This is a useful guide for practice full problems of english, you can easy to learn and understand all of issues of related english full problems. The more you study, the more you like it for sure because if its values.
SAIT htp/tp 10/31/00 2:28 PM Page VOLUME 1450-1699 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery SAIT htp/tp 10/31/00 2:28 PM Page VOLUME 1450-1699 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery Ne il S c hlager, Editor J o s h L a u e r, A s s o c i a t e E d i t o r Produced by Schlager Information Group SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Page iv Science and Its Times VOLUME 1450-1699 NEIL SCHLAGER, Editor JOSH LAUER, Associate Editor GALE GROUP STAFF Amy Loerch Strumolo, Project Coordinator Christine B Jeryan, Contributing Editor Mary K Fyke, Editorial Technical Specialist Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager Margaret A Chamberlain, Permissions Specialist Shalice Shah-Caldwell, Permissions Associate Mary Beth Trimper, Production Director Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Stacy L Melson, Buyer Cynthia D Baldwin, Product Design Manager Tracey Rowens, Senior Art Director Barbara Yarrow, Graphic Services Manager Randy Bassett, Image Database Supervisor Mike Logusz, Imaging Specialist Pamela A Reed, Photography Coordinator Leitha Etheridge-Sims Junior Image Cataloger While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein Gale accepts no payment for listing, and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984 This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended â 2000 The Gale Group • 27500 Drake Rd • Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages or entries in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper ISBN: 0-7876-3937-0 Printed in the United States of America 10 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Science and its times : understanding the social significance of scientific discovery / Neil Schlager, editor p.cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-7876-3933-8 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3934-6 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3935-4 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3936-2 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3937-0 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3938-9 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3939-7 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3932-X (set : hardcover) Science—Social aspects—History I Schlager, Neil, 1966Q175.46 S35 2001 509—dc21 00-037542 SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Page v Contents Preface ix Advisory Board xi Contributors xiii Introduction: 1450-1699 xvii Chronology: 1450-1699 xxi Exploration and Discovery Chronology of Key Events Overview Topical Essays Spanish Exploration and Colonization Portugal Launches Age of Discovery Dutch Exploration and Colonization Overview of English Exploration 12 The Voyages of Christopher Columbus: European Contact with the New World and the Age of Exploration 15 Juan Ponce de León Explores Florida and the Bahama Channel 19 Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda explores the Gulf of Mexico and Is the First European to See the Mississippi River 22 Hernando de Soto and the Spanish Exploration of the American Southeast, 1539-1542 24 Coronado’s Search for the Seven Cities of Gold Leads to Spanish Dominion over Southwestern North America 26 Spanish Florida and the Founding of St Augustine 28 The English Establish a Colony in Jamestown, Virginia 31 John Cabot’s Exploration of North America 33 The Search for a Northwest Passage 36 North America’s First Permanent European Colony 38 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Pedro Cabral and the Portuguese Settlement of Brazil Vasco Núñez de Balboa Reaches the Pacific Ocean The First Maritime Circumnavigation of the Globe European Contact Overwhelms the Inca Empire: Francisco Pizarro’s Conquest of Peru Exploring the Amazon River Willem Barents Searches for the Northeast Passage and Finds Svalbard Instead The Discovery of Baffin Bay Semyon Dezhnyov Finds the Bering Strait—Eighty Years before Bering Diogo Cão and the Portuguese in West Africa Bartolomeu Dias and the Opening of the Indian Ocean Trade Route to India, 1487-1488 Vasco da Gama Establishes the First Ocean Trade Route from Europe to India and Asia Willem Jansz Lands on the Australian Mainland and Sets Off a Century of Dutch Exploration of the Region The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman Introduction of the Mercator World Map Revolutionizes Nautical Navigation 40 42 44 46 49 51 54 56 58 60 63 65 67 69 Biographical Sketches 72 Biographical Mentions 97 Bibliography of Primary Sources 109 Life Sciences and Medicine Chronology of Key Events 111 Overview 112 Topical Essays Philosophy of Science: Baconian and Cartesian Approaches 114 T I M E S V O L U M E v SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Contents 1450-1699 Page vi Theory and Experiment Redefine Medical Practice and Philosophy Advances in Midwifery and Obstetrics Advances in Understanding the Female Reproductive System The Medical Role of Women: Women as Patients and Practitioners Mechanical Printing and Its Impact on Medicine The Development and Impact of Medical Illustrations The Invention of the Microscope The Alliance of Science and Art in Early Modern Europe Advancements in Surgery Empirics, Quacks, and Alternative Medical Practices William Harvey and the Discovery of the Human Circulatory System The Beginnings of Blood Transfusion Progress in Understanding Human Anatomy Advances in Understanding the Nervous System Paracelsian Medicine Leads to a New Understanding of Therapy The Exchange of Plant and Animal Species Between the New World and Old World The Impact of European Diseases on Native Americans The Appearance of Syphilis in the 1490s The Development of Zoology Advances in Botany Renaissance Botanical and Zoological Gardens 116 119 122 124 127 130 132 135 138 141 144 147 151 153 158 160 163 167 169 172 Mathematics Chronology of Key Events 227 Overview 228 Topical Essays Advancements in Notation Enhance the Translation and Precision of Mathematics The Reappearance of Analysis in Mathematics John Napier Discovers Logarithms Militarizing Mathematics Algebraic Solution of Cubic and Quartic Equations The Development of Analytic Geometry The Printing of Important Mathematics Texts Leads the Way to the Scientific Revolution S C I E N C E A N D 247 249 251 254 256 259 262 264 267 270 272 Biographical Sketches 275 Biographical Mentions 301 Bibliography of Primary Sources 307 155 Biographical Sketches 174 Biographical Mentions 210 Bibliography of Primary Sources 220 vi Marin Mersenne Leads an International Effort to Understand Cycloids Mathematicians Revolutionize the Understanding of Equations Girard Desargues and Projective Geometry Mathematical Induction Provides a Tool for Proving Large Problems by Proceeding through the Solution of Smaller Increments The Emergence of the Calculus The Enduring and Revolutionary Impact of Pierre de Fermat’s Last Theorem Mathematics, Communication, and Community Mathematicians Develop New Ways to Calculate π Mastering the Seas: Advances in Trigonometry and Their Impact upon Astronomy, Cartography, and Maritime Navigation Mathematics, Science, and the Society of Jesus Mathematical Challenges and Contests I T S 230 232 234 237 239 241 243 Physical Sciences Chronology of Key Events 311 Overview 312 Topical Essays Science and Christianity during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Nicolaus Copernicus Begins a Revolution in Astronomy with His Heliocentric Model of the Solar System The Gregorian Reform of the Calendar Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica Greatly Influences the Scientific World and the Society Beyond It From Alchemy to Chemistry Advances in Geological Science, 1450-1699 Christiaan Huygens Makes Fundamental Contributions to Mechanics, Astronomy, Horology, and Optics The Emergence of Scientific Societies Development of Stellar Astronomy Observing and Defining Comets The Rise of the Phlogiston Theory of Fire Seventeenth-century Experimental and Theoretical Advances Regarding the Nature of Light Lay the Foundations of Modern Optics The Founding of England’s Royal Observatory T I M E S V O L U M E 314 318 321 324 326 329 332 334 337 339 342 346 348 351 SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Page vii Revival of Corpuscular Theories during the Seventeenth Century 354 Advances in Electricity and Magnetism 357 Biographical Sketches 360 Biographical Mentions 387 Bibliography of Primary Sources 398 Technology and Invention Chronology of Key Events 401 Overview 402 Topical Essays The Birth of Print Culture: The Invention of the Printing Press in Western Europe The Advent of Newspapers Advances in Firearms The Military Revolution Inventing the Submarine The Invention of Spectacles Camera Obscura: Ancestor of Modern Photography Antonio Neri Reveals the Secrets of Glassmaking and Helps Make High Quality Glass Available to the World S C I E N C E A N D 404 411 413 415 418 420 The Origins and Development of the Magic Lantern William Lee and the Stocking Knitting Frame: Micro- and Macroinventions Advances in Metallurgy Development of the Horse-Drawn Coach Systematic Crop Rotation Transforms Agriculture The Development of Key Instruments for Science The Measure of Time Development of the Self-Regulating Oven Denis Papin Invents the Pressure Cooker Andrea Palladio and Developments in Western Architecture The Palace of Versailles Development of the Midi Canal 429 Contents 432 1450-1699 435 438 440 443 446 449 451 453 457 459 Biographical Sketches 462 Biographical Mentions 481 Bibliography of Primary Sources 492 423 General Bibliography 495 426 I T S Index 497 T I M E S V O L U M E vii SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Page ix Preface T he interaction of science and society is increasingly a focal point of high school studies, and with good reason: by exploring the achievements of science within their historical context, students can better understand a given event, era, or culture This cross-disciplinary approach to science is at the heart of Science and Its Times Readers of Science and Its Times will find a comprehensive treatment of the history of science, including specific events, issues, and trends through history as well as the scientists who set in motion—or who were influenced by—those events From the ancient world’s invention of the plowshare and development of seafaring vessels; to the Renaissance-era conflict between the Catholic Church and scientists advocating a suncentered solar system; to the development of modern surgery in the nineteenth century; and to the mass migration of European scientists to the United States as a result of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s, science’s involvement in human progress—and sometimes brutality—is indisputable While science has had an enormous impact on society, that impact has often worked in the opposite direction, with social norms greatly influencing the course of scientific achievement through the ages In the same way, just as history can not be viewed as an unbroken line of everexpanding progress, neither can science be seen as a string of ever-more amazing triumphs Science and Its Times aims to present the history of science within its historical context—a context marked not only by genius and stunning invention but also by war, disease, bigotry, and persecution Format of the Series Science and Its Times is divided into seven volumes, each covering a distinct time period: S C I E N C E A N D I T S Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D Volume 2: 700-1449 Volume 3: 1450-1699 Volume 4: 1700-1799 Volume 5: 1800-1899 Volume 6: 1900-1949 Volume 7: 1950-present Dividing the history of science according to such strict chronological subsets has its own drawbacks Many scientific events—and scientists themselves—overlap two different time periods Also, throughout history it has been common for the impact of a certain scientific advancement to fall much later than the advancement itself Readers looking for information about a topic should begin their search by checking the index at the back of each volume Readers perusing more than one volume may find the same scientist featured in two different volumes Readers should also be aware that many scientists worked in more than one discipline during their lives In such cases, scientists may be featured in two different chapters in the same volume To facilitate searches for a specific person or subject, main entries on a given person or subject are indicated by bold-faced page numbers in the index Within each volume, material is divided into chapters according to subject area For volumes 5, 6, and 7, these areas are: Exploration and Discovery, Life Sciences, Mathematics, Medicine, Physical Sciences, and Technology and Invention For volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, readers will find that the Life Sciences and Medicine chapters have been combined into a single section, reflecting the historical union of these disciplines before 1800 T I M E S V O L U M E ix SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Preface 1450-1699 Page x Arrangement of Volume 3: 1450-1699 Volume begins with two notable sections in the frontmatter: a general introduction to science and society during the period, and a general chronology that presents key scientific events during the period alongside key world historical events The volume is then organized into five chapters, corresponding to the five subject areas listed above in “Format of the Series.” Within each chapter, readers will find the following entry types: Chronology of Key Events: Notable events in the subject area during the period are featured in this section Overview: This essay provides an overview of important trends, issues, and scientists in the subject area during the period Topical Essays: Ranging between 1,500 and 2,000 words, these essays discuss notable events, issues, and trends in a given subject area Each essay includes a Further Reading section that points users to additional sources of information on the topic, including books, articles, and web sites Biographical Sketches: Key scientists during the era are featured in entries ranging between 500 and 1,000 words in length Biographical Mentions: Additional brief biographical entries on notable scientists during the era Bibliography of Primary Source Documents: These annotated bibliographic x S C I E N C E A N D I T S listings feature key books and articles pertaining to the subject area Following the final chapter are two additional sections: a general bibliography of sources related to the history of science, and a general subject index Readers are urged to make heavy use of the index, because many scientists and topics are discussed in several different entries A note should be made about the arrangement of individual entries within each chapter: while the long and short biographical sketches are arranged alphabetically according to the scientist’s surname, the topical essays lend themselves to no such easy arrangement Again, readers looking for a specific topic should consult the index Readers wanting to browse the list of essays in a given subject area can refer to the table of contents in the book’s frontmatter Additional Features Throughout each volume readers will find sidebars whose purpose is to feature interesting events or issues that otherwise might be overlooked These sidebars add an engaging element to the more straightforward presentation of science and its times in the rest of the entries In addition, each volume contains photographs, illustrations, and maps scattered throughout the chapters Comments and Suggestions Your comments on this series and suggestions for future editions are welcome Please write: The Editor, Science and Its Times, Gale Group, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills, MI 48331 T I M E S V O L U M E SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Page xi Advisory Board Amir Alexander Research Fellow Center for 17th and 18th Century Studies UCLA Amy Sue Bix Associate Professor of History Iowa State University Elizabeth Fee Chief, History of Medicine Division National Library of Medicine Lois N Magner Professor Emerita Purdue University Henry Petroski A.S Vesic Professor of Civil Engineering and Professor of History Duke University F Jamil Ragep Associate Professor of the History of Science University of Oklahoma David L Roberts Post-Doctoral Fellow, National Academy of Education Morton L Schagrin Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and History of Science SUNY College at Fredonia Hilda K Weisburg Library Media Specialist Morristown High School, Morristown, NJ S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E xi SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Page xiii Contributors Mark H Allenbaugh Lecturer George Washington University Keith Ferrell Freelance Writer Randolph Fillmore Freelance Science Writer James A Altena The University of Chicago Richard Fitzgerald Freelance Writer Peter J Andrews Freelance Writer Maura C Flannery Professor of Biology St John’s University, New York Kenneth E Barber Professor of Biology Western Oklahoma State College Katrina Ford Post-graduate Student Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Bob Batchelor Writer Arter & Hadden LLP Donald R Franceschetti Distinguished Service Professor of Physics and Chemistry The University of Memphis Kristy Wilson Bowers University of Maryland Sherri Chasin Calvo Freelance Writer Jean-Franỗois Gauvin Historian of Science Musộe Stewart au Fort de l’ỵle Sainte-Hélène, Montréal Matt Dowd Graduate Student University of Notre Dame Thomas Drucker Graduate Student, Department of Philosophy University of Wisconsin Brook Ellen Hall Professor of Biology California State University at Sacramento Diane K Hawkins Head, Reference Services—Health Sciences Library SUNY Upstate Medical University H J Eisenman Professor of History University of Missouri-Rolla Ellen Elghobashi Freelance Writer Robert Hendrick Professor of History St John’s University, New York Loren Butler Feffer Independent Scholar James J Hoffmann Diablo Valley College S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E xiii SAIT Tech & Inv (6) Technology & Invention 1450-1699 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 482 and Herculaneum Benschoten, however, was the first to produce a thimble of iron that could be manufactured in large quantities Jacques Besson 1540-1576 French mathematician and inventor who was Leonardo da Vinci’s successor as engineer to the French court Around 1568, Besson devised his best-known invention, the first useable screw cutting lathe In 1569, the inventor published a book on mechanical arts entitled Theatrum Instrumentorum et Machinarum, which included illustrations of his various machines Besson also developed an improved vertical water mill, the principles of which were applied to a power turbine installed in the mid-1800s in waterworks throughout Europe William Bourne fl 1570s English mathematician who published the first detailed description of a submarine In Inventions or Devices (1578), Bourne provided a design for an enclosed boat that could be submerged and rowed underwater Made of a wooden framework encased in waterproofed leather, Bourne’s planned submarine was to be lowered by means of hand vices, which would contract the sides and reduce its volume Although a craft similar to Bourne’s design appeared in 1605, it sank due to errors in construction The first builder of a workable submarine was Cornelius Drebbel (1572-1633) in 1620 Donato Bramante 1444-1514 Italian architect who launched the High Renaissance style in architecture Bramante was born in Monte Asdruald (now Fermignano), near Urbino Details of his early life are sketchy, but it is known that at an early age he studied painting under the Italian masters Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506) and Piero della Francesca (1420?1492) Bramante later relocated to Milan, where he is believed to have shared discussions on architectural style with Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) Bramante completed several structures in Milan before moving to Rome in 1499 His architecture was characterized by its use of illusion, which was more commonplace in painting than in building design In 1503, Bramante entered into the service of Pope Julius II (1443-1513) and two years later began work on his greatest achievement, the Basilica of St Peter in Rome His other major projects included the Belvedere courtyard in the Vatican (begun c 1505), and the 482 S C I E N C E A N D I T S choir of Santa Maria del Popolo Giovanni Branca 1571-1640 Italian physicist who provided the first known description of a steam turbine In 1629, Branca published La Machine, a gazette of machinery that included 77 woodcuts illustrating various types of equipment Among those depicted was a steam turbine, along with Branca’s notes describing the means for turning a wheel by shooting jets of steam against vanes attached to the outer rim of the wheel At the end of a turbine shaft were pestles for pounding materials Timothy Bright 1551?-1615 English physician and cleric who is credited with developing the first modern shorthand system, which he initially used to transcribe an epistle of St Paul Bright’s characters were arranged in 18 vertical rows, similar to the method of Chinese After Queen Elizabeth granted him a patent for his method in 1588, Bright published a short work explaining his “charactery” as the art of short, swift, and secret writing Jean Carre ?-1572 French glassmaker who revitalized the English glass-making industry Carre was operating as a merchant in Antwerp in 1567, when he received a 21-year license from Queen Elizabeth to make “glass for glazing such as is made in France, Burgundy, and Lorraine.” He brought to England glassmakers from Italy and the French regions of Burgundy and Lorraine, where the art had long thrived Salomon de Caus 1576-1626 French engineer and architect, who pioneered the use of the steam engine In Les Raisons des forces mouvantes (1615), Caus described a steam pump in which water was heated in a vessel and pushed out by the resulting steam Because he was a Protestant, Caus was exiled from his homeland, and spent much of his career in England and Germany He used steam to power a number of small devices Jacques Androuet du Cerceau c 1520-c 1585 French engineer and architect whose designs included the Pont Neuf bridge over the Seine in Paris Cerceau designed a number of palaces for the French royal family, and wrote several books T I M E S V O L U M E SAIT Tech & Inv (6) 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 483 on architectural and decorative engravings His plans for the Pont Neuf, for which building began in 1578, incorporated elements from two other famous bridges: the flat arches of the Ponte Vecchio in Florence and the cow’s horns of the Pont Notre Dame in Paris Cerceau was the patriarch of a distinguished family of architects that included sons Baptiste (1545-1590) and Jacques II (c 1550-1614), and grandson Jean I (1585-1649) Cesare Cesariano fl 1520s Student of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) who published his teacher’s observations on the camera obscura The latter, a forerunner of the modern camera, was an enclosed chamber in which Leonardo conducted experiments with light and darkness In 1521, Cesariano also published De Architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius (first century A.D.), the first edition of this highly significant treatise on Greco-Roman architecture and engineering to appear in a modern language Ch’en Yuan-lung fl 1600s Chinese scholar who in the seventeenth century published a book concerning Chinese inventions Among the latter were papermaking, printing (China had its own form of movable-type printing that dated back to the eleventh century), gunpowder, the kite, and the compass Chu Tsai-Yü fl 1580s Chinese Ming Dynasty prince who calculated a musical system of 12-tone equal temperament The problem of the 12-tone scale had long perplexed mathematicians and scientists, because to create a system of equal tones that would translate from instrument to instrument required computations with numbers containing as many as 108 zeroes One had to then find the twelfth root of such a number, an operation performed by calculating the square root twice, then the cube root In 1596 (some sources say 1584), Prince Chu published a book containing highly accurate calculations of the string length required to produce 12-tone equal temperament on a lute His findings preceded those of Marin Mersenne (15881648) in France by a number of years Bernabé Cobo 1582-1657 Spanish missionary to the New World whose Historia del nuevo mondo contains a number of valuable observations, including the first recordS C I E N C E A N D I T S ed mention of rubber extraction A Jesuit, Cobo went to Peru in 1615, and spent the remainder of his life in the Americas During that time, he wrote a number of works, including the Historia or History of the New World The work contains detailed commentaries on animal and plant life, along with a passage discussing the extraction of liquid resin from a rubber tree Technology & Invention 1450-1699 Humphrey Cole 1530?-1591 British engraver and goldsmith who was considered the most renowned scientific instrument maker of sixteenth century England Cole’s work at the Royal Mint as an engraver and his experience with metalworking led him to work as an instrument maker He created a wide variety of mathematical instruments Cole’s masterpiece was a 2-foot (61 cm) diameter astrolabe, dated 1574, but he also designed intricate sundials, including a ring dial (c 1575) and unusual quadrant dials (1574) Franỗois dAguilon 1567-1617 Belgian optician and mathematician who coined the term “stereoscopic.” A Jesuit priest whose family was of Spanish descent, d’Aguilon studied persistence of vision and visual illusions, and in 1613 published his Opticorum This work contained a discussion of stereoscopic projection, the phenomenon whereby a person’s two eyes capture and integrate images viewed from slightly different angles, thus giving the image greater depth Knowledge of stereoscopy—which had been recognized but unnamed since the time of Greek astronomer Hipparchus (c 190-c 120 B.C.)—would prove useful in the development of binoculars and, much later, photography John Davis 1550?-1605 English navigator and explorer who went in search of the Northwest Passage from Europe to the Pacific Davis was born near Dartmouth, in Devon He fell in love with the sea as a child, and as an adult became convinced that he could navigate around North America to reach the Far East from Europe He persuaded the British monarchy, under Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603), to sponsor his journey They agreed, and in 1585 Davis began his first expedition He made three unsuccessful attempts to locate the Northwest Passage, in 1585, 1586, and 1587 On his third voyage, Davis attempted to navigate the Strait of Magellan, but was prevented from doing so by bad weather On his way back to England in T I M E S V O L U M E 483 SAIT Tech & Inv (6) Technology & Invention 1450-1699 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 484 1592 he discovered the Falkland Islands In addition to his noteworthy seamanship, Davis authored several books on navigation, including The Seaman’s Secrets (1594) and The World’s Hydrographical Description (1595) He also invented the back-staff and double quadrant, or Davis’s quadrant, which was used for navigation until the eighteenth century Davis was killed in 1605 by Japanese pirates near Sumatra Stephen Daye 1594-1668 English-American locksmith and printer credited with printing the first product of a North American printing press, The Freeman’s Oath (1639), a broadside of which no known copy exists The press, set up in Cambridge, Massachusetts, belonged to the widow of Rev Jose Glover, who had died on the journey to the colonies from England Daye was entrusted with the working of the press from which he and his son Matthew produced 1,700 copies (only 11 survived) of the first book printed in the colonies, The Whole Booke of Psalmes, commonly known as the Bay Psalm Book, in 1640 Leonard Digges 1520-c 1559 English mathematician known for his applied work in navigation, surveying, and ballistics His almanac (1555) contained much useful information for sailors In 1556 he published Tectonicon, a manual of elementary surveying techniques Pantometria, published posthumously by his son Thomas in 1571, was a manual of practical mathematics that contained more advanced and up-to-date surveying techniques Digges also invented the theodolite, a portable instrument for measuring horizontal angles Dionysius and Pietro Domenico Italian inventors who are said to have designed the first double-gate locks for a canal, built on the Brenta, near Padua, in 1481 Some authorities claim that this date is too late for the invention of multiple locks, but an extensive 1778 work on navigation attributed the invention of the canal lock, which had a water opening built into the wooden gates, to the Domenico brothers Dud Dudley 1599-1684 English ironmaster who was the first to smelt (or fuse) iron ore with coal Dudley was born the fourth of eleven children to Edward Lord Dudley in the county of Worcester As a child, Dudley was fascinated with his father’s iron-works, 484 S C I E N C E A N D I T S where the youngster learned the trade of iron manufacture Iron smelting had previously been done with the use of charcoal Dudley began experimenting with what he called pit-coal, and his experiments were heartily endorsed by the English government, which was concerned that the widespread use of charcoal, which is made from wood, was depleting the country’s forests Dudley received a patent for his invention in 1621 and began iron production at his father’s ironworks Lazarus Ercker 1530-1594 German metallurgist who wrote the first descriptive review of metallurgical chemistry Ercker studied at the University of Wittenberg before holding several governmental positions in Saxony He later became a control tester for coins near Prague, Czechoslovakia In 1574, he wrote Beschreibung allerfürnemisten mineralischen Ertzt und Berckwercksarten (Description of Leading Ore Processing and Mining Methods), which reviewed current techniques for testing alloys and minerals of silver, gold, copper, antimony, mercury, bismuth, and lead, and for refining those minerals Erhard Etzlaub fl c 1500 German cartographer who produced the first European road map Based in the German town of Nüremberg, Etzlaub in 1500 produced the Romweg Map, which provided a guide for pilgrims travelling to Rome from parts of central and western Europe In the map, Etzlaub applied principles of stereographic projection, which would later be improved by Gerhard Mercator (1512-1594), to render the curved surface of the Earth on a flat plane Etzlaub’s Compass Map (1501) offered a conformal projection— that is, a representation of small areas free of the distortions often necessary to render a mathematically accurate, if less useful, map Domenico Fontana 1543-1607 Italian architect and engineer who designed some of Rome’s most famous structures, including the Vatican library and St Peter’s Basilica Fontana was born in Melide in 1543 He traveled to Rome in 1563, where he was hired by Cardinal Montalto (1521-1590) (who would later become Pope Sixtus V) to design a chapel in the church of St Maria Maggiore (1585) Assisting the Pope in his plan to modernize Rome, Fontana designed the Vatican library (1587-1590), the Lateran Palace T I M E S V O L U M E SAIT Tech & Inv (6) 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 485 (1587), and collaborated with Italian architect Giacomo della Porta (1541-1604) on the completion of St Peter’s dome (1588-1590), following the plans left by the great artist Michelangelo (1475-1564) Fontana was most famous for moving the Egyptian obelisk from the Vatican to the front of St Peter’s Regnier Gemma Frisius 1508-1555 Dutch mathematician and mentor of Gerhard Mercator (1512-1594) who provided the first published illustration of a camera obscura, and who advanced attempts at solving the longitude problem At that time, navigators were still many years away from finding a means of easily and accurately measuring longitude, a challenge that literally posed a life-and-death problem to sailors at sea Frisius’s De principiis astronomiae cosmographicae (1530) discussed a method for finding longitude using a clock and astrolabe During the 1530s, he trained Mercator, and in 1545 published De radio astronomico et geometrico, which discusses his observations of a solar eclipse the preceding January The book included a drawing of the camera obscura, a dark, enclosed chamber that was a forerunner of the modern camera Claude Garamond 1490-1561 French typefounder and craftsman who was the first to specialize in type design, punch cutting and type founding as a service to publishers and printers From the late 1520s, Garamond was commissioned to cut types for the publishing firm of the scholar-printer Robert Estienne His first roman font was used in the 1530 edition of Paraphrasis in Elegantiarum Libros Laurentii Vallae by Erasmus Following the success of Garamond’s roman font, King Franỗois I of France commissioned a Greek font, now known as the Grecs du Roi, for his exclusive use (c 1451) In 1545, Garamond also began publishing his own type designs including a new italic font Fra Giovanni Giocondo 1433?-1515 Italian architect and engineer who pioneered the high Renaissance style The young priest began his career teaching Latin and Greek in Verona, but soon put his background in archaeology and draftsmanship to work in Rome, where he aptly sketched its noble buildings Giocondo later returned to his home, taking a position as an architectural engineer and overseeing the construction of several bridges At the request of S C I E N C E A N D I T S Emperor Maximilian, Giocondo designed the Palazzo del Consiglio, one of Verona’s most stately buildings From 1496-1499, he was invited to France to assist in the design of several chateaus and to supervise the construction of the Notre-Dame bridge over the Seine in Paris His work helped introduce the Italian Renaissance to French architectural styles After returning to Italy, Giocondo assisted with the construction of St Peter’s in the Vatican Technology & Invention 1450-1699 Francesco Griffo fl c 1500 Italian typographer who designed and produced the first italic type Employed in the shop of Aldus Mantius (1449-1515), Griffo developed the type by modeling it on the informal style of handwriting Epistola devotissime da Sancta Catharina da Siena (Devotional Epistles of Catherine of Siena), published by Aldus in September 1500, contained a woodcut showing St Catherine holding a book On the book itself were the first 18 italic characters in history Griffo’s creation would prove to have a massive impact: printers soon dropped the heavy black letter Gothic type in widespread use up to that point, and Roman typefaces designed during the next three centuries reflected Griffo’s influence Frederico Grisone fl 1532-1550 Italian riding master and pioneer of equestrian arts In 1532, Grisone founded a riding school near Naples, which became a center of equestrian education for the next century The first known riding teacher to write on the sport, Grisone in 1550 published Gil ordine di cavalcare, a manual of horsemanship Otto von Guericke 1602-1686 German physicist and engineer who invented the air pump, which he used to study how air was used in respiration and combustion Guericke completed his university education with degrees in law, mathematics, and mechanics In 1631, he was hired as an engineer in the army of Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden From 16461681, he served as mayor of Magdeburg In 1650, Guericke invented the air pump, which revealed that air travels through a vacuum, while sound does not Through several experiments, he also discovered the force exerted by air pressure In 1663 he invented the first electrical generating machine, creating static electricity by briskly rubbing a revolving ball of sulfur T I M E S V O L U M E 485 SAIT Tech & Inv (6) Technology & Invention 1450-1699 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 486 Jules Hardouin-Mansart 1646-1708 French architect who completed the Palace of Versailles, begun by Louis Le Vau (1612-1670) Grandnephew of the architect Franỗois Mansart (1598-1666), Hardouin-Mansarthe changed his surname in 1668—worked as building superintendent for King Louis XIV from 1675 In addition to his work on Versailles, a renovation rather than a building project, Hardouin-Mansart was responsible for the enlargement of the Château de SaintGermain and the designs of the Place Vendôme, the Place des Victoires, and the dome of the Hôtel des Invalides Architect of the Château de Clagny (1676-1680), Hardouin-Mansart designed a number of other châteaux, including de Dampierre, de Luneville, and de Sagonne John Harington 1561-1612 British writer and inventor credited with the original concept and construction of the valve-operated water closet (1586) Harington designed and installed his first water closet in his home near Bath, England In 1596, he published a satire entitled A New Discourse upon a Stale Subject Called the Metamorphosis of Ajax, which described the water closet in his home That same year, he installed his flushing toilet for his godmother, Queen Elizabeth I of England (1533-1603) at Richmond Palace Harington’s invention was not very sanitary and had poor drainage and venting, so it was not put into general use Jean de Hautefeuille 1647-1724 French physicist and watchmaker who made significant advances in the development of timepieces and invented the forerunner of the internal-combustion engine Hautefeuille was fascinated by mechanics as a youth He focused much of his attention on watches, to which he made many improvements, most notably replacing the pendulum used at the time with a spiral spring Hautefeuille also invented a thalassameter, which was used to register the movement of tides, and was credited with inventing the first internal-combustion engine, which was designed to operate a pump Robert Hooke 1635-1703 English physicist with broad scientific interests and accomplishments, who is best known for his discovery of the law that governs the behavior of elastic materials, known as Hooke’s law in his 486 S C I E N C E A N D I T S honor He also coined the word cell for biological systems, discovered the diffraction of light, proposed a wave theory of light, invented a telegraph system, made significant astronomical observations of Jupiter and Mars, and is regarded as the founder of the science of crystallography Christiaan Huygens 1629-1695 Dutch physicist best known for inventing the wave theory of light Working with his brother Constantijn he invented a two-lens eyepiece, which dramatically reduced chromatic aberration, and he constructed improved telescopes with which he discovered Saturn’s largest satellite Titan (1655), correctly described Saturn’s rings (1655), and first observed markings on Mars (1659) Huygens also invented the first successful pendulum clock, so useful for accurate time keeping in astronomical measurements, and independently discovered conservation of momentum Athanasius Kircher 1601-1680 German scholar who was renowned for his prolific writings on a variety of academic subjects Kircher was the youngest of nine children, the son of a doctor of divinity He narrowly escaped death several times during childhood, and felt that he was spared because he was predestined for a special purpose in life Kircher studied Greek, Hebrew, the humanities, natural science, and mathematics at various institutions, and was ordained in 1628 Three years later, he fled to France to escape the Thirty Years’ War; while in France he taught mathematics, philosophy, and oriental languages After a few years, he began a journey through Italy and eventually settled in Rome Once there, he began writing on a wide variety of subjects, documenting his vast knowledge of geography, astronomy, theology, language, and medicine He eventually completed approximately 44 books in addition to several thousand manuscripts and letters Kircher was also something of an inventor He described several innovations, including a graduated aerometer and a method of measuring temperature by the buoyancy of small balls Throughout his lifetime he collected a vast array of historical materials, which were eventually displayed in a museum bearing his name, the Museo Kircheriano in Rome Nicholas Krebs 1401-1464 German scholar and humanist who created the first modern map of Germany in 1491 Also T I M E S V O L U M E SAIT Tech & Inv (6) 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 487 known as Nicholas of Cusa and Nicholas Cusanus, Krebs entered the priesthood in 1433 and rose to the position of cardinal in 1448 He wrote and studied widely in a variety of disciplines, including geography, medicine, mathematics, the arts, philosophy, law, and theology In addition, Krebs wrote commentaries on classical writers, and helped to resurrect a number of writings from antiquity Louis Le Vau 1612-1670 French architect who was one of the chief designers of the Palace of Versailles, particularly the central portion of the garden facade Born into a family of architects and builders, Le Vau achieved an impressive reputation as a designer of private estates and was famous for his opulent interior designs and majestic proportions Le Vau was also commissioned to design part of the Louvre in Paris Jean de Locquenghien 1518-1574 Flemish engineer, sometimes known as Jan van Locquenghien, who designed the most significant canal in Belgium In 1561, work was completed on Locquenghien’s Willebroek Canal, which gave Brussels access to the North Sea by way of Antwerp, some 30 miles (48 km) to the north Francesco di Giorgio Martini 1439-1502 Italian engineer and architect whose Trattato di architettura civile e militare (c 1482) was one of the most significant books on architectural theory during the Renaissance Initially employed as a military architect, first by the city-state of Siena and later by both Lorenzo de Medici and the duke of Urbino, Martini went on to influence civilian architecture throughout much of Italy He designed parts of the ducal palace at Urbino, and created a model of the dome for the cathedral at Milan He was also an accomplished sculptor and painter As a theorist, he was greatly influenced by the ideas of the Roman architect Vitruvius (first century A.D.) Marin Mersenne 1588-1648 French mathematician, philosopher, and theologian whose Mersenne numbers pioneered the effort to discover a formula representing all prime numbers Mersenne spent five years at the Jesuit College at La Fleche and two years studying theology at the Sorbonne in Paris He joined the Roman Catholic order of the Minims in 1611, S C I E N C E A N D I T S and taught philosophy at its convent in Nevers from 1614-1618 The following year, he returned to Paris and became a member of the city’s academic circle Mersenne performed significant research in mathematics, arriving at the formula 2p-1, in which p represents a prime number While this formula, called the Mersenne numbers, was not applicable to all prime numbers, it did stimulate interest in their study Mersenne also investigated cycloids (types of geometric curves), and proposed the use of a pendulum as a sort of clock Technology & Invention 1450-1699 William Molyneux 1656-1698 Irish mathematician and astronomer who in 1692 published the first work in the British Isles on the subject of optics, Dioptrica nova, which contained a discussion of the “magic lantern.” The latter was a primitive type of projector, considered a forerunner of modern-day motion-picture projectors Molyneux also designed a telescopic sundial and a new gyroscope, and with his father, Samuel Molyneux, conducted experiments in gunnery Joseph Moxon 1627-1700 British hydrographer, publisher, and instrumentmaker who created and published the most comprehensive book on the practice of type-cutting, founding, and setting before the invention of the power press Around 1660, Moxon was appointed hydrographer to King Charles II of England From 1667 to 1679, he published 38 papers for the professional instruction of skilled artisans in the metal and woodworking trades In 1683, Moxon combined 24 of these papers into his famous book entitled Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing, the earliest practical manual of printing in any language Thomas Newcomen 1663-1729 English engineer who invented the first atmospheric steam engine Newcomen was born in Dartmouth, and spent many years as an ironmonger there Finding out that pumping water out of mines was at the time accomplished through a labor-intensive process, using horses, he spent 10 years trying to create an engine that would complete the task mechanically Newcomen’s engine was comprised of a piston within a vertical cylinder and a huge beam which connected to the mine pumps The engine was groundbreaking in that it used atmospheric pressure, so as not to be limited by the pressure T I M E S V O L U M E 487 SAIT Tech & Inv (6) Technology & Invention 1450-1699 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 488 of steam The first Newcomen engine was used in a South Staffordshire Colliery in 1712, and within a few years the invention was put into use in mines throughout the country In 1765, however, Newcomen’s engine was overshadowed by that of Scottish mechanical engineer James Watt (1736-1819), who is now considered the true inventor of the steam engine Bertola da Novate c 1410-1475 Italian engineer and pioneer of canal-building Novate built the Bereguardo Canal in Italy, completed in 1458, which was the first lateral canal (that is, paralleling a river) to use locks as a means of controlling its steep elevation changes In 1470, Novate completed work on the Martesana Canal, which connected Milan with the River Trezzo and used only two locks over a distance of 24 miles (38.4 km) He is also credited with introducing the mitre gate, one in which the two gates meet at an angle The latter is much more effective at resisting the stress placed on it, and makes it possible to build a wider canal lock Juan Pablos fl 1539-1560 Italian printer, known by his Spanish name, who established the first printing house in the New World Pablos worked for Johann Cromberger, a German printer in Seville, who in 1539 sent him to Mexico City In 1543, Pablos published the first surviving book printed in the Americas, Doctrina breve muy provechosa by Bishop Zumárraga Pablos was joined in 1550 by Antonio de Espinosa, a type founder and die cutter whose Roman and italic types, the first in the New World, soon replaced the Gothic forms used by Pablos up to that point Bernard Palissy 1509?-1589 French potter, glass-painter, and writer who pioneered lead-based, enameled ceramics called majolica and popularized a rustic form of ceramic art featuring coiled snakes, scaly fish, and slinking lizards set in high relief and painted as found in nature Around 1548, after many years of chemical experimentation, Palissy, an avid naturalist, discovered the secret of producing Italian majolica, which he combined with his interest in nature to create a unique style of ceramic art that remained popular for over 400 years 488 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Dom Pierre Perignon 1638-1715 French Benedictine monk who is renowned for his contribution to winemaking Prior to the seventeenth century, abbeys produced only still wines, although sparkling wines were known in France and England As cellar master at the Abbey of Hautvillers in Champagne, France, Dom Perignon converted ordinary sparkling wine into the exceptional wine called champagne Dom Perignon’s sparkling wine was expensive, ordered only by royalty and the nobility, and made him famous in his own lifetime Ottaviano dei Petrucci 1466-1539 Italian printer who in 1498 devised a method of printing musical notation using movable type This innovation greatly spurred the spread of composers’ work, and helped lead to the standardized system of notation in use today A Venetian, Petrucci established a paper mill that remained in operation until the nineteenth century Sir William Petty 1632-1687 English-Irish economist and physician who invented the first modern cataraman, a boat with two hulls A prominent figure in his time, Petty served in a number of important positions with the English government He was a founding member of the Royal Society, and in 1662 published one of the first books on vital statistics Also in 1662, Petty built his catamaran, the Experiment, in Ireland Hugh Platt fl 1600-1610 English scientist who discovered coke In 1603, Platt heated a quantity of coal without burning it, which distilled the coal and left a residue The latter was coke, which proved to be a highly useful fuel for heating and industry Platt was also one of the first English writers to mention molasses, in his Delights for Ladies (1609) Christopher Polhem 1661-1751 Swedish inventor who designed a number of machines and made great improvements to his country’s mining industries One of the first notable scientists from Sweden, Polhem created and built lathes, clocks, tools, and other devices He also held a key position with the Royal Board of Mines, where in 1716 Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), destined to become a famous sci- T I M E S V O L U M E SAIT Tech & Inv (6) 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 489 entist, mystic, and philosopher, came to work as his assistant The two men worked together for a number of decades, during which time they made mineralogical studies and sought to enhance the operations of Swedish mines Agostino Ramelli 1531-1590 Italian military engineer and author of Le diverse et artificiose machine (Diverse and artifactitious machines, 1588), one of the most important works on machinery written during the Renaissance Ramelli spent much of his career in the service of Henry of Anjou, who later became French king under the title Henry III He was wounded while taking part in the 1572 military action against the Huguenots at La Rochelle, and afterward devoted himself to his writings His great work on machines, written in both Italian and French, contained 194 plates depicting a variety of devices, some of them fanciful and imaginary creations These included water pumps, mills, cranes, a water wheel, fountains, bridges, catapults, and what Ramelli called a “book wheel.” The latter was a rotating fixture that made it possible to keep several books open and read from them at the same time In the view of some scientists, this was a precursor to the idea of hypertext, as used today on the Internet Erhard Ratdolt 1447-1528 German printer and type-cutter who published the first book using more than two different colors of ink on one page In 1482, Ratdolt printed an edition of the Elements by Euclid (c 325-c 250 B.C.), which was the first printed book illustrated with geometric figures Three years later, in 1485, he published De sphaera by English mathematician Johannes de Sacrobosco (a.k.a John of Holywood, c 1200-1256), which contained pages using more than two colors Ratdolt was also the originator of the decorated title page George Ravenscroft 1618-1681 English glass maker who developed lead glass, also known as flint glass For several centuries, Venice had dominated the glass industry; in 1674, however, Ravenscroft discovered that by adding lead, he could create a glass that was not only more durable, but more brilliant and aesthetically pleasing than Venetian glass Today Ravenscroft’s discovery is known as lead crystal S C I E N C E A N D I T S Anton Maria Schyrlaeus de Rheita 1597-1660 Bohemian astronomer who produced the first lunar map to represent the Moon as seen through an inverting telescope—with its southern-most features at the top Rheita’s only scientific treatise of value is Oculus Enoch et Eliae, opus theologiae, philosophiae, et verbi dei praeconibus utile et iucundum (1645), in which he describes an eyepiece, of his own invention, that re-inverted the inverted images of Keplerian refracting telescopes (1645) Rheita coined the terms “ocular” and “objective.” Technology & Invention 1450-1699 Friedrich Risner ?-1580 German mathematician who first suggested the idea of a portable camera obscura The latter is a dark chamber, used for experiments in optics and generally considered to be a precursor to the modern camera In 1572, Risner suggested that rather than a darkened room, a wooden hut would make a more useful camera obscura since it could be moved He also edited a highly influential edition of writings by Alhazen (965-1039) and Witelo (c 1230-c 1275) on optics John Rolfe 1585-1622 English colonist who discovered a method for curing tobacco, and was the first known settler in the New World to cultivate the crop Rolfe arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1610, and by 1616 he had a successful tobacco crop using seeds probably obtained from the West Indies Tobacco would have an impact on the economies of Virginia and neighboring North Carolina that is still felt today Rolfe is also famous as the husband of Pocahontas; ironically, it is believed that he was killed by Native Americans near his home Giovanni Ventura Rosetti fl 1540s Italian textile-maker who published the first book on dyeing fibers and fabrics, Plictho dell’arte de tentori (1540) This coincided with the dawning of the commercial textile industry, as the process for applying natural dyes—synthetic dyes would not appear for several centuries— came to be standardized Anna Rügerin German printing press owner and operator who was the first recorded female printer In June 1484, the Augsburg press owned and worked by Rügerin printed the Sachsenspiegel of Eike von T I M E S V O L U M E 489 SAIT Tech & Inv (6) Technology & Invention 1450-1699 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 490 Repgow It is probable that Johann Schönsperger, who had been associated with printer Thomas Rüger, assisted his widow with the project Olivier de Serres 1539-1619 French agronomist, thought to be the first to practice systematic crop rotation Sometimes referred to as the father of French agriculture, Serres presented King Henry IV with plans for the expansion of sericulture His advocacy was largely responsible for the widespread planting of mulberry trees in France at the time, and his agricultural manual, Théatre d’agriculture et mesnage de champs (1600), proved highly influential In addition to crop rotation, Serres advocated new irrigation methods, water conservation, and the sowing of artificial grasses Ludwig von Siegen 1609-c 1680 German engraver and painter who in 1642 invented the mezzotint process for printing in graduated tones Siegen, who described his method as one of engraving by dots rather than by lines, used a small roulette or fine-toothed wheel to achieve the desired effect For years he kept his method a secret, before revealing it to Prince Rupert of the Palatinate, a patron, in 1654 Eventually the process made its way to engravers in England, who adopted it to a much greater extent than their counterparts in other countries Edward Somerset 1601-1667 British inventor and Army officer who designed one of the earliest known steam engines, a steam-operated pump for raising water Somerset was granted a patent for the device in 1663, the same year he published a book written in 1655 entitled A Century of the Names and Scantlings of Such Inventions as at Present I Can Call to Mind to have Tried and Perfected, which included a description of his steam pump as “an admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by fire.” Frederick Staedtler fl 1660s German manufacturer who produced the first commercially made pencils In Nüremberg, Germany, in 1662, Staedtler established a factory for making pencils by fitting a thin strip of graphite into a grooved piece of wood, then covering the groove and sealing it in place with a glued wooden strip 490 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Tartaglia 1499-1557 Italian mathematician, born Nicolò Fontana, whose La nuova scientia (1537) was the first book in history on the science of ballistics The latter had come to be increasingly important to military forces armed with guns and cannons, and Tartaglia’s work was highly influential; however, he incorrectly stated that a ball falls straight downward after being propelled forward from a cannon As a mathematician, Tartaglia is best known for his partial solution to the problem of cubic equations, a discovery that later led him into a dispute with Girolamo Cardano (15011576) and Cardano’s assistant Ludovico Ferrari (1522-1565) Interestingly, Cardano published his own work on ballistics and other subjects, De subtilitate, seven years after Tartaglia’s Giacomo Torelli 1608-1678 Italian stage designer and engineer who created a number of innovations for the theatre In 1641, Torelli designed and built the Teatro Novissimo in Venice, for which he developed number of machines, in particular a revolving stage Invited to Paris by King Louis XIV in 1645, he designed for the Théatre du Petit-Bourbon the first effective machinery for making rapid changes to large sets His set designs, most notably for Pierre Corneille’s Andromède in 1650, won him praise After returning to Italy in 1661, he designed the Teatro della Fortuna in Fano (1677) Geoffroy Tory c 1480-c 1533 French printer and engraver whose designs in Champ fleury (1529) provided the model for styles of book decoration in the French Renaissance Typographers long struggled with the problem of developing a formula for the design of capital Roman letters, a question Tory effectively addressed in his seminal work He advocated a number of other reforms, including the use of accents, the cedilla, the apostrophe, and other punctuation marks, that exerted a profound influence not only on French orthography, but on the French language as it is written today Champ fleury won such great acclaim that King Francis I appointed him to the position of Imprimeur du Roy in 1530 Robertus Valturius 1413-1484 Italian military engineer whose De re militari Libri XII included the earliest printed technical T I M E S V O L U M E SAIT Tech & Inv (6) 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 491 illustrations The book, published in Verona in 1472, featured depictions of the latest military technology, as well as scenes illustrating various military activities and warfare Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban 1633-1707 French military engineer whose tactics helped win a string of victories for King Louis XIV Three years after joining the French engineer corps, Vauban served as engineer-in-chief at the successful siege of Gravelines in 1658 He went on to great acclaim for his work in enabling victories during 12 military engagements from 1667 to 1703 Vauban designed fortifications at Strasbourg and a number of other towns, and invented the socket bayonet His De l’attaque et de la défense des places, published posthumously in 1737, was a highly influential study of fortifications and siege technology Sir Cornelius Vermuyden 1595?-1683 Dutch-born English engineer responsible for a number of drainage and land reclamation projects Vermuyden went to England in 1621 (he later became a naturalized citizen) to repair the Thames embankments In 1626, he received a commission from King Charles I to drain Hatfield Chase in Yorkshire, and spent the better part of the 1630s draining the Great Fens in Cambridgeshire He later reclaimed the area after much of it was flooded during the English Civil War Pierre Vernier 1584-1638 French military engineer who invented the Vernier caliper or Vernier scale for measuring small angles and lengths The instrument, sometimes simply called the vernier, consisted of a large stationary scale for measuring whole numbers, along with a smaller, movable scale for measuring fractions Originally used in astronomy, it replaced the much more complicated astrolabe; ultimately, however, the vernier would gain even wider use among surveyors Bernard Walther 1430-1504 German astronomer who was one of the first to use weight-driven clocks Walther was a patron of Johann Müller Regiomontanus (1436-1476), and contributed funds toward the building of the latter’s observatory in Nuremberg in 1471 After Regiomontanus’s death in 1476, Walther continued his associate’s work in measuring star S C I E N C E A N D I T S positions He first made use of the weight-driven clock in 1484 Wan Hu d c 1500 Chinese rocketry pioneer Wan Hu was reportedly a government official, though some sources identify him as a legendary or semi-legendary figure In about 1500, he attached some 47 “firearrow rockets” or fireworks to two large kites, which were in turn attached to a chair He then sat in the chair, and on his command, the 47 rockets were lit The result was an explosion that took his life Technology & Invention 1450-1699 Richard Weston 1591-1652 English agriculturalist who was first to describe a system of crop rotation using no fallow break—that is, a period in which no crops are planted on the land An advocate of growing root crops, Weston published his Discours of Husbandrie in 1650 Henry Winstanley 1644-1703 English engineer who designed the first Eddystone Lighthouse, which greatly reduced shipping accidents off the Plymouth coast An inventor known for his many bizarre contraptions, Winstanley owned two ships that in 1696 sank on the dangerous Eddystone Rocks 14 miles (22.5 km) from shore He then resolved to build a lighthouse Given its distance from inhabitable land—the Eddystone Rocks were, as their name indicated, mere rocks jutting from the sea—this was a formidable task Simply digging the foundation took five months, but finally the lighthouse was completed in 1698 Five years later, Winstanley died in a violent storm that destroyed the lighthouse Hannah Woolley 1623-1684? British schoolteacher and writer, whose name is well known to collectors of books on cookery and the domestic arts as the first woman to publish a cookbook Left an orphan at a young age, Woolley found work as a schoolmistress and governess before attaining the post of stewardess and secretary for an unnamed woman She eventually married and was widowed, about which time she published her first book, The Ladies’ Directory (1661) Her four subsequent books (and their later editions) were a curious mixture of etiquette rules and behavior in society, the art of letter-writing, cooking recipes, first aid instructions, T I M E S V O L U M E 491 SAIT Tech & Inv (6) Technology & Invention 1450-1699 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 492 Sir Christopher Wren 1632-1723 English polymath who, after the great fire of London (1666), designed the new St Paul’s Cathedral and over 50 churches He also designed the Greenwich Observatory Wren was a charter member of the Royal Society, becoming that body’s president in 1680 He produced the first lunar globe (1661), determined the arc length and center of gravity for the cycloid (1658), independently established conservation of momentum (1668), and proposed a unit of length based on pendulum oscillations (1673) Yi Sun-shin ?-1598 Korean admiral who built the first ironclad warships In 1592, when the Japanese invaded Korea with the aim of conquering the peninsula and moving on to China, Yi ordered the building of 12 kobukson, or “tortoise ships.” These lowdecked, armed galleys, covered with an ironplated dome, faced a vastly larger Japanese force—133 ships—and won an overwhelming victory, sinking 31 vessels and routing the remainder Despite this victory, however, the Koreans did not continue building ironclad warships, and the technique did not appear in the West until the nineteenth century Johann Zahn fl 1680s German inventor whose box-sized camera obscuras provided a prototype for the box and reflex cameras that appeared at the advent of photography in the nineteenth century Originally the camera obscura consisted of an entire room in which all light was shut off, except for a small hole at one end; thanks to innovations beginning with Friedrich Risner (d 1580), however, they were small and portable by Zahn’s time Zahn, a monk from Würzburg, developed lenses of varying length for viewing scenes at a greater or lesser distance Jakob Zech fl 1520s German clockmaker, sometimes known as Jacob the Czech, who built the first clock using a balance wheel, which made it more regular and therefore more accurate Zech’s wheel, called a fusee, represented the first successful attempt to regulate the power of the watch spring 492 Bibliography of Primary Sources and education advice for girls’ governesses and others seeking domestic positions S C I E N C E A N D I T S Agricola, Georgius De re Metallica (1556) This cleverly organized work discussed all aspects of mining from prospecting through the production of gold, silver, lead, salt, soda, alum, sulfuric acid, sulfur, bitumen, and glass One of the great monuments of technology, for two centuries it remained through many reprints the best mining textbook in Europe, because of its comprehensive coverage and brilliantly clear illustrations of machinery, powered by horses or water wheels, for pumping water, hoisting spoil, ventilating shafts, crushing and grinding ore, assaying and sampling for quality, stirring and mixing ore in tubs, blowing smelting furnaces, and moving heavy hammers to work wrought iron Alberti, Leone Battista Della Pittura (1435) This work contained the first general account of the laws of perspective Alberti, Leone Battista De re aedificatoria (promulgated 1452, published 1485) This book became the bible of Renaissance architecture, incorporating as it did advances in engineering and aesthetic theory Aldus Mantius Epistola devotissime da Sancta Catharina da Siena (Devotional epistles of Catherine of Siena, 1500) This work contained a woodcut showing St Catherine holding a book On the book itself were the first 18 italic characters in history, created by Francesco Griffo Griffo’s creation would prove to have a massive impact: printers soon dropped the heavy black letter Gothic type in widespread use up to that point, and Roman typefaces designed during the next three centuries reflected Griffo’s influence Besson, Jacques Theatrum Instrumentorum et Machinarum (1569) A book on mechanical arts that included illustrations of Besson’s various machines Biringuccio, Vannoccio De la pirotechnia libri X (Ten books of a work in fire, 1540) Biringuccio’s practical manual, written in vernacular Italian, described metallurgical processes—assaying, smelting, alloying, and casting—that he had seen or practiced In many cases his was the first written description of processes for smelting and casting gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, iron, steel, and brass He also described the casting of medallions, fine art objects, type for printing, and cannon, which in typical Renaissance fashion he insisted should be ornamented to make them beautiful Bourne, William Inventions or Devices (1578) The first detailed description of a submarine In the work Bourne provided a design for an enclosed boat that could be submerged and rowed underwater Made of a wooden framework encased in waterproofed leather, Bourne’s planned submarine was to be lowered by means of hand vices, which would contract the sides and reduce its volume Although a craft similar to Bourne’s design appeared in 1605, it sank due to errors in construction Branca, Giovanni La Machine (1629) A gazette of machinery that included 77 woodcuts illustrating various types of equipment Among those depicted was a steam turbine, along with Branca’s notes describing T I M E S V O L U M E SAIT Tech & Inv (6) 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 493 the means for turning a wheel by shooting jets of steam against vanes attached to the outer rim of the wheel At the end of a turbine shaft were pestles for pounding materials Caus, Salomon de Les Raisons des forcesmouvantes (1615) Here Caus described a steam pump in which water was heated in a vessel and pushed out by the resulting steam d’Aguilon, Franỗois Opticorum (1613) This work contained a discussion of stereoscopic projection, the phenomenon whereby a person’s two eyes capture and integrate images viewed from slightly different angles, thus giving the image greater depth della Porta, Giambattista Magiae naturalis (1558) This book constituted the foundation of an expanded 20book edition of the Magia naturalis (1589) The document explores the natural world, claiming it can be manipulated through theoretical and practical experimentation Magiae naturalis is della Porta’s most recognized work and the basis of his reputation Ercker, Lazarus Beschreibung allerfürnemisten mineralischen Ertzt und Berckwercksarten (Description of leading ore processing and mining methods, 1574) This work reviewed current techniques for testing alloys and minerals of silver, gold, copper, antimony, mercury, bismuth, and lead, and for refining those minerals Fevre, Raoul le Recuyell of the Histories of Troie (1474) This was the first known book published in the English language Frisius, Regnier De principiis astronomiae cosmographicae (1530) Discussed a method for finding longitude using a clock and astrolabe Frisius, Regnier De radio astronomico et geometrico (1545) This work discussed Frisius’s observations of a solar eclipse the preceding January The book included a drawing of the camera obscura, a dark, enclosed chamber that was a forerunner of the modern camera Grisone, Frederico Gil ordine di cavalcare (1550) A manual of horsemanship The Gutenberg Bible (1456) The oldest surviving printed work in the Western world was originally known as The Bible of 42 Lines Molyneux, William Dioptrica nova, (1692) Thefirst work in the British Isles on the subject of optics, this book contained a discussion of the “magic lantern.” The latter was a primitive type of projector, considered a forerunner of modern-day motion-picture projectors Moxon, Joseph Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing (1683) Moxon combined 24 papers to create this famous book, the earliest practical manual of printing in any language Neri, Antonio L’arte Vetraria (The art of glass, 1612) In this influential work Neri revealed many of the secrets of glassmaking, which had previously been closely guarded among Italian glassmakers The book, colorful and detailed, has served as a basic reference on the subject ever since Palladio, Andrea I Quattro Libri dell’Architecttura (Four books of architecture, 1570) Four-volume treatise that popularized classical design and Palladio’s innovative style, and became a veritable blueprint for design worldwide, reaching its zenith in the eighteenth S C I E N C E A N D I T S century In the eyes of many scholars, the work stands as the clearest and best-organized textbook on architecture ever produced The first two books outline Palladio’s principles of building materials and his designs for town and country villas The third volume illustrates his thinking about bridges, town planning, and basilicas, which were oblong public halls The final book deals with reconstruction of ancient Roman temples Technology & Invention 1450-1699 Papin, Denis Ars Nova ad Aquam Ignis Adminiculo Efficacissime Elevandam (The new art of pumping water by using steam, 1707) Thomas Savery’s sketch of the first practical steam engine inspired Papin’s paper on the topic of steam engines Ramelli, Agostino Le diverseet artificiose machine (Diverse and artifactitious machines, 1588) One of the most important works on machinery written during the Renaissance Written in both Italian and French, the work contained 194 plates depicting a variety of devices, some of them fanciful and imaginary creations These included water pumps, mills, cranes, a water wheel, fountains, bridges, catapults, and what Ramelli called a “book wheel.” The latter was a rotating fixture that made it possible to keep several books open and read from them at the same time In the view of some scientists, this was a precursor to the idea of hypertext, as used today on the Internet Rheita, Anton de Oculus Enoch et Eliae, opus theologiae, philosophiae, et verbi dei praeconibus utile et iucundum (1645) Here Rheita described an eyepiece of his own invention that re-inverted the inverted images of Keplerian refracting telescopes Rosetti, Giovanni Plictho dell’arte de tentori (1540) The first book on dyeing fibers and fabrics, This coincided with the dawning of the commercial textile industry, as the process for applying natural dyes—synthetic dyes would not appear for several centuries—came to be standardized Serres, Olivier de Théatre d’agriculture (1600) Described systematic crop rotation for the first time This very popular work appeared in several editions throughout the seventeenth century Serres surveyed all aspects of agriculture, starting with advice on running a religious Calvinist household Somerset, Edward A Century of the Names and Scantlings of Such Inventions as at Present I Can Call to Mind to have Tried and Perfected (1663) This book included a description of Somerset’s pioneering steam pump as “uoan admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by fire.” Tartaglia La nuova scientia (1537) The first book in history on the science of ballistics The field had come to be increasingly important to military forces armed with guns and cannons, and Tartaglia’s work was highly influential; however, he incorrectly stated that a ball falls straight downward after being propelled forward from a cannon Tory, Geoffroy Champ fleury (1529) The designs in this work provided the model for styles of book decoration in the French Renaissance Typographers long struggled with the problem of developing a formula for the design of capital Roman letters, a question Tory effectively addressed in his seminal work He advocated a number of other reforms, including the use T I M E S V O L U M E 493 SAIT Tech & Inv (6) Technology & Invention 1450-1699 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 494 of accents, the cedilla, the apostrophe, and other punctuation marks, that exerted a profound influence not only on French orthography, but on the French language as it is written today Champ fleury won such great acclaim that King Francis I appointed Tory to the position of Imprimeur du Roy in 1530 Valturius, Robertus De re militari Libri XII (1472) Included the earliest printed technical illustrations The book, published in Verona, Italy, featured depictions of the latest military technology as well as scenes illustrating various military activities and warfare Vauban, Sébastien De l’attaque et de la défensedes places (1737) This work, published posthumously, was a highly influential study of fortifications and siege technology Land There, and Serving as a Pattern for Our Practice in This Commonwealth (1650) Weston published this work to spread the knowledge of the “ley” farming techniques that he saw between Antwerp and Ghent while in exile Ley farming emphasized the careful accumulation of manure from animals hand-fed in stalls during summer with green and root crops, such as hay, clover, turnips, or flax When the ley lands were ploughed under, the roots left in them fertilized the soil This created a rising cycle of production, because better-manured crops produced more food for animals, which in turn produced more manure Animals could also be kept through the winter on the reserves of larger crops, enabling them to be selectively bred and preserving their muscle power and manure Weston, Richard Discourse of Husbandry Used in Brabant and Flanders, Showing the Wonderful Improvement of 494 S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S NEIL SCHLAGER V O L U M E SAIT BM 10/28/00 12:33 PM Page 495 General Bibliography Armitage, A Copernicus, the Founder of Modern Astronomy London: Allen & Unwin, 1938 Asimov, Isaac Adding a Dimension: Seventeen Essays on the History of Science Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964 Basalla, George The Evolution of Technology New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988 Benson, Don S Man and the Wheel London: Priory Press, 1973 Beretta, Marco The Enlightenment of Matter: The Definition of Chemistry from Agricola to Lavoisier Canton, MA: Science History Publications, 1993 Black, Jeremy The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Warfare: Revolution, 1492- 1792 New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996 Boorstin, Daniel J The Discoverers New York: Random House, 1983 Bowler, Peter J The Norton History of the Environmental Sciences New York: W W Norton, 1993 Brock, W H The Norton History of Chemistry New York: W W Norton, 1993 Bruno, Leonard C Science and Technology Firsts Edited by Donna Olendorf, guest foreword by Daniel J Boorstin Detroit: Gale, 1997 Buchwald, Jed Z and I Bernard Cohen, editors Isaac Newton’s Natural Philosophy Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000 Bud, Robert and Deborah Jean Warner, editors Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia New York: Garland, 1998 Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh Science and Technology Desk Reference: 1,500 Frequently Asked or Difficult-to-Answer Questions Washington, DC: Gale, 1993 Christianson, Gale E Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 Crombie, Alistair Cameron Medieval and Early Modern Science Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959 Crone, G R Man the Explorer London: Priory Press, 1973 Debus, Allen G Chemistry, Alchemy, and the New Philosophy, 1550-1700: Studies in the History of Science and Medicine London: Variorum Reprints, 1987 Debus, Allen G Man and Nature in the Renaissance New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978 Debus, Allen G Science and Education in the Seventeenth Century: The Webster-Ward Debate New York: American Elsevier, 1970 Ellis, Keith Man and Measurement London: Priory Press, 1973 Finocchiaro, Maurice A., translator and editor The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989 Gascoigne, Robert Mortimer A Chronology of the History of Science, 1450-1900 New York: Garland, 1987 Butterfield, Herbert The Origins of Modern Science, 1300- 1800 New York: Macmillan, 1951 Gaukroger, Stephen, editor Descartes: Philosophy, Mathematics, and Physics Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books, 1980 Bynum, W F., et al., editors Dictionary of the History of Science Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981 Good, Gregory A., editor Sciences of the Earth: An Encyclopedia of Events, People, and Phenomena New York: Garland, 1998 S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 495 SAIT BM 10/28/00 12:33 PM General Bibliography 1450-1699 Page 496 Grafton, Anthony and Nancy Siraisi, editors Natural Particulars: Nature and the Disciplines in Renaissance Europe Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999 Grattan-Guiness, Ivor The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences: The Rainbow of Mathematics New York: W W Norton, 1998 Porter, Roy The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996 Reeds, Karen Botany in Medieval and Renaissance Universities New York: Garland, 1991 Gullberg, Jan Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers Technical illustrations by Pär Gullberg New York: W W Norton, 1997 Sarton, George Introduction to the History of Science Huntington, NY: R E Krieger Publishing Company, 1975 Hellemans, Alexander and Bryan Bunch The Timetables of Science: A Chronology of the Most Important People and Events in the History of Science New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988 Singer, Charles A History of Biology to About the Year 1900: A General Introduction to the Study of Living Things Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1989 Hellyer, Brian Man the Timekeeper London: Priory Press, 1974 Holmes, Edward and Christopher Maynard Great Men of Science Edited by Jennifer L Justice New York: Warwick Press, 1979 Hoskin, Michael The Cambridge Illustrated History of Astronomy New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997 Hunter, Michael Cyril William The Royal Society and Its Fellows, 1660- 1700: The Morphology of an Early Scientific Institution Chalfont St Giles, England: British Society for the History of Science, 1982 Kelly, John T Practical Astronomy during the Seventeenth Century: Almanac-Makers in America and England New York: Garland, 1991 Singer, Charles A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1997 Smith, Roger The Norton History of the Human Sciences New York: W W Norton, 1997 Spangenburg, Ray The History of Science from the Ancient Greeks to the Scientific Revolution New York: Facts on File, 1993 Stiffler, Lee Ann Science Rediscovered: A Daily Chronicle of Highlights in the History of Science Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1995 Stwertka, Albert and Eve Stwertka Physics: From Newton to the Big Bang New York: F Watts, 1986 Travers, Bridget, editor The Gale Encyclopedia of Science Detroit: Gale, 1996 King, Lester S The Road to Medical Enlightenment, 1650- 1695 New York: American Elsevier, 1970 Westfall, Richard S Force in Newton’s Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century New York: American Elsevier, 1971 Lankford, John, editor History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia New York: Garland, 1997 Whitteridge, Gweneth William Harvey and the Circulation of the Blood New York: American Elsevier, 1971 Levere, Trevor H and William R Shea, editors Nature, Experiment, and the Sciences: Essays on Galileo and the History of Science Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990 Lincoln, Roger J and G A Boxshall The Cambridge Illustrated Dictionary of Natural History Illustrations by Roberta Smith New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Lindberg, David C Theories of Vision from alKindi to Kepler Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976 Moran, Bruce T., editor Patronage and Institutions: Science, Technology, and Medicine at the 496 European Court, 1500- 1750 Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1991 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Wolf, Abraham A History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries London: Allen & Unwin, 1950 Whitehead, Alfred North Science and the Modern World: Lowell Lectures, 1925 New York: The Free Press, 1953 World of Scientific Discovery Detroit: Gale, 1994 Young, Robyn V., editor Notable Mathematicians: From Ancient Times to the Present Detroit: Gale, 1998 T I M E S JUDSON KNIGHT V O L U M E ... E 31 4 31 8 32 1 32 4 32 6 32 9 33 2 33 4 33 7 33 9 34 2 34 6 34 8 35 1 SAIT fm 10/28/00 12:24 PM Page vii Revival of Corpuscular Theories during the Seventeenth Century 35 4 Advances... references and index ISBN 0-7876 -39 33- 8 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876 -39 34-6 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876 -39 35-4 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876 -39 36-2 (vol : alk paper) — ISBN 0-7876 -39 37-0 (vol. .. S 230 232 234 237 239 241 2 43 Physical Sciences Chronology of Key Events 31 1 Overview 31 2 Topical Essays Science and Christianity during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth