while the remaining 16 chapters cover A2 Level Features: • Each chapter begins with a brief outline of the content and • Self-assessment questions to test your progress ends with a summary •• Exam-style at the are endshort of every thoroughlyfor prepare Throughoutquestions the text there testchapter yourselftoquestions for examinations students to consolidate their learning as they progress, with answers at the end of the book • Added focus on practical procedures and greater emphasis on real • world Worked examples illustrate how to tackle various types of applications question • Easy navigation with eye-catching and engaging Introductions and • straightforward At the end of each chapterinthere more short questions to Summaries everyare chapter revise the content, and a series of exam style questions to give • Accessible language and globally relevant examples to make this practice in answering longer, structured questions Answers to book ideal for international learners these questions are available on the accompanying Teacher’s Resource CD-ROM Bonus accompanying CD-ROM containing: • Three chapters on Sensing, Medical imaging and • Answers to all of the questions in the book Communications systems cover the Applications of Physics • Advice how to revise and how to approach examinations sectionabout of the syllabus Appendices will help students practical skills •• Lists of recommended resourcesdevelop such as the further reading and web links testedare in ideal examinations, welland as providing other useful which for further as study special projects reference material and a glossary Also available: The accompanying CD-ROM includes animations designed Teacher’s Resource ISBNof978-1-107-67770-8 to develop a deeperCD-ROM understanding various topics It also contains revision questions with answers for eachfor Completely Cambridge – Cambridge resources chapter Cambridge qualifications Also available: Cambridge International Examinations is the world’s largest provider of Teacher’s Resource CD-ROM ISBN 978-0-521-17915-7 programmes and qualifi cations for 5-19 year olds Cambridge University Press is the oldest publishing house in the world, having been operating Completely Cambridge – Cambridge continuously since 1584, and is one of the largest academic publishers resources for Cambridge qualifications globally Cambridge University Press works closely with Cambridge International Examinations as parts of the Cambridge University Press works with Cambridge International University of and Cambridge We enable students toendorsed Examinations experienced authorsthousands to produceofhigh-quality pass theirand Cambridge by providing comprehensive, textbooks softwareexams that support Cambridge Teachers andhighencourage quality, endorsed resources Cambridge Learners To find out more about Cambridge International Examinations Visit education.cambridge.org/cie for information on our full range of visit www.cie.org.uk Cambridge International AS and A Level titles including e-books and supporting digital resources Visit education.cambridge.org/cie for more information on our full range of Cambridge International A Level titles including e-book versions and mobile apps Ryan and Norris Cambirdge International AS and A Level Chesmistry CVR C M Y K International Examinations for use with their examination This revised and updated coursebook is tailored to the new International AS and A Level Chemistry syllabus (9701) and is endorsed by Cambridge The first 17 chapters cover the material required for AS Level, International Examinations Coursebook 978 107 63845 “The depth ofInternational coverage is AS entirely and the topics are covered Cambridge and appropriate A Level Physics matches seriously and at a level that should encourage student interest.” the requirements of the Cambridge International AS and A Former Head ofsyllabus Science,(9702) Aiglon It College, Switzerland Level Physics is endorsed by Cambridge Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Cambridge Cambridge International International AS and A Level AS and A Level Chemistry Physics Coursebook Coursebook Second edition David Sang, Graham Jones, Richard Woodside and Gurinder Lawrie Ryan and Roger Norris Chadha Lawrie Ryan and Roger Norris Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Coursebook Second Edition Lawrie Ryan and Roger Norris Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Coursebook Second Edition University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press 2011, 2014 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2011 Second edition 2014 Printed in the United Kingdom by Latimer Trend A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ® ® isbn 978-1-107-63845-7 Paperback with CD-ROM for Windows and Mac Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Information regarding prices, travel timetables, and other factual information given in this work is correct at the time of first printing but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter notice to teachers in the uk It is illegal to reproduce any part of this work in material form (including photocopying and electronic storage) except under the following circumstances: (i) where you are abiding by a licence granted to your school or institution by the Copyright Licensing Agency; (ii) where no such licence exists, or where you wish to exceed the terms of a licence, and you have gained the written permission of Cambridge University Press; (iii) where you are allowed to reproduce without permission under the provisions of Chapter of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, which covers, for example, the reproduction of short passages within certain types of educational anthology and reproduction for the purposes of setting examination questions Example answers and all other end-of-chapter questions were written by the authors Contents How to use this book vi Chapter 1: Moles and equations Masses of atoms and molecules Accurate relative atomic masses Amount of substance Mole calculations Chemical formulae and chemical equations Solutions and concentration Calculations involving gas volumes Chapter 2: Atomic structure 10 14 18 24 Elements and atoms 25 25 Inside the atom Numbers of nucleons 28 Isotopes28 How many protons, neutrons and electrons? 29 Chapter 3: Electrons in atoms Simple electronic structure Evidence for electronic structure Subshells and atomic orbitals Electronic configurations Orbitals and the Periodic Table Patterns in ionisation energies in the Periodic Table Chapter 4: Chemical bonding Types of chemical bonding Ionic bonding Covalent bonding Shapes of molecules More molecular shapes Metallic bonding Intermolecular forces Hydrogen bonding Bonding and physical properties Chapter 5: States of matter States of matter The gaseous state The liquid state The solid state Simple molecular lattices Carbon nanoparticles Conserving materials Chapter 6: Enthalpy changes 89 What are enthalpy changes? 90 Standard enthalpy changes 92 94 Measuring enthalpy changes Hess’s law 97 Enthalpy change of reaction from enthalpy changes of formation 97 Enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy changes of combustion 98 Calculating the enthalpy change of hydration of an anhydrous salt 99 99 Bond energies and enthalpy changes Calculating enthalpy changes using bond energies 101 Chapter 7: Redox reactions 106 33 34 37 38 40 What is a redox reaction? 107 Redox and electron transfer 108 Oxidation numbers 109 Redox and oxidation number 110 Naming compounds 111 From name to formula 112 Balancing chemical equations using oxidation numbers112 41 Chapter 8: Equilibrium116 32 48 49 49 51 55 56 58 60 64 66 72 73 73 77 78 80 82 83 Reversible reactions and equilibrium 117 Changing the position of equilibrium 119 Equilibrium expressions and the equilibrium constant, Kc123 Equilibria in gas reactions: the equilibrium constant, Kp127 Equilibria and the chemical industry 129 Acid-base equilibria 130 Chapter 9: Rates of reaction 140 Reaction kinetics 141 The effect of concentration on rate of reaction 143 143 The effect of temperature on rate of reaction Catalysis144 Enzymes145 Chapter 10: Periodicity Structure of the Periodic Table Periodicity of physical properties Periodicity of chemical properties 148 149 149 154 iii Oxides of Period elements Chlorides of Period elements Chapter 11: Group 2 Physical properties of Group elements Reactions of Group elements Thermal decomposition of Group carbonates and nitrates Some uses of Group compounds Chapter 12: Group 17 156 158 163 164 165 168 169 171 Physical properties of Group 17 elements 172 Reactions of Group 17 elements 173 Reactions of the halide ions 175 Disproportionation177 Uses of the halogens and their compounds 178 Chapter 13: Nitrogen and sulfur Nitrogen gas Ammonia and ammonium compounds Uses of ammonia and ammonium compounds Sulfur and its oxides Sulfuric acid iv Chapter 14: Introduction to organic chemistry 180 181 182 183 185 185 The homologous series of alcohols Reactions of the alcohols Carboxylic acids 226 226 231 Chapter 18: Carbonyl compounds 234 The homologous series of aldehydes and ketones235 236 Preparation of aldehydes and ketones Reduction of aldehydes and ketones 237 237 Nucleophilic addition with HCN Testing for aldehydes and ketones 238 Reactions to form tri-iodomethane 240 241 Infra-red spectroscopy Chapter P1: Practical skills 1 188 Chapter 15: Hydrocarbons201 202 202 204 207 208 210 211 213 Chapter 16: Halogenoalkanes217 Nucleophilic substitution reactions 218 Mechanism of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes220 Elimination reactions 222 Uses of halogenoalkanes 222 246 Review of practical knowledge and understanding247 Manipulation, measurement and observation 249 Presentation of data and observations 250 Analysis, conclusions and evaluation 251 Chapter 19: Lattice energy Representing organic molecules 189 Functional groups 192 192 Naming organic compounds Bonding in organic molecules 193 Structural isomerism 194 Stereoisomerism195 Organic reactions – mechanisms 196 Types of organic reaction 198 The homologous group of alkanes Sources of the alkanes Reactions of alkanes The alkenes Addition reactions of the alkenes Oxidation of the alkenes Addition polymerisation Tackling questions on addition polymers Chapter 17: Alcohols, esters and carboxylic 225 acids Defining lattice energy Enthalpy change of atomisation and electron affinity Born–Haber cycles Factors affecting the value of lattice energy Ion polarisation Enthalpy changes in solution 257 258 258 259 262 263 265 Chapter 20: Electrochemistry273 Redox reactions revisited 274 Electrolysis275 Quantitative electrolysis 276 Electrode potentials 278 Measuring standard electrode potentials 282 O values284 Using E — Cells and batteries 293 More about electrolysis 295 Chapter 21: Further aspects of equilibria 303 The ionic product of water, Kw304 pH calculations 305 Weak acids – using the acid dissociation constant, Ka307 Indicators and acid–base titrations 309 Buffer solutions 313 Equilibrium and solubility Partition coefficients 316 319 Chapter 22: Reaction kinetics 324 Factors affecting reaction rate 325 Rate of reaction 325 Rate equations 330 Which order of reaction? 332 Calculations involving the rate constant, k334 Deducing order of reaction from raw data 335 Kinetics and reaction mechanisms 338 Catalysis 340 Chapter 23: Entropy and Gibbs free energy 349 Introducing entropy Chance and spontaneous change Calculating entropy changes Entropy and temperature Entropy, enthalpy changes and free energy Gibbs free energy Gibbs free energy calculations Chapter 24: Transition elements What is a transition element? Physical properties of the transition elements Redox reactions Ligands and complex formation Chapter 25: Benzene and its compounds The benzene ring Reactions of arenes Phenol Reactions of phenol Chapter 26: Carboxylic acids and their derivatives The acidity of carboxylic acids Oxidation of two carboxylic acids Acyl chlorides 350 350 354 357 357 358 360 366 367 369 369 371 381 382 384 387 388 393 394 395 396 Chapter 27: Organic nitrogen compounds 400 Amines Formation of amines Amino acids Peptides Reactions of the amides Electrophoresis 401 402 404 405 406 407 Chapter 28: Polymerisation Condensation polymerisation Synthetic polyamides Biochemical polymers The importance of hydrogen bonding in DNA Polyesters Designing useful polymers Degradable polymers Polymer deductions Chapter 29: Analytical chemistry Chromatography Proton (1H) nuclear magnetic resonance Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy Mass spectrometry 411 412 413 414 418 421 422 425 426 433 434 439 444 446 Chapter 30: Organic synthesis 456 Designing new medicinal drugs 457 Chapter P2: Practical skills 2 Written examination of practical skills Planning Analysis, conclusions and evaluation 464 465 465 468 v Appendix 1: The Periodic Table of the Elements 473 Appendix 2: Selected standard electrode potentials 474 Appendix 3: Qualitative analysis notes 475 Glossary 477 Index 486 Acknowledgements 493 CD-ROM CD1 Introduction to the examination and changes to the syllabus Advice on how to revise for and approach examinations Answers to end-of-chapter questions Recommended resources CD1 CD4 CD10 CD76 How to use this book Each chapter begins with a short list of the facts and concepts that are explained in it There is a short context at the beginning of each chapter, containing an example of how the material covered in the chapter relates to the ‘real world’ This book does not contain detailed instructions for doing particular experiments, but you will find background information about the practical work you need to in these boxes There are also two chapters, P1 and P2, which provide detailed information about the practical skills you need to develop during the course vi Important equations and other facts are shown in highlight boxes Questions throughout the text give you a chance to check that you have understood the topic you have just read about You can find the answers to these questions on the CD-ROM The text and illustrations describe and explain all of the facts and concepts that you need to know The chapters, and often the content within them as well, are arranged in the same sequence as in your syllabus How to use this book Wherever you need to know how to use a formula to carry out a calculation, there are worked example boses to show you how to this Definitions that are required by the syllabus are shown in highlight boxes Key words are highlighted in the text when they are first introduced You will also find definitions of these words in the Glossary vii There is a summary of key points at the end of each chapter You might find this helpful when you are revising Questions at the end of each chapter are more demanding exam-style questions, some of which may require use of knowledge from previous chapters Answers to these questions can be found on the CD-ROM Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 18: Carbonyl compounds Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chemistryrules.me.uk/candrands/carbonyls.htm#title Carbonyl compounds properties and distinction between aldehydes and ketones using Tollens’ reagent and Benedict’s reagent Iodoform reaction www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/NOR/default.htm Interactive organic mechanisms (general site) www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/carbonyls/oxidation.html Shows how to distinguish aldehydes from ketones using Tollens’ reagent and Fehling’s solution www.chembook.co.uk/chap22.htm# Some information about carbonyl compounds, but information for the course needs to be sifted from other material www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/listing?searchtext=aldehydes A number of resources concerning different aldehydes and worksheets relating to aldehydes and ketones Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 19: Lattice energy Please note: reference is made in some of these resources to the old group-naming style of the Periodic Table, using Groups I to VIII Modern best practice is to use Groups to 18, as in the Coursebook, so the halogen group was Group VII but is now Group 17 Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chemistryrules.me.uk/candrands/carbonyls.htm#title Carbonyl compounds properties and distinction between aldehydes and ketones using Tollens’ reagent and Benedict’s reagent Iodoform reaction www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/NOR/default.htm Interactive organic mechanisms (general site) www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/carbonyls/oxidation.html Shows how to distinguish aldehydes from ketones using Tollens’ reagent and Fehling’s solution www.chembook.co.uk/chap22.htm# Some information about carbonyl compounds, but information for the course needs to be sifted from other material www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/listing?searchtext=aldehydes A number of resources concerning different aldehydes and worksheets relating to aldehydes and ketones Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 20: Electrochemistry Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/chemistry/electrochemistry Methods of measuring standard electrode potential are given www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/echem/redox-std-potentials.html Good explanation of standard redox potentials, cell potentials and feasibility of reactions www.chembook.co.uk/chap11.htm#chap11 Good revision of more complex redox reactions and introduction to cells (although calculations limited and some material that is not required) www.creative-chemistry.org.uk/alevel/module5/index.htm A number of resources, including information on redox equations and reaction of iron(II) ions with manganate(VII) ions and dichromate ions related to redox systems www.chemistryrules.me.uk/tandp/optiontransitionelements.htm#electrodePotentials Measurement of electrode potentials and feasibility of reactions Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 21: Further aspects of equilibria Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chembook.co.uk/chap10.htm#chap10 Equilibrium aspects of acid–base reactions, including calculations and discussion of changes in pH during acid–base titrations Examples of solubility product calculations www.chemistryrules.me.uk/hfhf/hfhf4.htm#title Variety of calculations and examples, including buffer solutions and solubility product www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/chemistry/ionic-equilibria/revise-it/buffer-solutions Discusses buffer solutions, including buffering action of hydrogencarbonate www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/chemistry/ionic-equilibria/revise-it/solubility-product Good explanation of solubility product Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 22: Reaction kinetics Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chembook.co.uk/chap9.htm#chap9 Good introduction to order of reaction, including half-life method Most of the topic is covered www.chemistryrules.me.uk/hfhf/hfhf3.htm#title Good introduction to kinetics and orders of reaction Some examples given with relevant data Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies shown Discussion of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/general/kinetics.html Reaction kinetics getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/the_haber_process Haber process – action of catalysts – vital for this process www.youtube.com/watch?v=kaQSx2MZY8c Video material posted on YouTube about entropy and Gibbs free energy sci-culture.com/chemistry/gibbsenergy.php Very simple explanation of relationship between entropy and Gibbs free energy No examples of calculations www.chembook.co.uk/chap9.htm#effects More information on rates and catalysis Some of the material goes beyond the syllabus Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 23: Entropy and Gibbs free energy Online and interactive resources www.docbrown.info/page07/delta3SG.htm Details about entropy and free energy with some sample calculations www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/thermo/reaction.html Gibbs free energy introduced and examples given (but tends to get overcomplicated) alevelchem.com/aqa_a_level_chemistry/unit3.5/s351/05.htm Simple introduction to entropy with ideas of vibration, rotation and translation of molecules www.a-levelchemistry.co.uk/AQA%20A2%20Chemistry/Unit%205/5.1%20Thermodynamics/5.1%20 notes.doc Introduction to entropy www.chembook.co.uk/chap12.htm#chap12 Simple introduction to entropy and free energy with basic ideas Not many calculations alevelchem.com/aqa_a_level_chemistry/unit3.5/s351/06.htm Basic explanation of Gibbs free energy and its relationship with entropy with one sample calculation Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 24: Transition elements Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chemistryrules.me.uk/tandp/transitionelements.htm#title Useful information about examples of redox reaction, complexes including co-ordination numbers and colours www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/chemistry/transition-metals Plenty of information about transition elements www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/LiveChem/transitionmetals_content.html Rich resources about transition metals, including numerous videos Complexes of Ni(II) shown www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/general/complexes.html Plenty of information about shapes and formulae of complexes www.chemit.co.uk/Resource/ListByKeywordId/62 General information about complex ions www.creative-chemistry.org.uk/alevel/module5/index.htm Particularly documents N-Ch-5-11 and -12 The effect of different ligands on the formation of complexes www.chembook.co.uk/chap18.htm#chap18 Introduction to properties of transition elements in terms of physical properties and electronic structure but relatively less on complexes and ligands Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 25: Benzene and its compounds Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources http://getrevising.co.uk/resources/benzene Benzene and benzene derivatives – note this is a paid-for resource www.chemistryrules.me.uk/candrands/arenes.htm#title Arenes, including reaction mechanisms and nature of the bonding in terms of pi-electron distribution Video clips on this site about nomenclature of aromatic compounds and electrophilic substitution in benzene www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/iom/ Interactive organic mechanisms (general site) www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/chemistry/aromatic-and-plastics Reactions of benzene and methylbenzene including mechanisms of reaction Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 26: Carboxylic acids and their derivatives Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/iom/ Interactive organic mechanisms www.chemistryrules.me.uk/candrands/carboxylicacids.htm#title Carboxylic acids and acid halides Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 27: Organic nitrogen compounds Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chemistryrules.me.uk/candrands/nitrogen.htm#title Nitrogen compounds, including amines and their basicity, amino acids and proteins www.accessexcellence.org/LC/BEOn/data/phasethree/0600-beon/wire3.php Information about primary secondary and tertiary structures of proteins www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/chemistry/aromatic-and-plastics Reactions of phenylamine, including formation of diazonium salts and coupling reaction with phenol www.chembook.co.uk/chap22.htm# Suitable introduction to amines and diazonium compounds Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 28: Polymerisation Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chemistryrules.me.uk/candrands/polymerisation.htm#title Polymers: mechanisms of polymerisation www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/chemistry/aromatic-and-plastics/revise-it/polymerisation Plastics www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/Kevlar/index.html Kevlar and its uses Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 29: Analytical techniques Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.chembook.co.uk/chap21.htm#haloalkanes Detailed introduction to aromatic chemistry, including reaction mechanisms www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/collections/spectroscopy/introduction#IRSpectroscopy Good site for introduction and analysis of infra-red, NMR and mass spectroscopy with examples www.york.ac.uk/org/seg/salters/chemistry/WM/52Spectroscopy.doc Good site for analysis of infra-red spectra Many examples given alevelchem.com/aqa_a_level_chemistry/unit3.2/sub3211/02.htm Basic information about process of infra-red spectroscopy but no examples given www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/CHROMO/chromintro.html Rf values and chromatography www.a-levelchemistry.co.uk/AQA%20A2%20Chemistry/Unit%204/4.11%20Structure%20 Determination/4.11%20notes.doc Good examples of mass spectra, including C-13 mass spectra www.4college.co.uk/a/ep/nmr.php Readable account of NMR spectroscopy with examples www.chemguide.co.uk/CIE/section112/learninga.html Readable and clear guide about electrophoresis www.scribd.com/doc/19493970/37/ Good description of electrophoresis www.chemistryrules.me.uk/candrands/spectroscopy.htm#title Quite a few examples of infra-red spectra and NMR spectra with interpretation Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 Cambridge International A Level Chemistry Recommended resources Chapter 30: Organic synthesis Further reading Hill and Holman (2011) Chemistry in Context, Sixth edition, Nelson Thornes A classic text that offers more contextual background and some extended reading Clugston and Flemming (2000) Advanced Chemistry, Oxford University Press A number of alternative explanations and questions Online and interactive resources www.a-levelchemistry.co.uk/AQA%20A2%20Chemistry/Unit%204/4.10%20Organic%20Synthesis%20 and%20Analysis/4.10%20notes.doc Several examples of organic synthesis given with examples of webs showing interconversions of functional groups sam.davyson.com/a2/chemistry/os/ Diagrams of interconversions of functional groups www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resources/synthesis-explorer/ Information about synthetic routes and how to go about these www.knockhardy.org.uk/ppoints_htm_files/synthpps.pps Good introduction to organic synthesis as series of PowerPoints, including chiral synthesis Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry © Cambridge University Press 2014 ... carbon-12 has a mass of exactly 12 units Relative molecular mass, relative isotopic mass and relative formula mass are also 12 based on the C scale The type and relative amount of each isotope in an... empirical formula and molecular formula – the mole in terms of the Avogadro constant analyse and use mass spectra to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element calculate empirical and molecular... 19 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry summary ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale where an atom of carbon-12