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VOLUME 1800-1899 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery VOLUME 1800-1899 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery Neil Schlager, Editor J o s h L a u e r, A s s o c i a t e E d i t o r Produced by Schlager Information Group Science and Its Times VOLUME 1800-1899 NEIL SCHLAGER, Editor JOSH LAUER, Associate Editor GALE GROUP STAFF Robyn V Young, Project Coordinator Christine B Jeryan, Contributing Editor Mary K Fyke, Editorial Technical Specialist Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager Margaret A Chamberlain, Permissions Specialist Shalice Shah-Caldwell, Permissions Associate Mary Beth Trimper, Production Director Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Wendy Blurton, Senior Buyer Cynthia D Baldwin, Product Design Manager Tracey Rowens, Senior Art Director Barbara Yarrow, Graphic Services Manager Randy Bassett, Image Database Supervisor Mike Logusz, Imaging Specialist Pamela A Reed, Photography Coordinator Leitha Etheridge-Sims Junior Image Cataloger While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein Gale accepts no payment for listing, and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984 This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended © 2000 The Gale Group 27500 Drake Rd Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages or entries in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper ISBN: 0-7876-3937-0 Printed in the United States of America 10 Contents Preface ix Advisory Board xi Contributors xiii Introduction: 1800-1899 xvii Chronology: 1800-1899 xxi Exploration and Discovery Chronology of Key Events Overview Topical Essays Humboldt and Bonpland’s Landmark Expedition to the Spanish Colonies of South America (1799-1804) The Discovery of Australia and Tasmania Greatly Expands the British Empire American Far West: The Lewis and Clark Expedition Zebulon Pike and the Conquest of the Southwestern United States 12 The Temples at Abu Simbel 14 The Rosetta Stone: The Key to Ancient Egypt 17 James Clark Ross and the Discovery of the Magnetic North Pole 20 The Voyage of the HMS Beagle 22 Robert H Schomburgk Explores the Interior of British Guyana, Brazil, and Venezuela and Is the First European to Visit Mount Roraima 25 Edward Eyre Explores the South and Western Territories of the Australian Interior and Helps Open the Territories to the Transport of Goods and Animals 28 The Wilkes Expedition and the Discovery of Antarctica 31 The Buried Cities of Assyria 33 S C I E N C E A N D I T S John C Fremont and Exploration of the American West Robert McClure Discovers the Elusive Northwest Passage David Livingstone Traverses the African Continent Robert O’Hara Burke Traverses the Australian Continent from North to South Exploration of the Nile River: A Journey of Discovery and Imperialism The Nain Singh Expeditions Describe Tibet The Discovery of Troy Deep-Sea Exploration: The HMS Challenger Expedition Henry Morton Stanley Circumnavigates Africa’s Lake Victoria and Explores the Entire Length of the Congo River Nikolay Przhevalsky and Russian Expansion: The Exploration of Central and East Asia Luigi Maria D’Albertis Explores Unknown Interior Regions of New Guinea Nils A E Nordenskiöld Discovers the Northeast Passage A Race Around the World 35 38 40 42 44 47 49 51 53 56 58 61 64 Biographical Sketches 66 Biographical Mentions 90 Bibliography of Primary Sources 100 Life Sciences Chronology of Key Events 103 Overview 104 Topical Essays Johann Blumenbach and the Classification of Human Races 105 Population Theory: Malthus’s Influence on the Scope of Evolution 108 Invertebrate Zoology, Lamarckism, and Their Influences on the Sciences and on Society 110 T I M E S V O L U M E v Contents 1800-1899 Advances in Plant Classification and Morphology 112 Georges Cuvier Revolutionizes Paleontology 115 Watching as Life Begins: The Discovery of the Mammalian Ovum and the Process of Fertilization 117 John James Audubon Publishes His Illustrated Birds of America (1827-1838) 119 Energy Metabolism in Animals and Plants 122 Advances in Cell Theory 124 The Agricultural Sciences Flourish and Contribute to the Growing Size, Health, and Wealth of Western Nations 126 Cell Division and Mitosis 128 Evolution, Natural and Sexual Selection, and Their Influences on the Sciences 131 Social Darwinism Emerges and Is Used to Justify Imperialism, Racism, and Conservative Economic and Social Policies 134 Louis Pasteur’s Battle with Microbes and the Founding of Microbiology 136 Gregor Mendel Discovers the Basic Laws of Heredity while Breeding Pea Plants (1866) 139 Ferdinand Cohn and the Development of Modern Bacteriology 142 The Discovery of Viruses 144 Middle-Class Victorian Men and Women Collect, Identify, and Preserve Plant and Animal Species, Broadening Human Knowledge of the Natural World and Transforming Biology into a Mature Science 146 Scientists in Europe and the United States Lay the Foundation for the Modern Science of Ecology 149 Neanderthals and the Search for Human Ancestors 151 Biographical Sketches 154 Biographical Mentions 181 Bibliography of Primary Sources 189 Mathematics Chronology of Key Events 191 Overview 192 Topical Essays Fourier Analysis and Its Impact The Development of Number Theory during the Nineteenth Century Projective Geometry Leads to the Unification of All Geometries The Shape of Space: The Beginning of Non-Euclidean Geometry vi S C I E N C E A N D I T S 193 196 198 201 Topology: The Mathematics of Form The Rise of Probabilistic and Statistical Thinking Solving Quintic Equations Advances in Logic during the Nineteenth Century Set Theory and the Sizes of Infinity Development of Higher-Dimensional Algebraic Concepts George Green Makes the First Attempt to Formulate a Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism (1828) Advances in Understanding Celestial Mechanics A New Realm of Numbers George Boole and the Algebra of Logic The Promotion of Mathematical Research Nineteenth-Century Efforts to Promote Mathematics Education from Grade School to the University Level The Return of Rigor to Mathematics The Specialization of Mathematics and the Rise of Formalism Codification and Employment of the Principle of Mathematical Induction Elliptic Functions Lay the Foundations for Modern Physics 203 205 208 210 213 214 217 219 221 224 226 229 231 233 236 238 Biographical Sketches 241 Biographical Mentions 265 Bibliography of Primary Sources 277 Medicine Chronology of Key Events 279 Overview 280 Topical Essays René Laënnec Revolutionizes the Diagnosis of Chest Diseases with His Invention of the Stethoscope Human Digestion Studied by William Beaumont, Theodor Schwann, Claude Bernard, and William Prout The Establishment of Schools for the Disabled Medical Education for Women during the Nineteenth Century Cholera Epidemics: Five Pandemics in the Nineteenth Century Modern Anesthesia Is Developed Antiseptic and Aseptic Techniques Are Developed Birth of the Nursing Profession Koch’s Postulates: Robert Koch Demonstrates That a Particular Organism Causes a Particular Disease T I M E S V O L U M E 282 285 288 291 294 296 299 302 305 The Battle against Tuberculosis: Robert Koch, the Development of TB Sanitariums, and the Enactment of Public Health Measures 308 Deviancy to Mental Illness: NineteenthCentury Developments in the Care of the Mentally Ill 311 The Development of New Systems of Alternative Medicine: Homeopathy, Osteopathy, Chiropractic Medicine, and Hydrotherapy 314 Tropical Disease in the Nineteenth Century 317 Nineteenth-Century Biological Theories on Race 319 Western Missionaries Spread Western Medicine Around the World 322 Nineteenth-Century Views of the Female Body and Their Impact on Women in Society 324 Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century Britain and America 327 The Birth of a Profession: Dentistry in the Nineteenth Century 330 Medicine in Warfare in the Nineteenth Century 332 Modern Surgery Developed 335 Nineteenth-Century Developments Related to Sight and the Eye 337 The Study of Human Heredity and Eugenics during the Nineteenth Century, Focusing on the Work of Francis Galton 340 The Field of Public Health Emerges in Response to Epidemic Diseases 342 Biographical Sketches 345 Biographical Mentions 376 Bibliography of Primary Sources 388 Physical Sciences Chronology of Key Events 391 Overview 392 Topical Essays Revival of the Wave Theory of Light in the Early Nineteenth Century Nineteenth-Century Development of the Concept of Energy The Michelson-Morley Experiment, the Luminiferous Ether, and Precision Measurement Heinrich Hertz Produces and Detects Radio Waves in 1888 The Discovery of Radioactivity: Gateway to Twentieth-Century Physics J J Thomson, the Discovery of the Electron, and the Study of Atomic Structure Unification: Nineteenth-Century Advances in Electromagnetism S C I E N C E A N D I T S The Replacement of Caloric Theory by a Mechanical Theory of Heat 413 Nineteenth-Century Advances in the Mathematical Theory and Understanding of Sound 415 1800-1899 Leverrier, Adams, and the Mathematical Discovery of Neptune 417 Heavenly Rocks: Asteroids Discovered and Meteorites Explained 420 Nineteenth-Century Developments in Measuring the Locations and Distances of Celestial Bodies 422 A New View of the Universe: Photography and Spectroscopy in Nineteenth-Century Astronomy 425 Nineteenth-Century Efforts to Catalog Stars 428 John Dalton Proposes His Atomic Theory and Lays the Foundation of Modern Chemistry 430 Development of Physical Chemistry during the Nineteenth Century 433 Finding Order among the Elements 436 Nineteenth-Century Advances in Understanding Gases, Culminating in William Ramsey’s Discovery of Inert Gases in the 1890s 439 Elaboration of the Elements: NineteenthCentury Advances in Chemistry, Electrochemistry, and Spectroscopy 441 French Mineralogist René Just Haüy Founds the Science of Crystallography with the Publication of Treatise of Mineralogy 444 William Smith Uses Fossils to Determine the Order of the Strata in England and Helps Develop the Science of Stratigraphy 446 Charles Lyell Publishes The Principles of Geology (1830-33), in Which He Proposes the Actual Age of Earth to be Several Hundred Million Years 449 The Discovery of Global Ice Ages by Louis Agassiz 452 394 Women Scientists in the Nineteenth-Century Physical Sciences 453 397 The Transformation of the Physical Sciences into Professions During the Nineteenth Century 456 400 Biographical Sketches 459 Biographical Mentions 491 Bibliography of Primary Sources 503 402 Contents 405 Technology and Invention 408 410 Chronology of Key Events 505 Overview 506 Topical Essays T I M E S V O L U M E vii Contents 1800-1899 French Inventor Jacquard Produces a Weaving Loom Controlled by Punch Cards (1801), Facilitating the Mechanized Mass Production of Textiles; the Punch Card System Also Influences Early Computers in the 1940s and 1950s 508 Steam-Powered Railroad Systems Make Possible the Industrial Revolution and Fundamentally Alter the Transportation of Goods and People 511 Advances in Food Preservation Lead to New Products, New Markets, and New Sources of Food Production 513 The Steamboat: First Instrument of Imperialism 516 The Communication Revolution: Developments in Mass Publishing during the Nineteenth Century 518 Advances in Photography during the Nineteenth Century 520 Cyrus McCormick Invents the Reaping Machine 523 Samuel Morse and the Telegraph 525 Charles Goodyear Discovers the Process for Creating Vulcanized Rubber 527 Invention of the Sewing Machine 530 Elisha Graves Otis Produces the First Passenger Elevator with Safety Locks, Facilitating the Growth of High-Rise Buildings 532 English Inventor Henry Bessemer Develops Process to Produce Inexpensive Steel 535 The Advent of Mechanical Refrigeration Alters Daily Life and National Economies throughout the World 537 viii S C I E N C E A N D I T S American Edwin L Drake Drills the First Oil Well (1859) The Internal Combustion Engine The Mass Production of Death: Richard Jordan Gatling Invents the Gatling Gun and Sir Hiram Maxim Invents the Maxim Machine Gun The Development of the Automatic Writing Machine: The Typewriter Alexander Graham Bell Patents the First Telephone (1876) Artificial Gas and Electrical Lighting Systems Are Developed That Change Living and Work Patterns Use of Electric Power Becomes Widespread Elegant Spans: Suspension Bridges The Invention of Automobiles Quest for Sound: Thomas Edison’s Phonograph Herman Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine Automates the 1890 U.S Census Capturing Life Onscreen: The Invention of Motion Pictures The First Subways Safe Enough to Kill: Advances in the Chemistry of Explosives 540 542 544 547 550 553 556 558 560 562 565 567 570 572 Biographical Sketches 575 Biographical Mentions 600 Bibliography of Primary Sources 611 General Bibliography 613 Index 617 T I M E S V O L U M E Preface T he interaction of science and society is increasingly a focal point of high school studies, and with good reason: by exploring the achievements of science within their historical context, students can better understand a given event, era, or culture This cross-disciplinary approach to science is at the heart of Science and Its Times Readers of Science and Its Times will find a comprehensive treatment of the history of science, including specific events, issues, and trends through history as well as the scientists who set in motion—or who were influenced by—those events From the ancient world’s invention of the plowshare and development of seafaring vessels; to the Renaissance-era conflict between the Catholic Church and scientists advocating a suncentered solar system; to the development of modern surgery in the nineteenth century; and to the mass migration of European scientists to the United States as a result of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s, science’s involvement in human progress—and sometimes brutality—is indisputable While science has had an enormous impact on society, that impact has often worked in the opposite direction, with social norms greatly influencing the course of scientific achievement through the ages In the same way, just as history can not be viewed as an unbroken line of everexpanding progress, neither can science be seen as a string of ever-more amazing triumphs Science and Its Times aims to present the history of science within its historical context—a context marked not only by genius and stunning invention but also by war, disease, bigotry, and persecution Format of the Series Science and Its Times is divided into seven volumes, each covering a distinct time period: S C I E N C E A N D I T S Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D Volume 2: 700-1449 Volume 3: 1450-1699 Volume 4: 1700-1799 Volume 5: 1800-1899 Volume 6: 1900-1949 Volume 7: 1950-present Dividing the history of science according to such strict chronological subsets has its own drawbacks Many scientific events—and scientists themselves—overlap two different time periods Also, throughout history it has been common for the impact of a certain scientific advancement to fall much later than the advancement itself Readers looking for information about a topic should begin their search by checking the index at the back of each volume Readers perusing more than one volume may find the same scientist featured in two different volumes Readers should also be aware that many scientists worked in more than one discipline during their lives In such cases, scientists may be featured in two different chapters in the same volume To facilitate searches for a specific person or subject, main entries on a given person or subject are indicated by bold-faced page numbers in the index Within each volume, material is divided into chapters according to subject area For volumes 5, 6, and 7, these areas are: Exploration and Discovery, Life Sciences, Mathematics, Medicine, Physical Sciences, and Technology and Invention For volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, readers will find that the Life Sciences and Medicine chapters have been combined into a single section, reflecting the historical union of these disciplines before 1800 T I M E S V O L U M E ix Preface 1800-1899 Arrangement of Volume 5: 1800-1899 Volume begins with two notable sections in the frontmatter: a general introduction to nineteenth-century science and society, and a general chronology that presents key scientific events during the period alongside key world historical events The volume is then organized into six chapters, corresponding to the six subject areas listed above in “Format of the Series.” Within each chapter, readers will find the following entry types: Chronology of Key Events: Notable events in the subject area during the nineteenth century are featured in this section Overview: This essay provides an overview of important trends, issues, and scientists in the subject area during the nineteenth century Topical Essays: Ranging between 1,500 and 2,000 words, these essays discuss notable events, issues, and trends in a given subject area Each essay includes a Further Reading section that points users to additional sources of information on the topic, including books, articles, and web sites Biographical Sketches: Key scientists during the era are featured in entries ranging between 500 and 1,000 words in length Biographical Mentions: Additional brief biographical entries on notable scientists during the era x S C I E N C E A N D I T S Bibliography of Primary Source Documents: These annotated bibliographic listings feature key books and articles pertaining to the subject area Following the final chapter are two additional sections: a general bibliography of sources related to nineteenth-century science, and a general subject index Readers are urged to make heavy use of the index, because many scientists and topics are discussed in several different entries A note should be made about the arrangement of individual entries within each chapter: while the long and short biographical sketches are arranged alphabetically according to the scientist’s surname, the topical essays lend themselves to no such easy arrangement Again, readers looking for a specific topic should consult the index Readers wanting to browse the list of essays in a given subject area can refer to the table of contents in the book’s frontmatter Additional Features Throughout each volume readers will find sidebars whose purpose is to feature interesting events or issues that otherwise might be overlooked These sidebars add an engaging element to the more straightforward presentation of science and its times in the rest of the entries In addition, the volume contains photographs, illustrations, and maps scattered throughout the chapters Comments and Suggestions Your comments on this series and suggestions for future editions are welcome Please write: The Editor, Science and Its Times, Gale Group, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills, MI 48331 T I M E S V O L U M E ... Advances in the Chemistry of Explosives 54 0 54 2 54 4 54 7 55 0 55 3 55 6 55 8 56 0 56 2 56 5 56 7 57 0 57 2 Biographical Sketches 57 5 Biographical Mentions 600 Bibliography...VOLUME 1800-1899 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery VOLUME 1800-1899 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance... D I T S Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D Volume 2: 700-1449 Volume 3: 1 450 -1699 Volume 4: 1700-1799 Volume 5: 1800-1899 Volume 6: 1900-1949 Volume 7: 1 950 -present Dividing the history of science according