapter 166 References 167 CHAPTER HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS 169 8.1 Conduction of Heat 169 Thermal Conductivity 169 Hollow Cylinder 170 Composite Walls 170 Fluid Films 170 8.2 Mean Temperature Difference 172 Single Pass Exchanger 172 Multipass Exchangers 173 F-Method 173 &Method 179 Selection of Shell-and-Tube Numbers of Passes 179 Example 179 8.3 Heat Transfer Coefficients 179 Overall Coefficients 180 Fouling Factors 180 Individual Film Coefficients 180 Metal Wall Resistance 182 Dimensionless Groups 182 8.4 Data of Heat Transfer Coefficients 182 Direct Contact of Hot and Cold Streams 185 Natural Convection 186 Forced Convection 186 Condensation 187 Boiling 187 Extended Surfaces 188 8.5 Pressure Drop in Heat Exchangers 188 8.6 Types of Heat Exchangers 188 Plate-and-Frame Exchangers 189 Spiral Heat Exchangers 194, Compact (Plate-Fin) Exchangers 194 Air Coolers 194 Double Pipes 195 8.7 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 195 Construction 195 Advantages 199 Tube Side or Shell Side 199 Design of a Heat Exchanger 199 Tentative Design 200 8.8 Condensers 200 Condenser Configurations 204 Design Calculation Method 205 The Silver-Bell-Ghaly Method 206 8.9 Reboilers 206 Kettle Reboilers 207 Horizontal Shell Side Thermosiphons 207 Vertical Thermosiphons 207 Forced Circulation Reboilers 208 Calculation Procedures 208 8.10 Evaporators 208 Thermal Economy 210 Surface Requirements 211 8.11 Fired Heaters 211 Description of Equipment 211 Heat Transfer 213 Design of Fired Heaters 214 8.12 Insulation of Equipment 219 Low Temperatures 221 Medium Temperatures 221 Refractories 221 8.13 Refrigeration 224 Compression Refrigeration 224 Refrigerants 226 Absorption Refrigeration 229 Cryogenics 229 References 229 DRYERS AND COOLING TOWERS 231 9.1 Interaction of Air and Water 231 9.2 Rate of Drying 234 Laboratory and Pilot Plant Testing 237 9.3 Classification and General Characteristics of Dryers 237 Products 240 Costs 240 Specification Forms 240 9.4 Batch Dryers 241 9.5 Continuous Tray and Conveyor Belt Dryers 242 9.6 Rotary Cylindrical Dryers 247 9.7 Drum Dryers for Solutions and Slurries 254 9.8 Pneumatic Conveying Dryers 255 9.9 Fluidized Bed Dryers 262 9.10 Spray Dryers 268 Atomization 276 Applications 276 Thermal Efficiency 276 Design 276 9.11 Theory of Air-Water Interaction in Packed Towers 277 Tower Height 279 9.12 Cooling Towers 280 Water Factors 285 Testing and Acceptance 285 References 285 CHAPTER 10 MIXING AND AGITATION 287 10.1 A Basic Stirred Tank Design 287 The Vessel 287 Baffles 287 Draft Tubes 287 Impeller Types 287 Impeller Size 287 Impeller Speed 288 Impeller Location 288 10.2 Kinds of Impellers 288 10.3 Characterization of Mixing Quality 290 10.4 Power Consumption and Pumping Rate 292 10.5 Suspension of Solids 295 10.6 Gas Dispersion 296 Spargers 296 Mass Transfer 297 System Design 297 Minimum Power 297 Power Consumption of Gassed Liquids 297 Superficial Liquid Velocity 297 Design Procedures 297 10.7 In-Line-Blenders and Mixers 300 10.8 Mixing of Powders and Pastes 301 References 304 CHAPTER 11 SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATION 305 11.1 Processes and Equipment 305 11.2 Theory of Filtration 306 Compressible Cakes 310 11.3 Resistance to Filtration 313 Filter Medium 313 Cake Resistivity 313 CONTENTS Compressibility-Permeability (CP) Cell Measurements 314 Another Form of Pressure Dependence 315 Pretreatment of Slurries 315 11.4 Thickening and Clarifying 315 11.5 Laboratory Testing and Scale-up 317 Compression-Permeability Cell 31 The SCFT Concept 31 Scale-up 318 11.6 Illustrations of Equipment 318 11.7 Applications and Performance of Equipment 320 References 334 CHAPTER 12 DISINTEGRATION, AGGLOMERATION, AND SIZE SEPARATION OF PARTICULATE SOLIDS 335 12.1 Screening 335 Revolving Screens or Trommels 335 Capacity of Screens 335 12.2 Classification with Streams of Air or Water 337 Air Classifiers 337 Wet Classifiers 339 12.3 Size Reduction 339 12.4 Equipment for Size Reduction 341 Crushers 341 Roll Crushers 341 12.5 Particle Size Enlargement 351 Tumblers 351 Roll Compacting and Briquetting 354 Tabletting 357 Extrusion Processes 358 Prilling 361 Fluidized and Spouted Beds 362 Sintering and Crushing 363 References 370 CHAPTER 13 DISTILLATION AND GAS ABSORPTION 371 13.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibria 371 Relative Volatility 374 Binary x-y Diagrams 375 13.2 Single-Stage Flash Calculations 375 Bubblepoint Temperature and Pressure 376 Dewpoint Temperature and Pressure 377 Flash at Fixed Temperature and Pressure 377 Flash at Fixed Enthalpy and Pressure 377 Equilibria with Ks Dependent on Composition 377 13.3 Evaporation or Simple Distillation 378 Multicomponent Mixtures 379 13.4 Binary Distillation 379 Material and Energy Balances 380 Constant Molal Overflow 380 Basic Distillation Problem 382 Unequal Molal Heats of Vaporization 382 Material and Energy Balance Basis 382 Algebraic Method 382 13.5 Batch Distillation 390 Material Balances 391 13.6 Multicomponent Separation: General Considerations 393 Sequencing of Columns 393 Number of Free Variables 395 13.7 Estimation of Reflux and Number of Trays (FenskeUnderwood-Gilliland Method) 395 Minimum Trays 395 Distribution of Nonkeys 395 Minimum Reflux 397 Operating Reflux 397 Actual Number of Theoretical Trays 397 Feed Tray Location 397 Tray Efficiencies 397 13.8 Absorption Factor Shortcut Method of Edmister 398 13.9 Separations in Packed Towers 398 Mass Transfer Coefficients 399 Distillation 401 Absorption or Stripping 401 13.10 Basis for Computer Evaluation of Multicomponent Separations 404 Specifications 405 The MESH Equations 405 The Wang-Henke Bubblepoint Method 408 The SR (Sum-Rates) Method 409 SC (Simultaneous Correction) Method 410 13.11 Special Kinds of Distillation Processes 410 Petroleum Fractionation 411 Extractive Distillation 412 Azeotropic Distillation 420 Molecular Distillation 425 13.12 Tray Towers 426 Countercurrent Trays 426 Sieve Trays 428 Valve Trays 429 Bubblecap Trays 431 13.13 Packed Towers 433 Kinds of Packings 433 Flooding and Allowable Loads 433 Liquid Distribution 439 Liquid Holdup 439 Pressure Drop 439 13.14 Efficiencies of Trays and Packings 439 Trays 439 Packed Towers 442 References 456 CHAPTER 14 EXTRACTION AND LEACHING 459 14.1 Equilibrium Relations 459 14.2 Calculation of Stage Requirements 463 Single Stage Extraction 463 Crosscurrent Extraction 464 Immiscible Solvents 464 14.3 Countercurrent Operation 466 Minimum Solvent/Feed Ratio 468 Extract Reflux 468 Minimum Reflux 469 Minimum Stages 469 14.4 Leaching of Solids 470 14.5 Numerical Calculation of Multicomponent Extraction 473 Initial Estimates 473 Procedure 473 14.6 Equipment for Extraction 476 Choice of Disperse Phase 476 Mixer-Settlers 477 Spray Towers 478 Packed Towers 478 Sieve Tray Towers 483 Pulsed Packed and Sieve Tray Towers 483 Reciprocating Tray Towers 485 Rotating Disk Contactor (RDC) 485 Other Rotary Agitated Towers 485 Other Kinds of Extractors 487 Leaching Equipment 488 References 493 CHAPTER 15 ADSORPTION AND ION EXCHANGE 495 15.1 Adsorption Equilibria 495 15.2 Ion Exchange Equilibria 497 15.3 Adsorption Behavior in Packed Beds 500 Regeneration 504 Vii Viii CONTENTS 15.4 Adsorption Design and Operating Practices 504 15.5 Ion Exchange Design and Operating Practices 506 Electrodialysis 508 15.6 Production Scale Chromatography 510 15.7 Equipment and Processes 510 Gas Adsorption 511 Liquid Phase Adsorption 513 Ion Exchange 51 Ion Exchange Membranes and Electrodialysis 51 Chromatographic Equipment 520 References 522 Homogeneous Liquid Reactions 595 Liquid-Liquid Reactions 595 Gas-Liquid Reactions 595 Noncatalytic Reactions with Solids 595 Fluidized Beds of Noncatalytic Solids 595 Circulating Gas or Solids 596 Fixed Bed Solid Catalysis 596 Fluidized Bed Catalysis 601 Gas-Liquid Reactions with Solid Catalysts 604 References 609 CHAPTER 18 PROCESS VESSELS 611 CHAPTER 16 CRYSTALLIZATION FROM SOLUTIONS AND MELTS 523 16.1 Solubilities and Equilibria 523 Phase Diagrams 523 Enthalpy Balances 524 16.2 Crystal Size Distribution 525 16.3 The Process of Crystallization 528 Conditions of Precipitation 528 Supersaturation 528 Growth Rates 530 16.4 The Ideal Stirred Tank 533 Multiple Stirred Tanks in Series 536 Applicability of the CSTC Model 536 16.5 Kinds of Crystallizers 537 16.6 Melt Crystallization and Purification 543 Multistage Processing 543 The Metallwerk Buchs Process 543 Purification Processes 543 References 548 CHAPTER 17 CHEMICAL REACTORS 549 17.1 Design Basis and Space Velocity 549 Design Basis 549 Reaction Times 549 17.2 Rate Equations and Operating Modes 549 17.3 Material and Energy Balances of Reactors 555 17.4 Nonideal Flow Patterns 556 Residence Time Distribution 556 Conversion in Segregated and Maximum Mixed Flows 560 Conversion in Segregated Flow and CSTR Batteries 560 Dispersion Model 560 Laminar and Related Flow Patterns 561 17.5 Selection of Catalysts 562 Heterogeneous Catalysts 562 Kinds of Catalysts 563 Kinds of Catalyzed Organic Reactions 563 Physical Characteristics of Solid Catalysts 564 Catalyst Effectiveness 565 17.6 Types and Examples of Reactors 567 Stirred Tanks 567 Tubular Flow Reactors 569 Gas-Liquid Reactions 571 Fixed Bed Reactors 572 Moving Beds 574 Kilns and Hearth Furnaces 575 Fluidized Bed Reactors 579 17.7 Heat Transfer in Reactors 582 Stirred Tanks 586 Packed Bed Thermal Conductivity 587 Heat Transfer Coefficient at Walls, to Particles, and Overall 587 Fluidized Beds 589 17.8 Classes of Reaction Processes and Their Equipment 592 Homogeneous Gas Reactions 592 18.1 Drums 611 18.2 Fractionator Reflux Drums 612 18.3 Liquid-Liquid Separators 612 Coalescence 613 Other Methods 613 18.4 Gas-Liquid Separators 613 Droplet Sizes 613 Rate of Settling 614 Empty Drums 615 Wire Mesh Pad Deentrainers 615 18.5 Cyclone Separators 616 18.6 Storage Tanks 619 18.7 Mechanical Design of Process Vessels 621 Design Pressure and Temperature 623 Shells and Heads 624 Formulas for Strength Calculations 624 References 629 CHAPTER 19 OTHER TOPICS 631 19.1 Membrane Processes 631 Membranes 632 Equipment Configurations 632 Applications 632 Gas Permeation 633 19.2 Foam Separation and Froth Flotation 635 Foam Fractionation 635 Froth Flotation 636 19.3 Sublimation and Freeze Drying 638 Equipment 639 Freeze Drying 639 19.4 Parametric Pumping 639 19.5 Separations by Thermal Diffusion 642 19.6 Electrochemical Syntheses 645 Electrochemical Reactions 646 Fuel Cells 646 Cells for Synthesis of Chemicals 648 19.7 Fermentation Processing 648 Processing 650 Operating Conditions 650 Reactors 654 References 660 CHAPTER 20 COSTS OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT 663 References 669 APPENDIX A UNITS, NOTATION, AND GENERAL DATA 671 APPENDIX B EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION FORMS 681 APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRES OF EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS 727 INDEX 747 INTRODUCTION /though this book is devoted to the selection and design of individual equipment, some mention should be made of integration of a number of units into a process Each piece of equipment interacts with several others in a plant, and the range of its required performance is dependent on the others in terms of material and energy balances and rate processes This chapter will discuss general background material relating to complete process design, and Chapter will treat briefly the basic topic of flowsheets 1.1 PROCESS DESIGN standard size that incidentally may provide a worthwhile safety factor Even largely custom-designed equipment, such as vessels, is subject to standardization such as discrete ranges of head diameters, pressure ratings of nozzles, sizes of manways, and kinds of trays and packings Many codes and standards are established by government agencies, insurance companies, and organizations sponsored by engineering societies Some standardizations within individual plants are arbitrary choices from comparable methods, made to simplify construction, maintenance, and repair: for example, restriction to instrumentation of a particular manufacturer or to a limited number of sizes of heat exchanger tubing or a particular method of installing liquid level gage glasses All such restrictions must be borne in mind by the process designer A Process design establishes the sequence of chemical and physical operations; operating conditions; the duties, major specifications, and materials of construction (where critical) of all process equipment (as distinguished from utilities and building auxiliaries); the general arrangement of equipment needed to ensure proper functioning of the plant; line sizes; and principal instrumentation The process design is summarized by a process flowsheet, a material and energy balance, and a set of individual equipment specifications Varying degrees of thoroughness of a process design may be required for different purposes Sometimes only a preliminary design and cost estimate are needed to evaluate the advisability of further research on a new process or a proposed plant expansion or detailed design work; or a preliminary design may be needed to establish the approximate funding for a complete design and construction A particularly valuable function of preliminary design is that it may reveal lack of certain data needed for final design Data of costs of individual equipment are supplied in this book, but the complete economics of process design is beyond its scope VENDORS QUESTIONNAIRES A manufacturer’s or vendor’s inquiry form is a questionnaire whose completion will give him the information on which to base a specific recommendation of equipment and a price General information about the process in which the proposed equipment is expected to function, amounts and appropriate properties of the streams involved, and the required performance are basic The nature of additional information varies from case to case; for instance, being different for filters than for pneumatic conveyors Individual suppliers have specific inquiry forms A representative selection is in Appendix C 1.2 EQUIPMENT Two main categories of process equipment are proprietary and custom-designed Proprietary equipment is designed by the manufacturer to meet performance specifications made by the user; these specifications may be regarded as the process design of the equipment This category includes equipment with moving parts such as pumps, compressors, and drivers as well as cooling towers, dryers, filters, mixers, agitators, piping equipment, and valves, and even the structural aspects of heat exchangers, furnaces, and other equipment Custom design is needed for many aspects of chemical reactors, most vessels, multistage separators such as fractionators, and other special equipment not amenable to complete standardization Only those characteristics of equipment are specified by process design that are significant from the process point of view On a pump, for instance, process design will specify the operating conditions, capacity, pressure differential, NPSH, materials of construction in contact with process liquid, and a few other items, but not such details as the wall thickness of the casing or the type of stuffing box or the nozzle sizes and the foundation dimensionsalthough most of these omitted items eventually must be known before a plant is ready for construction Standard specification forms are available for most proprietary kinds of equipment and for summarizing the details of all kinds of equipment By providing suitable check lists, they simplify the work by ensuring that all needed data have been provided A collection of such forms is in Appendix B Proprietary equipment is provided “off the shelf” in limited sizes and capacities Special sizes that would fit particular applications more closely often are more expensive than a larger SPECIFICATION FORMS When completed, a specification form is a record of the salient features of the equipment, the conditions under which it is to operate, and its guaranteed performance Usually it is the basis for a firm price quotation Some of these forms are made up by organizations such as TEMA or API, but all large engineering contractors and many large operating companies have other forms for their own needs A selection of specification forms is in Appendix B 1.3 CATEGORIES OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE Although the design of a chemical process plant is initiated by chemical engineers, its complete design and construction requires the inputs of other specialists: mechanical, structural, electrical, and instrumentation engineers; vessel and piping designers; and purchasing agents who know what may be available at attractive prices On large projects all these activities are correlated by a job engineer or project manager; on individual items of equipment or small projects, the process engineer naturally assumes this function A key activity is the writing of specifications for soliciting bids and ultimately purchasing equipment Specifications must be written so explicitly that the bidders are held to a uniform standard and a clear-cut choice can be made on the basis of their offerings alone INTRODUCTION n l I I I I I 100 % of Total Project Time Figure 1.1 Progress of material commitment, engineering manhours, and construction [Mutozzi, Oil Gas J p 304, (23Murch 1953)1 101 [ I I / Design enaineers I I I \ engineers P r o j e c A I 1 but an English version was started in 1984 and three volumes per year are planned; this beautifully organized reference should be most welcome The most comprehensive compilation of physical property data is that of Landolt-Bornstein (1950-date) (References, Section 1.2, Part C) Although most of the material is in German, recent volumes have detailed tables of contents in English and some volumes are largely in English Another large compilation, somewhat venerable but still valuable, is the International Critical Tables (1926-1933) Data and methods of estimating properties of hydrocarbons and their mixtures are in the API Data Book (1971-date) (References, Section 1.2, Part C) More general treatments of estimation of physical properties are listed in References, Section 1.1, Part C There are many compilations of special data such as solubilities, vapor pressures, phase equilibria, transport and thermal properties, and so on A few of them are listed in References, Section :.?, Part D, and references to many others are in the References, Section 1.2, Part B Information about equipment sizes and configurations, and sometimes performance, of equipment is best found in manufacturers' catalogs Items and of References, Section 1.1, Part D, contain some advertisements with illustrations, but perhaps their principal value is in the listings of manufacturers by the kind of equipment Thomas Register covers all manufacturers and so is less convenient at least for an initial search The other three items of this group of books have illustrations and descriptions of all kinds of chemical process equipment Although these books are old, one is surprised to note how many equipment designs have survived nL 100 n "0 % of Total Project Time Figure 1.2 Rate of application of engineering manhours of various categories The area between the curves represents accumulated manhours for each speciality up to a given % completion of the project [Miller, Chem Eng., p 188, (July 1956)] For a typical project, Figure 1.1 shows the distributions of engineering, material commitment, and construction efforts Of the engineering effort, the process engineering is a small part Figure 1.2 shows that it starts immediately and finishes early In terms of money, the cost of engineering ranges from to 15% or so of the total plant cost; the lower value for large plants that are largely patterned after earlier ones, and the higher for small plants or those based on new technology or unusual codes and specifications 1.4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR PROCESS DESIGN A selection of books relating to process design methods and data is listed in the references at the end of this chapter Items that are especially desirable in a personal library or readily accessible are identified Specialized references are given throughout the book in connection with specific topics The extensive chemical literature is served by the bibliographic items cited in References, Section 1.2, Part B The book by Rasmussen and Fredenslund (1980) is addressed to chemical engineers and cites some literature not included in some of the other bibliographies, as well as information about proprietary data banks The book by Leesley (References, Section 1.1, Part B) has much information about proprietary data banks and design methods In its current and earlier editions, the book by Peters and Timmerhaus has many useful bibliographies on classified topics For information about chemical manufacturing processes, the main encyclopedic references are Kirk-Othmer (1978-1984), McKetta and Cunningham (1976-date) and Ullmann (1972-1983) (References, Section 1.2, Part B) The last of these is in German, 1.5 CODES, STANDARDS, AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES A large body of rules has been developed over the years to ensure the safe and economical design, fabrication and testing of equipment, structures, and materials Codification of these rules has been done by associations organized for just such purposes, by professional societies, trade groups, insurance underwriting companies, and government agencies Engineering contractors and large manufacturing companies usually maintain individual sets of standards so as to maintain continuity of design and to simplify maintenance of plant Table 1.1 is a representative table of contents of the mechanical standards of a large oil company Typical of the many thousands of items that are standardized in the field of engineering are limitations on the sizes and wall thicknesses of piping, specifications of the compositions of alloys, stipulation of the safety factors applied to strengths of construction materials, testing procedures for many kinds of materials, and so on Although the safe design practices recommended by professional and trade associations have no legal standing where they have not actually been incorporated in a body of law, many of them have the respect and confidence of the engineering profession as a whole and have been accepted by insurance underwriters so they are widely observed Even when they are only voluntary, standards constitute a digest of experience that represents a minimum requirement of good practice Two publications by Burklin (References, Section 1.1, Part B) are devoted to standards of importance to the chemical industry Listed are about 50 organizations and 60 topics with which they are concerned National Bureau of Standards Publication 329 contains about 25,000 titles of U.S standards The NBS-SIS service maintains a reference collection of 200,000 items accessible by letter or phone Information about foreign standards is obtainable through the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) A listing of codes and standards bearing directly on process €- w m 740 c g 73 at I I -7 741 W G n , E ' u t c w w u x n c n 742 f ) / I I m u m u u m 3s uu n P) m -4 P ' I: U - - €i a CI R u \ u w P w c w o In R m c Y m -4 mu m rlu U r tn m a, c a, a, a m a x u m rl a -mmc , a l A Q m a m U W E 'c( m T I m C m x rl Q - m \ ; W u zm e m url mtn 81 a, m w u m -4 U a, a m a a, m rl x u m I? 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equilibria, 416 Acetone/water equilibria, 423 Acetonitrile azeotropic drying, 422 extractive distillation solvent, 416, 419, 420,422 Activity coefficient, 372 solubility parameter, 374 Wilson equation, 374 Adiabatic saturation temperature, 234 Adiponitrile reactor, 576, 577 Adsorbents data, 496 manufacture, 510, 511 manufacture flowsketch, 498 Adsorption breakthrough curves, 506 design example, 505 desorption profiles, 502, 503 effluent profile, 504 gases, 511, 513 liquid phase, 506,513, 515 mechanism, 501 MTZ (mass transfer zone), 500, 501 multicomponent data, 503 operating cycles, 502 operating parameters, 502 operating practices, 504 packed beds, 500-504 regeneration, 502,504 regeneration steam, 502 Adsorption equilibria, 495,497 binary mixtures, 499,500 heat of adsorption, 500 isotherms, 499 liquids, 500 temperature effect, 499 Adsorption equipment, 510,511,513 AHR process (Union Carbide), 511 drying system flowsketch, 508, 511 fixed beds, 509 fluidized beds, 513 gases, 511,513 hypersorber moving bed, 513,516 liquid phase process, 513, 518 moving beds, 513 Nofsinger moving bed, 513,517 pulsed bed process, 518 sizing example, 505 supports for beds, 510 Toray process, 511, 517 UOP simulated moving bed, 515,517519 Agglomeration, 351 binders, 354,355 products, 354 Agitation See also Mixers flow patterns, 291 HP and rpm, 292 performance, 294 power consumption, 292 Air classifiers, 338 Air coolers, 194-199 heat transfer, 196-198 heat transfer example, 199 sketches, 175 Air leakage, vacuum systems, 164, 165 other gases, 165 Air properties, 674 Air separation process, 37 Air-water interaction, 231-234 packed towers, 277-280 Alumina by calcination, reactor, 593 Ammonia absorption refrigeration, 226, 229 flowsketch, 277 Ammonia oxidation reactor, 573 Ammonia synthesis flowsheet, 27 reactors, 572, 581-584 performance data, 582,583 temperature profiles, 582, 584 Angle of slide, data, 677-679 ASME pressure vessel code, 625 Autogenous grinding, 342 Axial flow compressors, 146, 150, 153 application range, 149, 150 characteristics, 150 figure, 147 Axial flow pumps, 134, 136, 140 application range, 150 Azeotrope separation, 387,388,420-426 Azeotropic distillation, 420-426 acetonitrile/water separation, 422 commercial examples, 421-424 design method, 424 ethanol/water/benzene process, 424 n-heptane/toluene/MEK process, 424 vapor-liquid equilibrium data, 421,423, 425,426 Ball mills, 342 closed circuit operation, 345 Denver, 342 Hardinge, 346,347, 351 pebble type, 343, 347 Batch distillation, 390 chlorinated phenols, column profiles, 383,384 constant overhead composition, 390 constant reflux ratio, 390 instrumentation diagram, 393 material balances, 391 McCable-Thiele diagram, 392 operating profiles, 393 Batch reactors, 557 Belt conveyors, 76 arrangements, 82, 83 sizing calculations, 83 sizing data, 81, 82 Belt filters performance data, 328 sketch, 325 Benzene dealkylation process, 28, 29 Berks ring dryer, 265 performance, 264 Binary distillation, 379 747 algebraic method, 382,387,389 algebraic method example, 392 azeotropic mixtures, 387, 388 batch, 383,390-393 constant molal overflow, 380 material and energy balances, 380 McCabe-Thiele diagram, 381 model sketch, 380 multiple feeds and products, 386 packed towers, 398-404 partially miscible liquids, 388, 389 q-line, 381 unequal molal latent heats, 382, 385, 390 Binders for agglomeration, 354,355 Bingham liquids, 104, 105, 107-109,711 Biochemical glossary, 657 Blasius equation, friction factor, 69 Blenders, in line, 300-302 sketches, 302 power, 300 Blenders, powder, 301,302 Blowers, 143 application range, 149 two-lobe, 148 Boiling, 187 See also Reboilers Booklists bibliographies, 16 data collections, 16 encyclopedias, 16 equipment, 16 essential, for process design, 15 estimation of properties, 16 safety aspects, 16 special data collections, 17 Brine electrolysis, 648, 653, 656 Hooker cell, 648 mercury cell, 653 Briquetting, 354 gear, 358 integrated equipment, 358 product shapes, 362 rolls, 358 Brodie crystallizer-purifier, 545, 546 Bubblecap trays, 428,430-433 allowable vapor rate, 432 comparisons with other kinds, example, 43 Jersey Critical correlation, 432 liquid gradient, 433 Souders-Brown correlation, 432 Bubblepoint conditions, 375, 376 calculation diagram, 379 example, 378,379 Bubblepoint method, multicomponent distillation, 408 algorithm flowsketch, 406 Bucket elevators, 78, 86 Butadiene solubility, 420 vapor-liquid equilibria, 420 Butadiene sulfone manufacturing process, 35 Butanol/ethanol equilibria, 375 Butanol/water separation, 388 Butinediol reactor, 576 748 INDEX Buttner-Rosin pneumatic dryer, 265 performance, 264 Butyl cresol purification, 547 Caprolactam hydrogenation, 576,577 Cartridge filters, 319 applications, 323 particle recovery range, 323 Catalyst bed support modes, 587 Catalysts effectiveness, 555,565-567 heterogeneous, 562 homogeneous, 562 industrial examples, 550-553 kinds, 563 organic reactions, 563 physical properties, solids, 564, 565 pore tortuosity, 565 porosity, 564, 565 selection basis, 562 surface area, 564, 565 Catalytic cracking reactors fluidized bed, 579,591,592 moving bed, 588 temperature and composition profiles, 595 transfer line type, 580, 581, 591 zeolite catalyst type, 591 Catalytic reformers, 572,586 Catalyzed organic reactions, 563-564 Cement kilns, 576,590 Centrifugal compressors, 145 application range, 149, 150 cross section, 147 selection, 161 specification form, 66 specifications, 152 Centrifugal pumps, 117-143, 134,147 application range, 140, 143 capacity-head range, 138 characteristic curves, 58 costs, 138 diffuser type, 139 double suction, 136, 139, 143 efficiency, 134,137, 141, 144 glossary, 166 good qualities, 141, 142 impeller types, 140 parallel operation, 133, 147 seals, 137, 142 series operation, 133, 147 single suction, 136, 139, 143 viscosity effect, 145 volute type, 139 Centrifuges, 321 data, 333 filtering types, 329 selection criteria, 307, 334 Chemical reactor control, 53-58 Chemical reactor operating patterns CSTR (continuous stirred tank reactor), 555,557 design basis, 549 material and energy balances, 555-559 non-flow, 557 packed bed, 559 PFR (plug flow reactor), 558 residence time distribution, 556 segregated flow, 561 Chemical reactors, 549-610 Chlorinated phenols separation, 383 Chloroform/acetone/MIBK equilibria, 416 Choking velocity, pneumatic conveying, 119 Chromatographic separations, 510, 520 chromatograms, 520 economic data, 516 example, 125 mm column, 521 example, pinenes separation, 521 flowsketch, 521 Circulating gas or solid reactions, 596 Clarifiers, 315,320,338 performance, 320 Closed circuit grinding, 341, 345,351 Coal carbonization, 20 gasifier, 593 liquefaction, 609 slurry pipeline, 70 Coalescence, 613, 615 Codes and standards, , Coefficient of performance (COP), 224 Coking, fluidized bed, 591 Colebrook equation, friction, factor, 94 Combustion gas turbine, 65,68 arrangements, 67 performance calculation, 67 Compact exchangers, 178,194,195 Compaction, 351 Composition control, 40,43 Composition profiles See Temperature profiles, reactors Compressibility factor, 162 Compressibility, filter cake, 310, 311,316 cell measurements, 314 calculation example, 314 data, 316 Compression of gases, 153 efficiency, polytropic, 158, 159 friction, 156 ideal gases, 153, 155 isentropic, 155, 156 mixtures, 157 multistage, 161,164 non-ideal, 157, 160 polytropic, 156 ratio, multistage, 161, 164 temperature rise, 159, 162 thermodynamic diagram, 157 variable heat capacity, 157 Compression ratio, rule, 161 Compressors application ranges, 149, 150 characteristic curves, 59 control, 59,60 efficiencies, 158 operating ranges, 150 types, 145,147-149 Condensation, 187 Condensers configurations, 204 control, 46 design method, 205,206 heat transfer coefficients, 196 partial, model, 206 sizing example, 207 Conduction, thermal composite walls, 170 Fourier equation, 169 hollow cylinders, 170 metal walls, 182 Conductivity, thermal, data, 170 packed beds, 587,599-601 Control valves, 129-131 Convection, forced, 186 Convection, natural, 186 equations, 189 Conveyors, mechanical, 76-88 Cooling towers, 280-285 approach to equilibrium, 234 bid data required, 284 kinds of fill, 282 performance curves, 284 sizing example, 281,282 sketches, 283 types, comparison, 280,282,285 water loss, 285 Cost indexes, inflation, 669 Costs of equipment, 663 alphabetical index of equipment, 664 distillation tower example, 663 inflation indexes, 669 installed cost multipliers, 668, 669 purchased and installed cost, example, 663 Cracking furnace reactor, 574 Cracking, gas oil, 33 Cryogenics, 229 Crystal growth rate, 531,533 Crystallization conditions for crystal formation, 528 crystal growth rate, 533 design example, 524 ideal stirred tank model, 533-539 melt type, 523,543-548 MSMPR model, 533-539 size distribution, 525 solution type, 523 Crystallization data literature, 535 Crystallization equipment, 537-543 APV-Kestner, 542,543 batch, stirred and cooled, 539, 540 Brennan-Koppers, 545,547,548 Brodie, 545,546 circulating coolers, 539, 540 circulating evaporators, 539, 540-542 direct refrigeration, 540,541,543 DTB (draft tube baffle), 540,542 Escher-Wyss, 542,543 Kureha, 545,547 MWB (Metallwerk Buchs) process, 543, 545 Oslo, 541, 543 scraped jacketed pipe, 538,540 sugar vacuum pan, 540,541 Swenson-Walker, 538,540 TNO, 545,547 Tsukushima, 542,543 twinned, Nyvlt, 541,543 Crystal size distribution, 525,530,532,539 distribution, from seeded tank, 534 from commercial equipment, 532 Crushing See also Size reduction product size distribution, 337 CSTR (continuous stirred tank reactor), 555,557 comparison, complex reactions, 569 comparison with PFR, 571 comparison with segregated flow, 561 Cumene synthesis, 56,57 Cyclone separators, 616 calculation, example, 621 dimensions, 620 INDEX drum with tangential inlet, 620 performance, 621 pressure drop, 617 Diaphragm pump, 142,143 Deentrainment commercial equipment, 619 cyclone dimensions, 620 cyclones, 616, 620,621 empty drums, 615,617 wire mesh pads, 615,616,618,62 !O Densities, bulk, data, 677-679 Desalination, 632 performance, 640 Design basis, 12 questionnaire, 13, 14 Detergent manufacture, 35 Dewpoint conditions, 376 calculation, 378 Dichlorbenzene purification by crystallization, 547 Diffusion equimolal counter, 399 stagnant film, 399 Dimensionless groups heat transfer, 182 mixing, 290,291 table, 188 Direct contact heat transfer, 185 Dispersion model, 560-562 first order reactions, 561 second order reactions, 562 Distillation, 371-457 batch, 390 binary, 379 column assembly, 371 flash, 375 multicomponent, 393 Rayleigh, 378 Distillation, petroleum, 37 Distillation, simple See Rayleigh Dodecylbenzene sulfonate reactor, 576 Dorr classifier, 338 Double pipe exchangers, 195 Droplet sizes, 613 range, 631 Drum dryers, 254,255 performance, 261-263 sketches, 260 system, 260 Drums, 611 capacity, partially full, 626, 627 compressor surge, 612, 613 design example, 628 dimensions, 611 gas-liquid separators, 613, 620 holdup, 612 liquid-liquid separators, 612 reflux, 612 Dryers batch, 241,247, 248 belt, 242,252,253 belt conveyor, calculation, 239 classification, 237,241,242, 244 continuous tray, 242,247,251 costs, 240 drum, 254,255,260-263 evaporation rates, 243 fluidized bed, 262-272 paddle and ribbon, 249 pan, 250,251 performance, comparative, 243 pneumatic conveying, 237,255,263-267 products, 240,245 residence time distribution, 245 rotary, 247,251,254,256-259 specifications, 240,246 spray, 237,268-279 tumbler, 249,250 tunnel, calculation example, 238 vacuum, 248 Dryers, pilot plant sizes fluidized bed, 237 pneumatic conveying, 237 rotary, 237 spray, 237,278 Wyssmont tray, 237,251 Drying rate, 234,237 constant period, 235,237 data, 235,236 falling period, 235,237 pilot plant testing, 237,251, 278 DTB (draft tube baffle) crystallizer, 540, 542 Dualflow trays, 426 Economic analyses, list of published cases, 4, optimum efficiency, Linnhoff, waste heat recovery, 11 Effectiveness, catalyst, 555 ammonia synthesis, 567 sulfur dioxide oxidation, 567 Thiele modulus, 566 Effectiveness, heat transfer See F-method Efficiency extraction equipment, 487 sieve tray extractors, 483 Efficiency, compression isentropic, 155 polytropic, 159 volumetric, 161 Efficiency, distillation trays, 397, 439ff Efficiency, packed towers, 436,437 442, 449,452-456 Efficiency, tray, 439 AIChE method, 439 Bakowski method, 442,451 Chu et al method, 442,451 data in terms of vapor factor, F, 448 F factor, 429, 448 McFarland et al method, 439,442,451 O’Connell method, 439, 450,451 survey of data, 444-447 vapor rate and, 448,449 Electrochemical synthesis, 645 cell types, 648,653,654 energy requirements, 653 fuel cells, 646, 655 overvoltage, 654 reactions, 646 Electrodialysis, 508, 517 equipment, 513,514 performance, brackish water, 515 Emissivity of gases, 220 Energy balance in fluid flow, 92 mechanical, 93 units, example, 94 Engineering manhours for projects, Enthalpy residual, 158, 159 Enthalpy-concentration chart, 524 application example, 529 construction example, 390 distillation diagram, 391 749 distillation equations, 380 some salt solutions, 529,530 Entropy residual, 158, 159 Enzymes, 650 examples, 650 production, 658 Erlang distribution, residence time, 558 Equation of state, gases, 91 density calculation, 91 Ethanol/acetic acid separation, 385 Ethanol/butanol equilibria, 375 Ethanol/isopropanol/water separation, 421 Ethanol/water separation distillation, 387, 394, 424 reverse osmosis, 642 Ethylene manufacture process, 40 purification, 40,47 specifications, 40 Ethylene reactor, 573,574,588, 593 circulating sand, 593 flame reactor, 573 Evaporators, 208-211 backward and forward feed, 211 heat transfer coefficients, 211 sketches, 209-211 thermal economy, 210 Extended surfaces, heat transfer, 188 calculation example, 193 sketches, 178 Extraction equipment, 476-490 centrifugal, 484,487,490 comparison of types, 477 mixer-settlers, 477, 479 packed towers, 478,480,482,485-487 performance comparison, 478 pulsed towers, 481, 483,487 RDC (rotating disk contactor), 482,487 reciprocating trays, 481 rotary, agitated, 482,485-487 sieve tray towers, 480,486,487 spray towers, 478,480,486 Extraction, liquid-liquid, 459 countercurrent, 466,470 crosscurrent, 464, 468 dispersed phase selection, 476 equilibria, 459-463 extract reflux, 468,470,472 immiscible solvents, 464,469 minimum reflux, 467,469 minimum solvent/feed ratio, 468, 471 minimum stages, 467,469 model, 469 multicomponent, 473-476 single stage, 463,468 stage requirements, 463-472 Extractive distillation, 412, 417-422 additive selection, 412, 414 ethanol/isopropanol/water process, 421 examples of processes, 417 isoprene recovery, 36,417,422 McCabe-Thiele diagram, 422 methylcyclohexane/ toluene/phenol process, 421 vapor liquid equilibria, 416,418-420 Extrusion, 358 ring, 358, 366 ring applications, 365 screw, 360, 366 F, tray capacity factor, 429,448 750 INDEX F-method, heat transfer, 173, 175-177 example, 180 formulas, 179 Fans, 143 application range, 149 blade shape, 152,153 controls, 151 efficiency, 151,153 laws of, 151 performance, 151, 152 Feed tray location, distillation, 397 Kirkbride equation, 397 Feedback control, 39,41 Feeders, granular solids, 45,83, 87, 88 Fenske minimum trays, 382,395 Fermentation, 648 characteristics, 649 equipment sketch, 659 flowsketches, 658 operating conditions, 650, 652-654 process types, 650 products, commercial, 657 reactors, 654, 659, 660 Film coefficients, heat transfer, 180 data, 186 Filter cakes compressibility, 310, 311, 314,316 oermeabilitv, 315 porosity, 3f5,316,318,319 resistivity, 313-315, 317, 319 Filter media, 313 porosities and permeabilities, 315 Filters, pressure, 319 commercial sizes, 323 Filtration constant pressure, 306 constant rate, 306 data sheet, testing, 322 example, with centrifugal pump, 311 laboratory testing, 317,318,321 scaleup, 317,318 SCFT concept, 317 test data, example, 310 theory, 306 Filtration equipment application and performance, 320, 321, 330 belt, 319,325,328 double drum, 319,327 horizontal rotary, 319,325,327 Kelly, 307,319, 323,324 leaf, 319,323 plate and frame, 319,323,324, 331 rotary disk, 307, 319,327 rotary drum, 319,326-328 Sparkler, 324 Sweetland, 319,323-325 Vallez, 319,323-325 Fired heater reactor, 574,575 Fired heaters, 211 box size, rule, 213 design example, 217-220 design procedure, 214-217 efficiency, 213-214 heat fluxes and temperatures, 213 peak temperatures, 214 sketches, 212 Fittings, pipe, resistances, 95, 98-100 Fixed bed solid catalysis, 596 Flame reactor, 573 Flash conditions, 375-377 example, 378 Ks dependent on composition, 377 Flight conveyors, 81 Flocculants, 309 Flocculation, 351 Flooding, packed towers, 433,441 liquid-liquid, 485 Flow control fluids, 58,59 solids, 43,44 Flow number, agitation, 290 limiting values, 293 Flowsheets example descriptions, 33-37 examples, 20,26-30 mechanical (P & I), 21-25 process, 19 process, checklist, 20 process descriptions, list, 33 symbols, 21-25 Fluidization, 120-126 bed expansion, 121,126 characteristics, 123 freeboard in vessel, 126 kinds of particles, 124 minimum bubbling rate, 121, 122, 126 minimum rate, 121, 122,126 regimes, 123 TDH (transport disengagement height), 121,122 vessel dimensions, 125 viscosity, 126 Fluidized bed agglomeration, 362 performance data, 368 sketches, 369 spouted bed, 363,368,369 Fluidized bed catalysis, 601-604 Fluidized bed dryers, 262-265,267,268 gas velocity, 267 performance, batch, 270 performance, continuous, 271,272 sizing, example, 272 sketches, 268,269 thermal efficiency, 267 Fluidized bed processes, 577 Fluidized bed reactors, 579,580,582,591, 592 control, 55,58 ebullating beds, 593 mechanism, 580 multistage, 593 noncatalytic, 582, 593 operating data, 579 Fluidized beds, non-catalyzed solids, 595 Foam separation, 635 data, 644 equipment, 644 Fouling factors, heat transfer, 180 data, 183, 184, 186 Fourier equation, 169 Fractionation See Distillation Fractionator conntrol lower ends, 49,50 upper ends, 51,52 Freeze drying, 639 cycle lengths, 639 products, 646 Friction, 93 Friction factor, 92 Colebrook equation, 94 granular beds, 117 non-Newtonian fluids, 109 Rounds equation, 94 Schacham equation, 94 von Karman equation, 95 Froth flotation, 636,638 equipment, 645 performance, 638 Fuel cells, 646 characteristics, 655, 656 Fugacity coefficient, 372 Gas dispersion, 296,297, 299, 300 design example, 301 flooding, 299 mass transfer coefficients, 299 Gas flow in pipe lines, 109 adiabatic, 110-112 isentropic, 109 isothermal, 110, 112 non-ideal, 111, 113 Gas-liquid reactions, 595 with solid catalysts, 604,605,607,609 Gas-liquid-solid reactions, 609 Gas-liquid separators, 613 deentrainers, wire mesh, 615,616 droplet sizes, 613 drum with tangential inlet, 620 empty drums, 615 entrainment, 613,617 example, empty drum, 618 example, sieve tray, 617 key dimensions, 617,618 sieve tray correlation, 618 Gas oil cracking, 33 Gas separation hydrogen enrichment, 633 membrane processes, 633 Gas-solid flow See also Pneumatic conveying choking velocity, 119 pressure drop, 119, 120 Gas treating plant, 30, 36 Gauges of plates, sheets and wires, 676 Gear pumps, 134,141,143 GHSV, 549 Gilliland correlation, trays, 397 Molokhanov equation, 397 Globulation, 351 Glossary biochemical, 657 centrifugal pumps, 166 Gradient, liquid, bubblecap trays, 433 Graesser extractor, 484 Granular beds See Packed beds Granular materials bulk densities, 78-79,677-679 angle of inclination, 78-79 angle of repose, 78-79,677-679 Granulators, 352 applications, 355 capacity and power needs, 356 pans, 352 performance on cement, 356 products, 355 rotating dish, 353,355,359 rotating drum, 353,355 size stratification, 355 tumbling, moisture requirement, 356 Gravitational constant, 91, 92 Hand correlation, liquid-liquid equilibria, 463,465 Heads, vessel design example, 628 INDEX formulas, partially full, 627 thickness, formulas, 625 types, 627 Hearth reactors 578,590 Heat exchangers, 169-229 control, 44-47 types, 188 Heat transfer coefficients, film convection and radiation, 189 equations, 189- 192 Heat transfer coefficients, overall, 170 air coolers, 196-198 condensers, 196 data, 183-185 range of values, 180 Heat transfer, direct contact, 185 Heat transfer, fluidized beds, 589,592 data, 606-608 experimental work survey, 608 horizontal tubes, 609 submerged coils, 606 vertical tubes, 606,607,609 walls, 606, 608 Heat transfer media, 172 Heat transfer, packed beds, 578, 600, 601 at the wall, 599 between particles and fluids, 599 overall coefficient, 603,606 thermal conductivity, 600,601 Heat transfer, reactors, 582 between particle and fluid, 587 fixed beds, 578 fluidized beds, 589, 592, 606-609 immersed coils, 597 jacketed vessels, 597 overall coefficients, 602,603 stirred tanks, 586,594,598,599 walls, 587,589, 599,606 Heat transfer, units of quantities, 188 Heaters, fired See Fired heaters Heptane/toluene/MEK separation, 424 HETF' (height equivalent to a theoretical plate), 442 correlations, 448 data, 453-456 Hickman still, molecular distillation, 427 HIGEE fractionator, 399 Homogeneous gas reactions, 592 HTU (height of a transfer unit), 401, 404, 422 Cornel1 et al correlation, 449 data, 452,454,456 liquid-liquid extraction, 484 Humid volume, 234 Humidity, 231 relative, 231 Hydrochloric acid electrolysis, 656 Hydrocyclones, 307,320,339 liquid, 613 performance graph, 340 sizing example, 341 sketches, 330 Hydrofining reactor, 587 Hydroformer, fluidized bed, 591,592 Hydrogenation reactor, 576 Impellers, agitation kinds, 288-290 location, 288 size, 288 sizing example, 293, 294 Impellers, centrifugal pumps, 140 Information sources, Installation cost factors, 668,669 Insulation, 219 economic thickness, 220,224 high temperature, 222,223 low temperature, 221,222 medium temperatures, 222 Ion exchange, 506-508 design practices, 506,508 equilibria, 497,499,500 equipment, 508,512,513 membranes, 517 operating practices, 506,508 properties of materials, 507 selectivity example, 503 selectivity scales, anions and cations, 507 Ion exchange equipment, 508,512,517 continuous processes, 515,519,520 fixed bed arrangements, 512 performance, Uranium recovery, 515 sizing example, 513 Isoprene recovery, 36, 417,420,422 solubility, 420 vapor-liquid equilibria, 420 Isotope separation, thermal diffusion, 649-651 Jet compressors, 143 K-chart, 372 Kelly filter, 307, 319, 323, 324 Kenics blender, 302 Knudsen diffusivity, 564 Kremser-Brown formula, 398,399,466 Laminar flow, 92 non-Newtonian, 108,109 Leaching, 470-473,491-493 battery, 493 Bollman bucket type, 491 Bonotto tower, 491 continuous equipment, 491 equipment, 488,491,492 example, calculation, 472 Hansa-Muehle bucket type, 491 Hildebrandt tower, 491 settling tanks, 492 Level control, 43,44 Lewis-Matheson method, distillation, 404 LHSV, 549 Linde trays, 430 Liquid-liquid equilibria, 459-463 distribution coefficient, 460 Hand correlation, 463,465 Janecke coordinates, 460,461 tielines, 460 Liquid-liquid extraction, 459-493 See also Extraction control, 50, 53-55 Liquid-liquid reactions, 595 Liquid seal ring compressors, 149, 153 heating effect, 153 specifications, 155 Lockhart-Martinelli correlation, 115, 116 McCabe Delta-L law, crystallization, 533 calculation example, 534 McCabe-Thiele diagram, distillation, 381 Magnesium sulfate/water diagram, 526, 529 751 Mass transfer coefficient, 399, 442 data, 454,455 gas dispersion, 299 Material and energy balances, 3-5 distillation, 391, 401, 405 Maximum mixedness, 560 volume ratio to segregated flow, 560 Zwieterings equations, 560 Melt crystallization, 543-548 Brennan-Koppers purifier, 545,547, 548 Brodie crystallizer-purifier , 545, 547 Kureha purifier, 545, 547 multistage, 543 MWB process, 543,545 Phillips process, 544-546 Schildknecht column, 543,544,546 TNO bouncing ball process, 545,547 Melt purification See Melt crystallization Membranes, 631,632,641 applications, 632 cellulose acetate, 635 equipment configurations, 632 gas permeation, 633, 644 hollow fiber, 632,633,641,643 performance, 640 Permasep, 641 plate and frame, 638 Prism, 633,643 properties, 635,636 structures, 632 tubular, 638,639 types, 635,636 Merkel diagram See Enthalpyconcentration chart MESH equations, 405 Methanol synthesis, 580,585 Methanol/water separation, 390 Methylcyclohexane/toluene/phenol separation, 421 Methylethylketone/water equilibria, 423 Microbial processes See Fermentation Mixers See also Agitation blend time, 290 dimensionless groups, 290 gas dispersion, 296-301 in line type, 300,301 liquids, power and speed need, 293,295 powders and pastes, 301, 303,304 power number, 290-292 quality characterization, 290-292 suspension of solids, 295-299 tank design, 287,288 Moisture content, critical, 237 Molecular distillation, 425-427 equipment sketches, 427 Hickman still, 427 operating conditions, 426 rate of evaporation, 426 Molecular sieves applications, 496 capacity decline with use, 506 properties, 496,497 Molokhanov equation, distillation, 397 Motors applications, 62 relative costs, 61 types, 61 MSMPR crystallization model, 533-539 MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether), 597 MTZ (mass transfer zone), adsorption, 500,501 752 INDEX Multicomponent distillation, 393 absorption factor method, 398 azeotropic, 420-426 bubblepoint (BP) method, 406-409 computer program references, 404 concentration profiles, 394 distribution of non-keys, 395 Edmister method, 398,399 extractive, 412, 417-422 feed tray location, 397 free variables, number of, 395 Lewis-Matheson method, 404 MESH equations, 405-407 molecular, 425-427 nomenclature, 405 number of theoretical trays, 397 packed towers, 433-439 petroleum, 411-415 reflux, minimum, 397 reflux, operating, 397 SC (simultaneous correction) method, 408-411 sequencing of columns, 393,394 short cut design example, 396 SR (sum rates) method, 407-409 Thiele-Geddes method, 404, 407 trays, minimum number, 395 tray towers, 426-433 Wang- Hen ke method, 406-409 Multicomponent extraction, 473-476 calculation procedure, 474,477 example, 476 material balance, 474 Multipass heat exchangers, 173, 175-177 Multiple feeds and products, distillation, 386 MWB (Metallwerk Buchs) crystallization process, 543,545 Naphthalene purification, crystallization, 547 Naphthali-Sandholm method, 404 algorithm flowsketch, 411 Nitric acid reactor, 576 Nitrogen fixation, 574, 578,588 Nitrotoluene isomers separation, 544 Noncatalytic reactions with solids, 595 NowNewtonian liquids, 100, 103-109 Bingham, 104,105, 107-109 dilatant, 103, 104 laminar flow, 108, 109 pressure drop in lines, 106, 109 pseudoplastic, 103, 104 rheopectic, 104, 105 slurries, 71 thixotropic, 104-106 viscoelastic, 105, 106 Notation, 672 NPSH, pumps, 133,146 centrifugal pumps, 146 positive displacement pumps, 134, 135 various pumps, 144 NRTL equation, 475 NTU (number of transfer units), 401,402, 404 air-water interaction, 277 Octane/toluene/phenol equilibria, 416 Olefin production, 33,40 Orifices, flow through, 95 Osmosis, 631 equation, 631 flow rates, 631 Osmotic pressure calculation example, 633 concentration effect, 632 equation, 631 maxima in industrial operations, 631 molecular weight effect, 632 Packed beds, 117-119 friction factor, 117 permeability, 117 porosity, 177 supports in vessels, 574, 587 thermal conductivity, 587, 599-601 two-phase flow, 118, 119 Packed bed reactors, 559, 572 support of catalyst bed, 587 Packed towers, 433 allowable flow rates, 438, 440,441 efficiency, 436,437,442-456 flooding, 433,438 internals, sketches, 434 kinds of packing, 433, 435 liquid distribution, 434, 439 liquid holdup, 439 packing factors, 438 packing size selection, 433 performance comparison, example, 441, 442 pressure drop, 437-440,443 structured packings, 435,437 Packed towers, air/water interaction, 277-280 HTU data, 280 NTU, 277 tower heights, 279 Packed towers, extraction, 478-485 capacity, 484,487 efficiency, 487 flooding, 485 sizing example, 486 Packed towers, separations in, 398 absorption or stripping, 401,402 absorption example, 403 distillation, 401 distillation example, 402 equimolal counterdiffusion, 399 mass transfer coefficients, 399 mechanism, diagrams, 400 stagnant film diffusion, 399 Packing factors, 438 Pall rings, 435 capacity and pressure drop, 440,443 Parametric pumping, 639,640,642 cycles, 648 data, 647 schematic, 647 Partially miscible liquid distillation, 388 Particle size classification, air, 337, 338 classification, wet, 338, 339 distribution, 337 enlargement, 351-369 measurement with sieves, 336 range, 631 reduction, 339-350 surface average, 124 Paste blenders, 301, 303 Pebble heater, 575,578,588 Peclet number, 558,559 Peristaltic pump, 142,143 Permsep membranes, 641 Petroleum distillation, 48, 411-415 design data, 415 flowsketch of crude distillation, 414 linear velocities, 415 overflash, 415 pressure drop, 415 pseudocomponent mixtures, 412,413 refinery block diagram, 412 stripping steam usage, 415 TBP (true boiling point) curve, 409, 412,413 tray requirements, 415 Petroleum products compositions, 680 Petroleum properties correlations, 413 Petroleum refinery flowsketch, 26 PFR (plug flow reactor), 55, 558 comparison with CSTR, complex reactions, 569 volume ratio to CSTR, 571 Phase diagrams nitrotoluene isomers, 544 salt solutions, 526 use of, example, 528 Phenol by the chlorbenzene process, 34 Phosgene synthesis, 594 Phthalic anhydride synthesis, 593 PID (proportional-integral-derivative) controllers, 41, 42 Pinenes separation, chromatographic, 521 Pipe fittings resistances, 95, 98-100 Pipelines networks, 98,100-102 nowNewtonian liquids, 106 optimum economic size, 102, 103 Piping dimensions, 675 schedule number, 129 Piston pump See Positive displacement Pumps Plate and frame filters, 319 performance, 331 sizes, commercial, 323 Plate exchangers, 189, 195 Plates, fractionating See Trays Pneumatic conveying, 71-76 dense phase transfer, 74 equipment, 72,73,75 flow rates, 72 operating conditions, 73 pilot plant, 74 power requirements, 72,74,77 pressure drop, 76,77 Pneumatic conveying dryers, 255 performance, 263,264 pilot plant size, 237 sizing example, 266, 277 sketches, 265 Podbielniak extractor, 478, 484, 487 Poiseuille equation, 94 Polyethylene reactor, 573,574 Polytropic head, 156 Positive displacement pumps application range, 143 characteristics, 134, 143 discharge curves, 135, 141 efficiency, 135 steam consumption, 135 Powder blenders, 301,303 Power law behavior, non-Newtonian, 71 Power number, mixing, 290-292 limiting values, 293 Power requirement for pipelines, 98 INDEX Power supply, from a hot gas stream, 12 generation with steam, 11 Pressure control, 42,44,51,52, 59, 60 Pressure drop cyclone separators, 617 gas-solid flow, 119-120 granular beds, 117 heat exchanger example, 193,194 heat exchangers, 188 non-Newtonian flow, 106-109 wire mesh pads, 616 Pressure drop, piplines, 92 chart method, 96 two-phase flow, 116 typical values, 95 Pressure vessel code, ASME, 625 Prilling, 361, 362 equipment size, 367 flowsketch, 366 operating data, 367 products of, 367 size distribution, 362 Prism membrane separation process, 633, 643 Propeller pump, 143 Proprietary equipment, Propylene oxide synthesis, 34 Pseudoplasticity, 71, 103, 104 Psychrometric chart, 232 application example, 234 wide temperature range, 233 Pulsed extractors, 478,482,487 amplitude of pulse, 484 frequency, 484 hole size, 484 interfacial tension effect, 484 packing size 484 pulsing modes, 481 Pumps, 131-144 application ranges, 143, 150 characteristic curves, 134, 137 characteristics, 144 control, 55,58,59 dimensionless groups, 131 efficiency, 144 efficiency, Moody’s formula, 131, 132 glossary, 166 parallel operation, 133, 147 performance, 144, 150 performance, dimensionless, 131, 132 performance, typical, 144 seals, 137, 142 selection criteria, 140, 143, 144 series operation, 133, 147 q, distillation feed condition, 381 q-line, McCabe-Thiele diagram, 381 Questionnaires, vendors, index, 727 Raoult’s law, 371 Rates, chemical reactions, 549 basic equations, 554 constant pressure, 554 constant volume, 554 integrals of equations, 556 Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism, 554 law of mass action, 554 plug flow reactor, 555 simultaneous reactions, 554 solid catalyzed, 554 stirred tanks, 555 temperature effects, 553,554 Rate equations, chemical basic, 554 integrals of, 556 plug flow reactor, 555 stirred tanks, 555 Rayleigh distillation, 378 multicomponent, 379 Raymond flash dryer, 265 performance, 263 Raymond mill, 345 RDC (rotating disk contactor), 482,487 capacity, 487,489 design example, 488 formulas, 489 Reactors, chemical, 567-582 classification, 568 ebbulating bed, 593 fermentation, 654,659,660 fired heater, 574,575 fixed bed, 572 flame, 573 fluidized bed, 577,591,592 gas-liquid, 570,571 immiscible liquids, 570, 571 mixed, 570 moving bed, 574,588,589 pebble heater, 574, 575, 578 rotary kiln, 575,576,590 stirred tanks, 567-569 stirred tanks, batch and continuous, 569 stirred tanks, typical proportions, 568 tubular flow, 569 Reactors, fementation, 654,659, 660 Reboilers, 206-208 control, 47 design example, 209 guide to selection, 208 sketches, 175 Reciprocating pumps See Positive displacement pumps Reciprocating compressors, 146, 148, 149 sizes of commerical equipment, 153, 154 Redler conveyors, 85 sizing calculation, 88 Reflux, distillation, 371 minimum, ratio, 382, 387,397 optimum, ratio, 382, 387 Reflux drums, 612 holdup, 612 sketch, typical, 613 Watkins method for sizing, 612 Reforming, platinum catalyst, 572 Refractories, properties, 223 Refrigerants, 226 characteristics, 15 data, 227 freons, 228 Refrigeration, 224 ammonia absorption, 226,227,229 cascades, 226 circuits, 225 compression, 224-227 thermodynamic diagrams, 225 Regenerators, 188 Relative volatility, 374 correlation example, 375 Residence time distribution, 556, 558, 559 commercial and pilot equipment, 559 CSTR battery, 558,559 dispersion model, 560 753 dryers, 245 Erlang distribution, 556 impulse response, 556 laminar flow, 561 Peclet number, 558,559 PFR, 558,559 variance, 558 Residual enthalpy and entropy, 158, 159 Reverse osmosis See Osmosis, Desalination ethanol/water separation, 642 Reynolds number, 92 non-Newtonian flow, 108,109 Rheopectic liquids, 104, 105 Ripple trays, 426 Roll presses, 358 commercial sizes, 364 product list, 363 Rotary compressors, 149 performance data, 154,155 Rotary dryers, 247 design details, 256 performance, 257-259 scaleup, 256 sketches, 254,255 tray type, 251 Rotary kiln reactors, 575,590 Roughness factor, piplines, 94 Rounds equation, friction factor, 94 RRS (Rosin-Rammler-Sperling) equation, 525, 530-532 Rules of thumb compressors and vacuum pumps, xiii conveyors for particulate solids, xiii cooling towers, xiii crystallization from solution, xiv disintegration, xiv distillation and gas absorption, xiv drivers and power recovery equipment, xv drying of solids, x evaporators, xv extraction, liquid-liquid, xv filtration, xvi fluidization of particles with gases, xvi heat exchangers, xvi insulation xvi mixing and agitation, xvii particle size enlargement, xvii piping, xvii reactors, xvii refrigeration, xviii size separation of particles, xviii utilities, common specifications, xviii vessels (drums), xviii vessels (pressure), xviii vessels (storage), xix Safety factors, 6, equipment sizing, table, Safety, plant, checklist about chemical reactions, checklist of startup and shutdown, , potential hazards, Salicylic acid purification, 646 Salt cake furnace, 590 Sand cracking reactor, 593 Sand filters, 318, 322 SC (simultaneous correction) method, 404,408,410 algorithm flowsketch, 411 S C m concept, filtration, 317 754 INDEX Scatchard-Hildebrand equation, 374 Schacham equation, friction factor, 94 Scheibel extractor, 483,487 Schildknecht column, 543, 544,546 Screens, separating, 335,337 capacity, 335, 340 flat, 335 reciprocating, 335 revolving, 335 rotary sifter, 335 sketches, 338 Screw conveyors, 76, 79, 80 sizing calculation, 80 sizing data, 79 types of screws, 80 Screw pumps, 134, 141 performance, 148 Sedimentation behavior, 305-307 equipment, 319 equipment sketches, 320,338 Segregated flow, 560 volume ratio to CSTR, 561 volume ratio to maximum mixedness, 560 Separation, solid-liquid See also Filtration chief mechanical means, 305 clarifying, 315, 320 comparison of equipment, 307 experimental selection routine, 308 flocculants, 309 slurry pretreatment, 309 thickening, 315, 320 Separators, gas-liquid cyclones, 616 wire mesh, 616 Separators, liquid-liquid, 612 dispersed phase criteria, 612-615 droplet sizes, 612 example, calculation, 614 Settling rate, 70 Newton’s equation, 614 Stokes’ equation, 612,614 Shale oil reactor, 589 Shell and tube heat exchangers, 195 design, 199 design procedure, 202 internals, 201 sketches, 178 TEMA classification, 200 tube counts, 203 Sherwood-Lobo flooding correlation, 441 Siemens-Martin furnace-regenerator, 590 Sieve tray extractors, 483 capacity, 484,487 diameters, 483,487 efficiency, 483,487 pulsed, 478,483,487 sizing example, 486 Sieve trays, 428 assembly in a tower, 428 comparison with other types, example, 431 malfunctions, 431 operating ranges, 431 phenomena, 430 specifications, 429 Sintering, 363 process sketch, 359 Size enlargement, 351-369 prilling, 361, 362 products, 354 product shapes, 362 Size enlargement equipment, 351 disk granulators, 352, 355 extruders, 358 fluidized bed, 362,368, 369 paddle blender, 360 pin mixer, 361 roll presses, 358, 363 rotating drum, 353, 357 spouted bed, 362 tumblers, 351, 355 Size reduction, 339-350 application, various materials, 343,344 operating ranges of equipment, 343 power requirement, example, 342 size distribution of product, 337 surface energy, 339 work index, 342 work required, 339,342 Size reduction equipment, 341 attrition mills, 343, 348, 351 ball mills, 342, 351 buhrstone, 343, 352 colloid, 343,352 disk attritor, 343, 352 gyratory, 343, 352 hammer mills, 341,346, 350,351 jaw crushers, 341,346,349 jet mills, 350, 351, 352 mikro-pulverizer, 350 pebble mills, 343 rod mills, 342,346,347 roll crushers, 341,346, 349 roller mills, 343,345, 348,351,352 squirrel cage disintegrator, 343,352 tube mills, 343,346, 351 tumbling mills, 342 Slurry pretreatment, 309,315 Slurry transport, 69-71 critical velocity, 69 pressure drop, 69-71 Soave equation of state, 373 Sodium carbonate/water diagram, 530 Sodium sulfate/water diagram, 529 Solubility of solids, 523 data, 525 phase diagrams, 526 supersaturation, 525, 527,528 Souders-Brown correlation, 432 Space velocity, 549-553 Specification forms, index, 681 Specific speed, pumps, 131,133, 136 Spouted beds, 362 Spray dryers, 268-279 atomizers, 274,276 operating variables, 277 particles sizes, 276 performance, 275 pilot plant performance, 278 pilot unit, 237, 278 product density, 276 product number 278 residence time, 270 residence time distribution, 245 sizing example, 279 sketches, 274 SR (sum rates) method, 407,409 algorithm flowsheet, 408 Standards and codes, , Steam heaters, 45,46 Steam jet ejectors, 143, 162 arrangements, 163 performance profiles, 166 steam consumption, 165 theory, 166 Steam supply characteristics, 15 generation, 9, 10 power generation, 11 Steam turbines advantages, 62 data sheet, 66 efficiency, 63 steam requirement, calculation, 65 theoretical steam rates, 64 Steam, water properties, 673,674 Stirred tank, crystallization model, 533539 applicability of the model, 536 data analysis, example, 537 multiple tanks, 536 performance, example, 538 product size distribution, 539 Stirred tank design, 287, 288 baffles, 287 draft tubes, 287 impellers, 288-290,293,294 sketch, basic, 288 Stirred tank impellers descriptions, 288,290 location, 288 size, 288 size, calculation example, 293,294 sketches, 289 speed, 288 Stokes equation, 70,612,614 Storage tanks, 619 API standard sues, 622 buried, 621 granular solids, 624 horizontal, 619 large sizes, 623 pressure, 621 supports, 621,624 vertical, 621 Structured packings, 437 Sublimation, 638 equipment, 639 products, 646 salicylic acid purification, 646 Sulfur dioxide oxidation reactors, 572, 578-580 reaction equilibria, 580 temperature profiles, 580 Sulfur isotope separation, 650 Supercooling, maximum, 527,528 Supersaturation, 525,527,528 crystal growth rate and, 533 data, 527 thermodynamic analysis, 531 Suspension of particles, 295,296 data, 298 example calculation, 299 Suspensions, non-Newtonian behavior, 71 Sweetland filter, 319,323-325 Symbols, flowsheet, 21-25 Synthetic fuel reactors, 585,594,595 Tabletting machines, 356 Manesty, 356,358 product shapes, 362 Sharples, 356,358 US Pharmacopeia specifications, 357 INDEX Tall oil distillation, 36 TEMA classification, heat exchangers, 200 Temperature control, 42,45-47 Temperature difference, 172 logarithmic mean, 172 multipass exchangers, 173, 175-177 Temperature profiles, heat exchangers, 173 Temperature profiles, reactors ammonia synthesis, 582, 584 cement kiln, 590 cracking of petroleum, 595 endo- and exothermic processes, 584 jacketed tubular reactor, 584 methanol synthesis, 580 phosgene synthesis, 594 reactor with internal heat exchange, 584 sulfur dioxide oxidation, 580 visbreaking, 595 Thermal conductivity insulating materials, 222 packed beds, 587,599-601 Thermal diffusion separation, 642 cell sketch, 649 hydrocarbon isomers, 644,649 isotopes, 651 performance, 649 sulfur isotopes, 650 Thermosiphon reboilers, 207 calculation example, 193 Theta method, heat exchangers, 179, 181, 182 chart, 181 example calculation, 182 Thickeners, 315, 320 performance, 307,320 sketches, 320,338 Thiele-Geddes method, 404,407 Thiele modulus, 566 Thixotropic liquids, 104-106 Tielines, liquid-liquid equilibria, 460,461 Hand correlation, 463, 465 Ishida correlation, 463,465 Othmer and Tobias correlation, 463, 465 Trays, fractionating assembly of sieve trays, 428 bubblecap, 428,430-433 capacity, F-factor, 429 capacity, Jersey Critical, 432 capacity, Souders-Brown, 432 cartridge, 428 design data sheet, 429 dualflow, 426 efficiency, 439-456 Linde, 430 ripple, 426 sieve, 428, 429 turbogrid, 426 types, 426 valve, 429,430,432 Trickle reactors, 576, 607 Tridiagonal matrix, 407 Trommels, 335 Tube count table, heat exchangers, 203 Tubular heat exchangers sketches, 174, 175 TEMA classification, 200 tube count table, 203 Turbine pumps, 134, 139, 140, 142, 143 Turner equation, leaching, 466 Turbogrid trays, 426 Two-phase fluid flow, 111, 113-117 correlations, 115 granular beds, 118 homogeneous model, 113 Lockhart-Martinelli method, 115, 116 patterns, 114 pressure drop, calculation example, 116 segregated flow model, 114 void fraction, 116 Tyler sieves, 336 Ultrafiltration, 631 applications, 633 membranes, 637-639 Underwood minimum reflux binary, 387 multicomponent, 397 Units, conversion of, 671, 672 UNIQUAC equation, 475 Upflow fixed beds, 609 Uranium recovery, 515 Utilities, typical characteristics, 15 Vacuum drum filters, 319 air flow rates, 328 applications, 332 cycle design, 328 flowsketch, 326 laboratory test data, 312 minimum cake thickness, 328 operation, calculation example, 312, 313 operation modes, 326 performance, 307, 333 sizes, commercial, 327 Vacuum filter, horizontal, 321 performance, 307 sizes, commercial, 327 sketches, 325 Vacuum pumps, 162 air leakage, 164, 165 operating ranges, 145 steam jet ejectors, 163, 165, 166 Vacuum systems air leakage, 164,165 other gas leakage, 165 Vallez filter, 319, 323-325 Valve trays, 429-432 comparison with other types, example, 431 diameter sizing chart, 432 sketches of valves, 430 Valves, 129 control, 129-131 friction in, 99 van der Waals equation of state, 111, 113 Vapor-liquid equilibria, 371 binary data, 376 binary x-y diagrams, 375 in presence of solvents, 416,418-420 Raoult’s law, 371 relative volatility, 374 755 VER chart, 372 Vapor-liquid equilibrium data acetone/methanol, 416 acetonelwater, 416,423 butadiene, 420 butane/2-butene in solvents, 419 butanol/water, 388 chloroform/acetone/MIBK, 416 cyclohexane/benzene in solvents, 418 ethanelbutanelpentane, 378 ethanol/acetic acid, 385 ethanol/butanol, 375 ethanollwater, 387,416 heptane/methylcylohexane in solvents, 418 isoprene, 420 methylethylketone/water, 423 octane/toluene/phenol, 416 Velocities in pipelines, typical, 95 Vendors questionnaires, list, 727 VER (vaporization equilibrium ratio), 371 chart, 372 Vessels, process ASME code, 625 design example, 628 heads, 624,625 heads, types, 627,628 mechanical design, 621 pressure, 623 shells, 624, 625 temperature, 623 tensile strength, 623, 626 thickness formulas, 625 Visbreaker operation, 33 Viscosity units, 91 Volatility, relative, 374, 375 Wang-Henke method, 404,408 algorithm flowsketch, 406 Water cooling, typical conditions, 15 properties, 673, 674 vapor pressure, 231 Wet bulb temperature, 234 WHSV, 549 Wilson equation, activity coefficients, 374 Wilson-Lobb-Hottel equation, 214 application, 219 Winkler process, 582 Wire mesh deentrainers, 615 calculation example, 620 disengaging space, 616 key dimensions, 618 k-values, 615 pressure drop, 616 typical installations, 616 Work index, size reduction, 342 Wyssmont dryer, 237,251 Xylenes separation by crystallization, 544, 545 Zippered belt conveyor, 84 sizing calculation, 88 Zwietering equation, maximum mixedness 560 ... the process engineer, such equipment is predesigned and fabricated and made available by manufacturers in limited numbers of types, sizes, and capacities The process design of proprietary equipment, ... costs of equipment, rounds out the book Appendixes provide examples of equipment rating forms and manufacturers’ questionnaires Chemical process equipment is of two kinds: custom designed and built,... instrumentation The process design is summarized by a process flowsheet, a material and energy balance, and a set of individual equipment specifications Varying degrees of thoroughness of a process design