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SAIT frtmttr 6/29/00 11:16 AM Page VOLUME 1900-1949 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery SAIT frtmttr 6/29/00 11:16 AM Page VOLUME 1900-1949 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery Nei l Sch lager, Ed ito r J osh Lauer, Asso ciate Ed ito r Pr oduced by Schlager Informa tion G roup Science and Its Times VOLUME 1900-1949 NEIL SCHLAGER, Editor JOSH LAUER, Associate Editor GALE GROUP STAFF Amy Loerch Strumolo, Project Coordinator Christine B Jeryan, Contributing Editor Mary K Fyke, Editorial Technical Specialist Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager Margaret A Chamberlain, Permissions Specialist Shalice Shah-Caldwell, Permissions Associate Mary Beth Trimper, Production Director Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Wendy Blurton, Senior Buyer Cynthia D Baldwin, Product Design Manager Tracey Rowens, Senior Art Director Barbara Yarrow, Graphic Services Manager Randy Bassett, Image Database Supervisor Mike Logusz, Imaging Specialist Pamela A Reed, Photography Coordinator Leitha Etheridge-Sims Junior Image Cataloger While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein Gale accepts no payment for listing, and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984 This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended © 2000 The Gale Group 27500 Drake Rd Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages or entries in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper ISBN: 0-7876-3938-9 Printed in the United States of America 10 Science Vol fm 7/5/00 1:41 PM Page v Contents Preface ix Advisory Board xi Contributors xiii Introduction: 1900-1949 xvii Chronology: 1900-1949 xxi Exploration and Discovery Chronology of Key Events Overview Topical Essays The Palace at Knossos: The Archaeologial Discovery of Minoan Civilization Ancient Writings Shed Light on Past Civilizations The Northwest Passage, Sought by Europeans for 400 years, Is Found and Traversed by Ship by Roald Amundsen 10 Sven Hedin Maps Tibet 12 The Exploration of the Poles 14 The First Women Aviators 17 The Exploration of South America 19 Finding the Tomb of King Tut 22 Scaling the Heights: Mountaineering Advances between 1900-1949 24 Finding the Pygmies: Westerners Learn More about Africa’s Ituri Forest People 27 Flights into History and Their Effects on Technology, Politics, and Commerce 30 Journey Across China 33 Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer Are the First to Enter the Stratosphere 36 Charles William Beebe and Otis Barton Set Depth Record 38 Prehistoric Cave Art Found at Lascaux 41 Breaking the Sound Barrier 44 Oil Is Discovered in the Middle East 47 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Biographical Sketches 49 Biographical Mentions 80 Bibliography of Primary Sources 88 Life Sciences Chronology of Key Events 91 Overview 92 Topical Essays The Rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Heredity 94 The Fruit Fly Group Contributes Key Discoveries to Genetics 96 Hermann J Muller and the Induction of Genetic Mutations 99 The Genetic Foundation of Natural Selection 102 The Modern Synthesis of Evolutionary Theory 104 The Scopes Trial Highlights the Battle over Evolution 107 The Emergence of Endocrinology as a Medical Science 110 The Boveri-Sutton Theory Links Chromosomes to Heredity 112 Elucidating the Structure and Workings of the Nervous System 115 Developments in Embryology 117 The Eugenics Movement: Good Intentions Lead to Horrific Consequences 120 Advances in the Understanding of Energy Metabolism 122 Advances in Understanding Viruses 125 Advances in Understanding Brain Behavior in Animals 129 Behavioral Studies Develop through Animal Observation and Experimentation 131 Imprinting and Establishment of Ethology 134 Advances in Botany 136 Developments in Ecology, 1900-1949 139 Developments in Anthropology, 1900-1949 142 T I M E S V O L U M E v Science Vol fm 7/5/00 1:41 PM Contents 1900-1949 Page vi The Disastrous Effects of Lysenkoism on Soviet Agriculture 145 Advances and Trends in the Agricultural Sciences 148 Key Scientific Research Institutions Are Founded 151 Biographical Sketches 153 Biographical Mentions 180 Bibliography of Primary Sources 196 Chronology of Key Events 199 Overview 200 Topical Essays The Foundations of Mathematics: Hilbert’s Formalism vs Brouwer’s Intuitionism Bertrand Russell and the Paradoxes of Set Theory Mathematical Logic: Proofs of Completeness and Incompleteness David Hilbert Sets an Agenda for TwentiethCentury Mathematics The Bourbaki School of Mathematics Lebesgue’s Development of the Theories of Measure and Integration Development of the Fundamental Notions of Functional Analysis The Decimation of Mathematics in Hitler’s Germany Operations Research The Development of Computational Mathematics The Origins of Set-Theoretic Topology Hermann Minkowski Pioneers the Concept of a Four-Dimensional Space-Time Continuum Seeking the Geometry of the Universe The Organization of the Mathematics Community The Establishment of the Fields Medal in Mathematics Advances in Game Theory Advances in the Field of Statistics Emergence of Women at the Highest Levels of Mathematics The Emergence of African Americans in Mathematics Modern Probability As Part of Mathematics Investigations into the Irrationality and Transcendence of Various Specific Numbers The Thorough Axiomatization of Algebra S C I E N C E Biographical Sketches 257 Biographical Mentions 280 Bibliography of Primary Sources 296 Medicine Chronology of Key Events 297 Overview 298 Topical Essays Mathematics vi Advances in Number Theory between 1900 and 1949 252 New Levels of Abstraction: Homological Algebra and Category Theory 254 A N D 202 204 205 207 210 212 214 217 219 221 224 227 229 230 233 235 237 240 243 244 247 250 I T S The Development of Schools of Psychology Leads to Greater Understanding of Human Behavior Advances in Identifying the Causes of Major Infectious Diseases The Discovery of Vitamins and Their Relationship to Good Health The Discovery and Importance of Penicillin and the Development of Sulfa Drugs Salvarsan Provides a Cure for Syphilis and Ushers in the Field of Chemotherapy The Development of Modern Blood Transfusions The First Birth Control Clinics in America and England Advances in Dentistry, 1900-1949 Western Medicine Re-Discovers the Ancient Chinese Herb Ma Huang New Diagnostic Tests Are Developed The Development of Antihistamines Johannes Fibiger Induces Cancer in Lab Animals and Helps Advance Cancer Research, in Particular Leading Directly to the Study of Chemical Carcinogens Introduction of Electroshock Therapy Advances in Surgical Techniques The Treatment of Blue Baby Syndrome The Development of Modern Hearing Aids Hormones and the Discovery of Insulin Therapeutic Innovations Related to Respiration The Impact of Radioactivity on Medicine between 1900 and 1949 Medical Advances During War Fluoridation and the Prevention of Tooth Decay Founding of Major Health Organizations Aspirin 300 304 307 310 313 316 318 321 323 325 328 330 333 335 338 340 344 346 349 352 355 357 359 Biographical Sketches 362 Biographical Mentions 389 Bibliography of Primary Sources 399 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Vol fm 7/5/00 1:41 PM Page vii Physical Sciences Technology and Invention Chronology of Key Events 401 Overview 402 Topical Essays Chronology of Key Events 515 Overview 516 Topical Essays Mass Migration of Continental European Scientists to the U.S and Elsewhere 404 The Manhattan Project and the Decision to Drop the Bomb 407 National Jewels: The Beginnings of Commercial Research Labs 413 Einstein’s Theories of Relativity 415 The Development of Quantum Mechanics 418 From an Expanding Universe to the Big Bang 420 Life Cycles of the Stars 424 The Development of Radio Astronomy 427 “The Coldest Spot on Earth.” Low Temperature Physics, Superfluidity, and the Discovery of Superconductivity 430 Models of the Atom 432 Enrico Fermi Builds the First Nuclear Reactor 435 Frederick Kipping Develops Silicones 437 The Advent and Use of Chlorination to Purify Water in Great Britain and the United States 439 Wolfgang Pauli’s Exclusion Principle 442 Achievements by Indian Physical Scientists 445 The Development of Artificial Radioactivity 447 The Use of Poison Gases in the First World War 450 The Bergen School of Dynamic Meteorology and Its Dissemination 453 The Great Barringer Meteor Crater 456 Geologist Richard Oldham’s 1906 Paper on Seismic Wave Transmission Establishes the Existence of Earth’s Core and Demonstrates the Value of Seismology for Studying the Structure of Earth’s Deep Interior 459 Finding Earth’s Age and Other Developments in Geochronology 461 Alfred Wegener Introduces the Concept of Continental Drift 463 Radar Mapping of the Solar System 466 Biographical Sketches 468 Biographical Mentions 500 Bibliography of Primary Sources 513 The Development of Airships Drilling for Offshore Oil The Invention of the Airplane and the Rise of the Airplane Industry for Military and Civilian Purposes The Soviet Union Promotes Rapid Technological Development in the Communist Ideology The Development of Plastics Model T: The Car for the Masses Building of the Panama Canal The Development of RADAR and SONAR Rocketing into Space: The Beginnings of the Space Age The Empire State Building: Skyscraper Symbol of America’s Power The Development of Jet Engines The Invention of Nylon The Birth of Television Computers: The Dawn of a Revolution The Development of Mass Production Has a Dramatic Impact on Industry and Society Helicopters: The Long Journey “Mr Carmody, We Want Lights”: The Tennessee Valley Authority and Rural Electrification Under the New Deal Household Work Is Transformed by Technological Developments American Physicists William B Shockley, Walter H Brattain, and John Bardeen Produce the First Transistor, Initiating the Semiconductor Revolution The Technology of War Hydroelectricity and the “Big Dam Era” Birth of the “Talkies”: The Development of Synchronized Sound for Motion Pictures Women Inventors between 1900-1949: Setting the Stage for Equal Opportunity The Development of the Tape Recorder Contents 1900-1949 518 521 523 527 529 533 535 538 541 544 546 548 551 553 556 558 561 564 567 569 574 577 580 582 Biographical Sketches 584 Biographical Mentions 604 Bibliography of Primary Sources 614 General Bibliography 617 Index 621 S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E vii Science Vol fm 7/5/00 1:41 PM Page ix Preface T he interaction of science and society is increasingly a focal point of high school studies, and with good reason: by exploring the achievements of science within their historical context, students can better understand a given event, era, or culture This cross-disciplinary approach to science is at the heart of Science and Its Times Readers of Science and Its Times will find a comprehensive treatment of the history of science, including specific events, issues, and trends through history as well as the scientists who set in motion—or who were influenced by—those events From the ancient world’s invention of the plowshare and development of seafaring vessels; to the Renaissance-era conflict between the Catholic Church and scientists advocating a suncentered solar system; to the development of modern surgery in the nineteenth century; and to the mass migration of European scientists to the United States as a result of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s, science’s involvement in human progress—and sometimes brutality—is indisputable While science has had an enormous impact on society, that impact has often worked in the opposite direction, with social norms greatly influencing the course of scientific achievement through the ages In the same way, just as history can not be viewed as an unbroken line of everexpanding progress, neither can science be seen as a string of ever-more amazing triumphs Science and Its Times aims to present the history of science within its historical context—a context marked not only by genius and stunning invention but also by war, disease, bigotry, and persecution Format of the Series Science and Its Times is divided into seven volumes, each covering a distinct time period: S C I E N C E A N D I T S Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D Volume 2: 700-1449 Volume 3: 1450-1699 Volume 4: 1700-1799 Volume 5: 1800-1899 Volume 6: 1900-1949 Volume 7: 1950-present Dividing the history of science according to such strict chronological subsets has its own drawbacks Many scientific events—and scientists themselves—overlap two different time periods Also, throughout history it has been common for the impact of a certain scientific advancement to fall much later than the advancement itself Readers looking for information about a topic should begin their search by checking the index at the back of each volume Readers perusing more than one volume may find the same scientist featured in two different volumes Readers should also be aware that many scientists worked in more than one discipline during their lives In such cases, scientists may be featured in two different chapters in the same volume To facilitate searches for a specific person or subject, main entries on a given person or subject are indicated by bold-faced page numbers in the index Within each volume, material is divided into chapters according to subject area For volumes 5, 6, and 7, these areas are: Exploration and Discovery, Life Sciences, Mathematics, Medicine, Physical Sciences, and Technology and Invention For volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, readers will find that the Life Sciences and Medicine chapters have been combined into a single section, reflecting the historical union of these disciplines before 1800 T I M E S V O L U M E ix Science Vol fm 7/5/00 1:41 PM Preface 1900-1949 Page x Arrangement of Volume 6: 1900-1949 Volume begins with two notable sections in the frontmatter: a general introduction to science and society during the period, and a general chronology that presents key scientific events during the period alongside key world historical events The volume is then organized into six chapters, corresponding to the six subject areas listed above in “Format of the Series.” Within each chapter, readers will find the following entry types: Chronology of Key Events: Notable events in the subject area during the period are featured in this section Overview: This essay provides an overview of important trends, issues, and scientists in the subject area during the period Topical Essays: Ranging between 1,500 and 2,000 words, these essays discuss notable events, issues, and trends in a given subject area Each essay includes a Further Reading section that points users to additional sources of information on the topic, including books, articles, and web sites Biographical Sketches: Key scientists during the era are featured in entries ranging between 500 and 1,000 words in length Biographical Mentions: Additional brief biographical entries on notable scientists during the era Bibliography of Primary Source Documents: These annotated bibliographic x S C I E N C E A N D I T S listings feature key books and articles pertaining to the subject area Following the final chapter are two additional sections: a general bibliography of sources related to the history of science, and a general subject index Readers are urged to make heavy use of the index, because many scientists and topics are discussed in several different entries A note should be made about the arrangement of individual entries within each chapter: while the long and short biographical sketches are arranged alphabetically according to the scientist’s surname, the topical essays lend themselves to no such easy arrangement Again, readers looking for a specific topic should consult the index Readers wanting to browse the list of essays in a given subject area can refer to the table of contents in the book’s frontmatter Additional Features Throughout each volume readers will find sidebars whose purpose is to feature interesting events or issues that otherwise might be overlooked These sidebars add an engaging element to the more straightforward presentation of science and its times in the rest of the entries In addition, the volume contains photographs, illustrations, and maps scattered throughout the chapters Comments and Suggestions Your comments on this series and suggestions for future editions are welcome Please write: The Editor, Science and Its Times, Gale Group, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills, MI 48331 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Vol fm 7/5/00 1:41 PM Page xi Advisory Board Amir Alexander Research Fellow Center for 17th and 18th Century Studies UCLA Amy Sue Bix Associate Professor of History Iowa State University Elizabeth Fee Chief, History of Medicine Division National Library of Medicine Sander Gliboff Ph.D Candidate Johns Hopkins University Lois N Magner Professor Emerita Purdue University Henry Petroski A.S Vesic Professor of Civil Engineering and Professor of History Duke University F Jamil Ragep Associate Professor of the History of Science University of Oklahoma David L Roberts Post-Doctoral Fellow, National Academy of Education Morton L Schagrin Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and History of Science SUNY College at Fredonia Hilda K Weisburg Library Media Specialist Morristown High School, Morristown, NJ S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E xi Science Vol fm 7/5/00 1:41 PM Page xiii Contributors Lloyd T Ackert, Jr Graduate Student in the History of Science Johns Hopkins University Randolph Fillmore Freelance Science Writer James A Altena The University of Chicago Mark R Finlay Associate Professor of History Armstrong Atlantic State University Peter J Andrews Freelance Writer Richard Fitzgerald Freelance Writer Kenneth E Barber Professor of Biology Western Oklahoma State College Maura C Flannery Professor of Biology St John’s University, New York Bob Batchelor Writer Arter & Hadden LLP Donald R Franceschetti Distinguished Service Professor of Physics and Chemistry The University of Memphis Sherri Chasin Calvo Freelance Writer Thomas Drucker Graduate Student, Department of Philosophy University of Wisconsin H J Eisenman Professor of History University of Missouri-Rolla Jean-Franỗois Gauvin Historian of Science Musộe Stewart au Fort de l’ỵle Sainte-Hélène, Montréal Phillip H Gochenour Freelance Editor and Writer Brook Ellen Hall Professor of Biology California State University at Sacramento Ellen Elghobashi Freelance Writer Diane K Hawkins Head, Reference Services—Health Sciences Library SUNY Upstate Medical University Lindsay Evans Freelance Writer Loren Butler Feffer Independent Scholar Robert Hendrick Professor of History St John’s University, New York Keith Ferrell Freelance Writer James J Hoffmann Diablo Valley College S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E xiii Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 626 Dickson, Leonard, 283 Dietz, Robert, 465 Dieudonné, Jean, 210, 283-84 Diophantus, 208 Dirac, Paul A M., 402, 419, 494, 474-75 Dirigible see Airship Diseases, 304-7 see also Immunology DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 91, 92, 93, 102, 119, 137, 145, 153, 154, 158, 159, 164, 186, 189, 190, 437, 497 see also RNA Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 98, 103, 106, 160-61, 180 Dochez, Alphonse, 154 Dodds, Edward Charles, 184 Doisy, Edward A., 184, 309 Domagk, Gerhard, 298, 365, 391-92 Doppler, Christian Johann, 477 Dornberger, Walter R., 542, 607 Drake, Edwin, 47 Drake, Sir Francis, 10 Dreser, Heinrich, 360 Drew, Charles R., 317, 392 Driesch, Hans, 117, 118, 119, 170 Drinker, Cecil, 348, 369 Drinker, Philip, 297, 346-49, 369-70 Drygalski, Erich Dagobert von, 82 Duggar, Benjamin Minge, 184 Duisberg, Friedrich Carl, Jr., 360 DuPont laboratories see Commercial research labs, Nylon Durkheim, Emile, 144 Duryea, Charles, 533 Duryea, Frank, 533 Dutton, Joseph Everett, 305, 306, 392 Duyk, Maurice, 440 E Earhart, Amelia, 3, 17-18, 30, 31, 32, 33, 56, 57-58 Earth, core of, 459-61 Age of, 461-63 Eastern vs Western medicine, 323-25 Eastman, George, 586 Ebersole, W G., 355 Eccles, William Henry, 607 Eckener, Hugo, 518 Eckert, J Presper, Jr., 516, 555, 607, 609, 611 Ecole Normale Supérieure, 210, 474 Ecology, 136, 139-42 see also Environmentalism Eddington, Sir Arthur, 423, 502 Edgeworth, Frances, 281 Edison, Thomas A., 157, 315, 342, 349, 350, 351, 413, 427, 559, 577, 582, 583, 591, 592, 604 Edkins, John Sydney, 184 Egorov, Dimitri, 293 Egyptology, 22-24 Ehrenfest, Paul, 477 626 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Ehrlich, Paul, 185, 191, 269, 297, 298, 313-5, 333, 370-71 Eichengrün, Ernst Arthur, 360, 361 Eielson, Carl Ben, 78 Eijkman, Christiann, 187, 308, 371 Eilenberg, Samuel, 200 Einstein, 610 Einstein, Albert, 227, 228, 229, 230, 241, 256, 265, 270, 277, 278, 288, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408, 415-17, 418, 419, 420, 422, 423, 425, 432, 435, 443, 445, 474, 475-76, 478, 488, 489, 500, 503, 507, 510, 610 see also Relativity, Theory of Einthoven, Willem, 326, 371-72 Eisenhardt, Louise Charlotte, 368 Eisenhart, Luther, 284 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 277, 527, 588 Eisenschitz, R., 507 Eisenstein, Sergei, 578, 579 Electrocardiography (EKG), 326, 371, 372, 387 Electroencephalogram (EEG), 116, 117, 181, 326 Electrophoresis, 497 Electroshock therapy, 333-35 Eliot-Smith, Grafton, 182 Ellis, Havelock, 318 Ellsworth, Lincoln, 15, 51, 78, 82 Elsasser, Walter, 461 Elster, Julius, 502-3 Elton, Charles, 140 Elvove, Elias, 356 Ely, Eugene, 573 Embden, Gustav, 123 Embryology, 117-20 Emmons, Arthur B., 82 Empire State Building, 544-46 Enders, John Franklin, 128 Endocrinology, 110-112, 299, 344 Energy metabolism, 122-25 Engl, Josef, 577 English Channel, first flight across, 53 Enlightenment, 217 Enriques, Federigo, 284 Environmentalism, 141 Enzymes, 91, 98, 103, 123, 124 Ephedrine, 323-25 Epimenides, 204 Epinephrine, 183 Erdös, Paul, 263, 273 Erikson, Erik, 302, 303 Erlang, Agner, 284 Erlanger, Joseph, 116, 117 Ethology, 93, 129, 133, 134-36, 166 Eubulides, 204 Euclid, 210, 211, 224, 227 Euclidean geometry, 200, 225, 229, 265, 266, 267 see also NonEuclidean geometry Eugenics, 93, 101, 120-22, 149, 152, 162, 238, 272, 350, 386 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Times index Vol 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 627 Euler, Leonhard, 264 Euler, Ulf Svante von, 361 European scientists, mass migration to the U.S., 4046 Evans, Herbert McClean, 185 Evans, Sir Arthur, 1, 3, 4-6, 58-59 Everest, Sir George, 26 Evolution and evolutionary theory, 92, 136, 142 And Lamarck, 145 And Lysenko, 146 Modern Synthesis, 104-107, 139, 168 Synthetic theory of, 103 see also Darwinian evolution/Darwinism Exclusion Principle, 442-45 F Fabry, Charles, 477 Faget, Guy Henry, 392 Fairchild, David, 185 Fajans, Kasimir, 503 Falconer, Etta, 243 Fallot, Etienne-Louis-Arthur, 338 Fantus, Bernard, 317 Farman, Henry, 82 Farman, Maurice, 82 Farnsworth, Philo, 516, 552, 590-91 Farrar, J N., 323 Fasenmyer, Mary Celine, 284 Fauchard, Pierre, 321 Fawcett, Percy, 1, 19-21, 59-60 Female anesthesiologists, 336 Fenchel, Kate, 284 Fenner, Clarence Norman, 503 Ferenczi, Sándor, 301, 304 Fermat’s Last Theorem, 254 Fermat, Pierre de, 253 Fermi-Dirac statistics, 432 Fermi, Enrico, 401, 404, 406, 407, 408, 435-37, 444, 449, 477-79, 480, 487, 489, 491, 511, 599 Ferrel, William, 453, 455 Fersman, Aleksandr Evgenievich, 503 Fessenden, Reginald, 591-92 Fibiger, Johannes, 330-32, 372-73 Field Museum of Natural History, 29, 49 Fields, John Charles, 233, 284 Fields Medal, 199, 201, 230, 233, 233-35, 257, 284 Filipchenko, Yurii, 160 Finetti, Bruno de, 238, 239 Finitism, 202 Finlay, Carlos Juan, 305, 306, 396 Fischer, Albert, 165 Fischer, Emil, 479 Fischer, Hans, 185 Fisher, Alva John, 607-8 Fisher, Sir Ronald Aylmer, 92, 103, 106, 161-62, 180, 238, 239, 284-85 Fitzgerald, George Francis, 415 Fleischmann, Elizabeth, 350 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Fleming, Sir Alexander, 91, 298, 311, 315, 354, 366, 367, 370, 373-74, 375 Fleming, Sir John A., 567, 589, 592-93 Florey, Ethel Reed, 375 Florey, Sir Howard Walter, 298, 311, 354, 366, 367, 373, 374-75 Flugge-Lotz, Irmgard, 285 Fluoridation, 355-57 “Fly group,” 96-98, 99, 103 Focke, Heinrich, 559, 608 Food and Drug Administration, U.S., 323, 325 Ford, E B., 185 Ford, Edmund, 140 Ford, Henry, 515, 516, 528, 533, 534, 556, 557, 558, 593-94, 608 Forlianini, Enrico, 608 Forlianini, Carlo, 337 Formalism, 202-3 Forssmann, Werner Theodor, 392 Fossey, Dian, 49 Fossils, 174, 183 Foster, Sir Michael, 379 Fourier, Jean-Baptiste Joseph, 215 Fourneau, Ernest, 365, 392 Fowler, Ralph H., 426 Fraenkel, Abraham, 205, 206, 211 Franklin, John, 11 Franklin, Rosalyn, 471 Fréchet, Maurice-René, 199, 200, 215, 216, 225, 263-64, 285 Fredholm, Eric, 285 Freeman, Margaret, 59 Frege, Gottlieb, 202, 204, 205, 267 Freud, Anna, 303, 376 Freud, Sigmund, 144, 301, 303, 334, 375-76, 388, 394 Friedmann, Aleksandr Alexandrovich, 401, 423, 427, 503, 506 Friedrich, Walter, 485 Frisch, Karl von, 93, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 166, 185, 195 Frisch, Otto, 478, 487 Frobenius, Georg, 268 Frobisher, Martin, 10 Fromm, Erich, 302 Frosch, Paul, 126 Frozen foods, 605 Fruit fly studies see “Fly group,” Genetics Fuchs, Klaus, 412 Fuchs, Sir Vivian, 76 Functional analysis, 214-16, 285, 270 Funk, Casimir, 91, 308, 392 Index 1900-1949 G Gagan, Emile, 608 Galois, Evariste, 200, 250 Galton, Francis, 121, 163, 238, 272 T I M E S V O L U M E 627 Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 628 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 628 Game theory, 199, 235-37, 277, 289, 290 Gamow, George, 423, 427, 503 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 157 Garrod, Archibald, 185, 392 Gaskell, Walter Holbrook, 392-93 Gasser, Herbert Spencer, 116, 117 Gates, Reginald Ruggles, 386 Gatty, Harold, 85 Gause, Georgii, 140, 141 Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 229 Geiger, Hans, 473, 608 Geiringer, Hilda, 285 Gelfond, Aleksander, 248, 249, 264-65 Genetics, 92, 95, 154, 185 And natural selection, 102-104 And evolutionary theory, 104-106 And Lysenkoism, 146-47 Fruit fly studies, 96-98, 160, 170, 171 Genetic mutations, 99-101 in plants, 139 see also Chromosomes, Eugenics, Heredity, Mendelian genetics Gengou, Octave, 393 Genotypes, 95 Gentzen, Gerhard, 203 Geochronology, 461-63 George, David Lloyd, 353-54, 358 Gerhardt, Charles Frédéric, 360 Germain, Sophie, 240 Gestalt psychology, 302 Gibbon, John Heysham, Jr., 297, 338, 393 Giffard, Henri, 518 Gilbert, Cass, 544 Gilbert, Grove Karl, 457, 458 Gilbert, John, 579 Gilbert, William, 459 Gill, Sir David, 503 Gillies, Harold, 353 Gleason, Henry, 138 Gleason, Kate, 608 Goddard, Robert, 515, 541, 542, 594-95 Gödel, Kurt, 199, 201, 203, 205, 205, 206, 209, 261, 265-66, 267, 276, 278 see also Incompleteness Goethals, George Washington, 536, 595-96 Goldbach, Christian, 253, 254 Goldberger, Joseph, 308-9, 358, 393 Goldhaber, Maurice, 473 Goldman, Emma, 318, 383 Goldmark, Peter Carl, 608 Goldschmidt, Richard Benedict, 185 Goldschmidt, Victor Moritz, 503 Goldstine, Herman Heine, 608 Golgi, Camillo, 115, 117, 173, 174, 186 Gomberg, Moses, 503-4 Goodall, Jane, 49 Goodyear, Charles, 322 Goodyear, Nelson, 322 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Gorgas, William, 306, 396, 536 Gosset, William Sealy, 285 Göttingen, University of, 164, 207, 240, 241, 266, 267, 270, 271, 286, 288 Goudsmit, Samuel, 491 Graham, Evarts, 335, 338, 393, 397 Granville, Evelyn Boyd, 242, 243 Gray, Hawthorne, 36 Gray, Sir James, 92, 186 Green, Charles David, 343 Green, George F., 322 Greenwood, John, 321 Gregg, Sir Norman McAlister, 393 Grelling-Nelson paradox, 205 Grelling, Kurt, 204, 218 Griffith, D W., 578 Griffith, Frederick Reece, Jr., 91, 154, 186 Griffith, Howard, 337 Grignard, Franỗois Auguste Victor, 484, 504 Gross, Robert, 338 Group theory, 251 Guérin, Camille, 299, 393 Guggenheim, Daniel, 595 Guillet, Leon Alexandre, 609 Guinea pigs, 179, 180 Gullstrand, Alvar, 186 Gutenberg, Beno, 459, 460, 504 Guyot, Arnold, 191 H Haardt, Georges-Marie, 33-35, 82 Haber, Fritz, 150, 450-52, 479 Hadamard, Jacques, 264, 269, 273, 285 Haeckel, Ernst, 118, 140, 192 Hahn, Hans, 287 Hahn, Otto, 435, 449, 478, 479-80, 481, 487 Haile Selassie, 77 Haldane, J B S., 103, 106, 162-63, 451 Haldane, John Scott, 347, 349, 451 Hale, George, 421, 422, 427, 504 Hall, Granville, 393 Hall, Philip, 285 Halley, Edmund, 459, 461 Halmos, Paul R., 210 Halstead, William S., 322, 336, 368 Hamilton, Alice, 376-77 Hammurabi, Code of, 3, 6-8 Harden, Dwight, 300, 337-38 Harden, Sir Arthur, 186 Hardy, Godfrey (G H.), 185, 186, 253, 286, 288, 291 Harrer, Heinrich, 25 Harrison, Marguerite Baker, 82-83 Harrison, Ross G., 118, 186 Harsanyl, John, 237 Hartmann, Johannes, 421, 504 Hartree, Douglas Rayner, 609 Harvey, William, 316 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Times index Vol 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 629 Hasenöhrl, Fritz, 494 Hasse, Helmut, 271-72, 286, 293 Hata, Sahachiro, 298, 370 Hatshepsut, tomb of, 55 Hatton, Dennis Finch, 68 Hausdorff, Felix, 200, 225, 286 Hay, Louise, 242 Hayes, Patrick Cardinal, 320 Hazen, Harold Locke, 609 Hazlett, Olive Clio, 241, 286 Health organizations, 357-59 Hearing aids, 340-44 Heart disease, 297 Heart surgery, 300 See also Artificial heart, Blue baby syndrome Heckmair, Anderl, 25 Hedin, Sven, 2, 12-14, 60-61 Heidelberger, Michael, 154 Heine-Borel theorem, 259 Heinroth, Oskar, 135, 136 Heisenberg, Werner, 276, 401, 403, 407, 410, 419, 420, 434, 444, 475, 480-81, 501, 505 Heitler, Walter Heinrich, 504 Helicopters, 558-60, 597, 598, 606 Helmholtz, Ferdinand von, 341 Helmholtz, Hermann von, 229, 416, 453 Hench, Philip, 111, 188, 299, 393 Henkin, Leon, 206 Henle, Friedrich, 111 Henson, Matthew A., 1, 2, 14-15, 61-62, 69 Hepburn, Katharine Houghton, 318 Hepburn, William, 536 Herb, Isabella, 336 Herbrand, Jacques, 203, 286 Herbst, Curt, 170 Heredity, 100, 112-115 Herrick, James, 337, 394 Herschel, John, 420, 421 Herschel, William, 420, 421 Herskovits, Melville, 156 Herty, Charles Holmes, 186-87 Hertz, Heinrich, 427, 466, 468, 592 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 425, 482 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 421, 424, 481-82 Herzog, Maurice, 83 Hess, H H., 465 Hess, Victor, 489 Hesse, Richard, 187 Hevesy, George de, 404 Hewitt, Peter Cooper, 609 Hey, J S., 428, 504 Heyerdahl, Thor, 62-64 Heyting, Arend, 203 Hibbs, Russel Aubra, 394 Higonnet, René Alphonse, 609, 611 Hilbert, David, 199, 200, 201, 202-3, 205, 206, 2079, 215, 216, 231, 240, 245, 246, 251, 253, 261, 266-67, 270, 271, 276, 278, 281, 294 Hilbert space, 214 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Problems posed at International Congress of Mathematicians, 200, 202, 207-9, 231, 234-35, 248, 249, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268 Hill, Sir Richard Vivian, 187 Hillary, Sir Edmund, 25-26, 67, 76 Himalayas, exploration of, 12-14, 25-26, 66-67 Himmler, Heinrich, 481 Hinton, William Augustus, 377-78 Hippocrates, 307, 359 Hitler, Adolf, 217, 354, 385, 403, 404, 405, 408, 410, 417, 470, 476, 481, 492, 524, 583, 596 Hodge, William, 286 Hoff, Jacobus van’t, 313 Hoff, Ted, 569 Hoffman, Erich, 314 Hoffman, Felix, 360, 361 Hofmeister, Franz, 123 Hollerith, Herman, 554 Holmboe, Jorgen, 456 Holtfreter, Johannes, 119, 187 Homeostasis, 183 Homological algebra see Algebra, homological Hooke, Robert, 211, 310 Hooker, John D., 428 Hooper, Hugh, 528 Hoover Dam, 575, 576 Hoover, Herbert, 188, 545, 576 Hopf, Heinz, 286 Hopkins, Sir Frederick Gowland, 164, 187, 299, 308, 367, 371, 378-79 Hopkins, William, 459 Hopper, Grace Murray, 241 Hormones, 91, 93, 111, 189, 344-46 Horney, Karen, 302, 303, 304 Household work, technology as an aid for, 564-66 Houston, Alexander, 440 Howell, William Henry, 394, 395 Hoyle, Fred, 423 Hoyt, Barret, 348, 369 Hubble, Edwin, 401, 417, 422, 423, 428, 482-83, 506 Hudson, Henry, 10 Huggins, Charles, 332 Hughes, Howard, 32 Hughes, Charles Evans, 109 Hull, Albert Wallace, 609 Hull, Clark, 303 Hülsmeyer, Christian, 466 Hunt, Fern, 243 Hunter, Sir William, 355 Hurewicz, Witold, 287 Hurley, Frank, 76 Husserl, Edmund, 204 Hutchinson, Millar, 609 Huxley, Julian, 106, 140, 187 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 106, 187, 191 Hyatt, John Wesley, 530 Hybrid corn, 149, 150, 152 Hydroelectricity, 574-77 T I M E S V O L U M E Index 1900-1949 629 Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 630 Hydrogen bomb, 610 Hypatia, 240 I Immunology, 298 Imprinting, 91, 93, 134-36, 168 Incompleteness/completeness, mathematical, 205-7, 265, 276 see also Gödel, Kurt Indian physical scientists, 445-47 Indiana Jones character, 181 Indigenous peoples Africa, 27-30, 50 Arctic, 72 South America, 21 Ingersoll, Robert, 383 Ingold, Christopher Kelk, 504 Insecticides, 300 Instinct, 135-36 Institute for Advanced Study, 234, 266, 272, 276, 444 Insulin, 111, 297, 344-46, 362, 363 See also Diabetes mellitus Integration (mathematical), theories of, 212-14 International Congress of Mathematicians, 199, 201, 200, 202, 290, 231, 232, 233-35, 257, 284, 207, 209, 248, 266, 267, 273 International Mathematical Union, 231, 232 Intuitionism, 199, 202-3, 260, 278 Ipatieff, Vladimir Nikolaevich, 505 Iron lung, 297, 346-49, 369 Irrational numbers, 247-49 Irvine, Andrew, 26, 67, 83 Isotopes, 194 Ivanovich, Vladimir, 140 Ivanovski, Dimitri, 125, 126 J James, William, 303 Jannings, Emil, 578-79 Janovskaja, Sof’ja Alexsandrovna, 287 Jansky, Karl, 401, 403, 427, 428, 429, 430, 505 Janssens, Franciscus Alphonsius, 97 Jeans, Sir James Jopwood, 423, 505 Jeffreys, Sir Harold, 238, 239, 459, 460, 505 Jenkins, Charles Francis, 551, 552 Jenkins, George John, 343 Jenney, William Le Baron, 544 Jennings, Herbert S., 131, 132, 133, 187 Jet engine, 515, 546-48, 600 Jet stream, 455 Jewell, William, 440 Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludwig, 163-64 Johns Hopkins University, 96, 152, 170, 183, 186, 192 Johnson, Amy, 83 630 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Johnson, G Enid, 337 Joliot, Frédéric, 401, 435, 447, 448, 449, 450, 474, 478, 480, 505 Joliot-Curie, Irène, 401, 435, 447, 448, 449, 450, 474, 478, 480, 505 Jolson, Al, 578 Jones, Donald F., 148, 187 Jones, Ernest, 301 Jones, Sir Harold, 505 Jordan, Camille, 213 Jordan, David Starr, 182, 188 Jordan, Ernst, 505 Jordan, F W., 609 Jordan, Pascual, 501 Joule, James Prescott, 430 Judd, Neil Merton, 83 Julian, Percy L., 323, 324 Jung, Carl Gustav, 301, 302, 376, 394 Junkers, Hugo, 609-10 K Kahn, Margaret, 218 Kaiser Wilhelm Institut, 152, 164, 165 Kalokairinos, Minos, Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike, 401, 430, 431, 432, 48384 Kammerer, Paul, 188 Kant, Immanuel, 203, 421 Kantorovich, Leonid, 220 Kapitza, Pjotr Leonidovich, 431 Kaplan, Joseph, 456 Kapteyn, J C., 503 Kardiner, Abram, 144 Kármán, Theodor von, 404, 501 Karrer, Paul, 505-6 Kasparek, Fritz, 25 Keilin, David, 188 Keller, Helen, 343 Kellet, Henry, 11 Kellogg, Remington, 191 Kellogg, Vernon, 182, 188 Kells, Edward, 321, 323 Kelly, Melvin, 567 Kelly, Oakley G., 83, 84 Kelvin, Lord see Thomson, Sir William Kempf, Grover, 356 Kendall, Edward C., 299, 393 Kendall, Edwin, 111, 188 Kepler, Johannes, 212 Kettering, Charles Franklin, 610 Key, Ellen, 318 Keynes, John Maynard, 291 Khachian, Leonid, 220 Khrushchev, Nikita, 147, 168 Kidder, Alfred Vincent, 83 Killing, Wilhelm, 260 Kinglet, Norman W., 323 Kinyoun, Joseph J., 357 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Times index Vol 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 631 Kipfer, Paul, 1, 3, 36-38, 83 Kipping, Frederick, 437-39, 484-85 Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, 483 Kistiakovsky, G G., 527 Kittinger, Captain Joseph, 38 Klein, Felix, 224, 279 Klein, Hilbert, 271 Klein, Melanie, 303, 304 Kline, Morris, 252 Knipping, Paul, 485 Knossos see Crete, exploration of Ko Hung, 558 Ko Kuei Chen, 323, 324, 396 Koch, Robert, 304, 307, 313, 315, 330, 355, 357, 370, 372, 388 Kocher, Emil Theodor, 368 Kochina, Pelageya Yakovlevna Polubarinova, 287 Koestler, Arthur, 188 Koffka, Kurt, 302 Köhler, Wolfgang, 302 Kolff, Willem J., 297, 394 Kolmogorov, Andrei Nikolaevich, 200, 245, 246, 247, 267-68 Kon-Tiki see Heyerdahl, Thor Königsberg, University of, 165, 166 Korenchevsky, V., 527 Korn, Arthur, 610 Kovalevskaya, Sonya, 240 Kraepelin, Emil, 394 Kramers, Hendrik, 506, 511 Kraut, Karl Johann, 360 Krebs, Hans, 92, 123, 124, 164-65 Kreiger, Cecilia, 287 Kroeber, Alfred L., 143, 156 Krogh, Shack August, 188 Kronecker, Karl Hugo, 368 Kropotkin, Peter, 188 Kuiper, Gerard Peter, 506 Kummell, Hermann, 335 Kuratowski, Kazimierz, 226 Kurchatov, Igor Vasilevich, 610 Kushakevich, Sergei, 160 L Laboratory animals, 330-32 Lacassagne, Antoine, 448 Lack, David, 141 Ladd-Franklin, Christine, 287 Lamarck, Jean, 105, 145, 168 Lamarckism, 147, 168, 192, 195 Lamb, William Frederick, 545 Land, Edwin Herbert, 610 Landau, Edmund, 268-69 Landau, Lev Davidovic, 431 Landois, Leonard, 316 Landsteiner, Karl, 297, 300, 316-18, 337, 379-81 Langevin, 446, 538, 603, 610 Langley, Samuel, 30, 573, 601 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Langmuir, Irving, 413, 610 Laplace, Pierre, 421, 512 Larrey, Dominique-Jean, 353 Larsen, Henry Asbjorn, 83 Lascaux cave paintings, 1, 3, 41-43 Laue, Max von, 471, 485-86, 492 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 416 Law, Ruth, 17 Lawrence, T E., 64-65 Le Bel, Joseph, 313 Leakey, Louis, 174 Leavitt, Henrietta, 422, 506 Lebedev, Pyotr Nicolayevich, 506 Lebesque, Henri, 212-14, 269-70 Lederberg, Joshua, 188-89, 194 Leeds, Albert, 440 Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 310 Lefschetz, Solomon, 287 Lehmann discontinuity, 461 Lehmann, Inge, 459, 506 Lehnert, Emma, 257 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 211, 212-13, 221 Leidesdorf, Max von, 388 Lemtre, Georges-Edouard, 401, 423, 427, 506 Lempert, Julius, 343 Lenin, V I., 146, 172, 264, 407, 527, 529 Leonardo da Vinci, 30, 173, 523, 558, 597 Leopold, Aldo, 189 Leray, Jean, 287-88 Leshniewski, Stanislaw, 288 Lesseps, Ferdinand Marie de, 306, 535 Levene, Phoebus, 91, 158, 189 Levi-Civita, Tullio, 218, 230, 288 Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 144 Levine, Andrew, 25 Levitskii, Grigorii, 160 Lévy, Paul Pierre, 285, 288 Lewis, Margaret, 189 Lewis, Warren H., 189 Lewisohn, Richard, 317 Lexis, Wilhelm, 246 Leybenzon, Leonid, 460 Li Shih-chin, 324 Libby, Willard Frank, 401, 506, 610-11 Libman, Emanuel, 394 Lie, Marius Sophus, 260 Life expectancy, 298 Lilienthal, Otto, 30, 601 Lindbergh, Charles A., 1, 3, 30, 31, 33, 65-66, 68, 366, 541, 578, 595 Linde, Karl Ritter von, 430 Lindelöf, Ernst, 257, 290 Lindeman, Raymond, 141 Lindemann, Ferdinand, 248 Linear A and B script, 4, 5, 58 Liouville, Joseph, 248 Lipmann, Fritz, 92, 124, 164, 165-66 Lippisch, Alexander Martin, 611 Lister, Joseph, 313, 335, 353 T I M E S V O L U M E Index 1900-1949 631 Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 632 Littlewood, John, 253, 288 Livingstone, David, 305, 306 Livingstone, Huberta M., 336 Lobachevsky, Nicolai, 227 Lodge, Sir Oliver, 427 Loeb, Jacques, 129, 130, 131, 189 Loeffler, Friedrich, 126 Loewi, Otto, 93, 116, 117, 183, 189 Lofgven, Nils, 322 Logic, mathematical, 205-7 Logicism, 202-3 Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilyevich, 558 London, Fritz Wolfgang, 507 Long, Perrin Hamilton, 297 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon, 271, 415, 431, 483, 507 Lorenz, Konrad, 91, 93, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 166-67, 195 Los Alamos National Laboratory, 153, 276 see also Manhattan Project Lotka, Alfred J., 140, 189-90 Louis XV, 321 Lovelace, Ada Byron, 240 Low temperature physics, 430-32 Lowell, Percival, 512 Löwenheim-Skolem theorem, 205, 206 Löwenheim, Leopold, 206 Lower, Richard, 316 Lowie, Robert, 143 Luchnik, Victor, 160 Ludwig, Carl, 396 Ludwig, Herman, 341 Lukas, Keith, 190 Lukasiewicz, Jan, 203 Lundquist, Bengst, 322 Lundy, John, 337 Luzin, Nikolai, 265, 288, 293 Lysenko, Trofim, 93, 100, 145-48, 148, 163, 167-68 Lyusternik, L A., 288 M Ma huang herb, 323-25 Maanen, Adriaan van, 507 Machu Picchu, 1, 19-21, 52-53 Macintyre, A J., 288 Macintyre, Sheila Scott, 288 MacLane, Saunders, 200, 288 MacLeod, Colin, 91, 154, 190 Macleod, J J R., 111, 297, 299, 345, 363, 394-95 MacMillan, Donald Baxter, 83-84 Macready, John A., 83, 84 Magellan, Ferdinand, 10 Magnus, Rudolf, 190 Maigaard, Christian, 69 Maillart, Ella Kini, 84 Malaria, 299 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 144 Mallory, George Leigh, 25-26, 66-67 Malthus, Thomas, 140, 318 632 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Mandelbrojt, Szolem, 210 Mandelbrot, Benoit, 414 Manger, Karl, 287 Mangold, Hilde, 117, 119 Manhattan Project, 401, 403, 405, 407-12, 417, 436, 470, 476, 479, 489, 510, 588 Marconi, Guglielmo, 427, 466, 501, 515, 592, 604, 611 Margules, M., 454 Marianas Trench, 70 Mariette, Auguste, 22 Marine Biological Laboratories see Woods Hole Markham, Beryl, 67-68 Markov, Andrei, 247, 289 Marotta, Domenico, 365 Marton, Ladislaus Laszlo, 128 Marvingt, Marie, 57 Marx, Karl, 146, 407 Mass production, 556-58, 594 Masserole, Joseph, 577 Mathematics community, organization of, 230-33 Mathews, D H., 465 Mauchly, John W., 516, 555, 585, 611 Maudsaly, Henry, 556 Mawson, Sir Douglas, 75, 84 Maxwell, James Clerk, 402, 415, 418, 427, 432, 434, 477, 506, 539, 592 Mayer, Adolf Eduard, 125, 126 Mayo, Charles, 337 Mayo, William, 337 Mayow, John, 348 Mayr, Ernst, 105, 106, 109, 168 McAfee, Walter, 466, 486 McCarty, Maclyn, 91, 154 McClintock, Barbara, 103, 139 McClung, Clarence E., 113, 190 McClure, Sir Robert John Le Mesurier, 11 McCollum, Elmer Vernor, 149, 190 McCormick, Cyrus, 556 McCormick, Katharine, 346 McDougall, William, 303 McGee, Lemuel Clyde, 190 McKay, Frederick Sumter, 355, 356 McKinley, William, 74, 535 McKinsey, John Charles Chenoweth, 203 McLean, Jay, 395 McMillan, Edwin Mattison, 507 McNeal, Alice, 336 Mead, Elwood, 576 Mead, Margaret, 93, 143, 144, 156, 168-69 Measure and integration, theories of, 212-14 Medical advances during war, 352-54 Meduna, Ladislas, 333 Meitner, Lise, 435, 449, 478, 479, 480, 487-88 Mencken, H L., 108, 189 Mendel, Gregor, 139, 159, 160, 154, 155, 94, 95, 102, 105, 106, 170 Mendeleyev, Dmitry, 443 see also Periodic table T I M E S V O L U M E Science Times index Vol 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 633 Mendelian genetics, 94-96, 114, 148, 159, 184, 187, 192, 193, 316 And Lysenkoism, 146, 147, 168 Mengele, Josef, 354 Mering, Joseph von, 111 Merriam, Clinton Hart, 190-91 Merrill, George P., 458 Merrill, Helen, 289 Merrill, Winifred Edgerton, 289 Mesoamerica, 87 Messier, Charles, 421 Metchnikoff, Elie, 191, 370 Meteorology, Bergen School of, 453-56 Meyerhof, Otto, 123, 187 Michelson, Albert, 402, 415, 488, 507 Michurin, I V., 145 Microbiology, 298 Middle East, exploration of, 47-48, 64-65, 76-77 Midgley, Thomas, Jr., 507 Mikulicz-Radecki, Johann von, 384 Military technology, 569-74 Aircraft carriers, 573 Airplane, 523-26 see also Nuclear weapons, Wartime medical advances Miller, Gerrit Smith, Jr., 191 Miller, Stanley, 498 Miller, W D., 321 Miller, Willoughby, 355 Millikan, Robert Andrews, 488-89 Milne, Arthur Dawson, 397 Milne, John, 460 Min Chueh Chang, 320 Minchowsky, Charles, 344 Mind-body problem, 334 Mindell, Fania, 384 Minkowski, Hermann, 227-28, 266, 267, 270-71, 282, Minkowski, Oskar, 111, 270 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 326, 327 Minoan civilization see Crete, exploration of Minos, Palace of see Crete, exploration of Minot, George R., 299 Mises, Richard von, 199, 246, 285, 289 Mittasch, Paul Alwin, 507 Model T, 533-35, 556, 557, 558 Mohn, Henrik, 453 Mohorovicic, Andrija, 459, 460, 507-8 Moniz, Antonio, 395 Moore, Eliakim Hastings, 289 Moore, Robert Lee, 289 Moore, Terris, 84 Mordell, Louis Joel, 235, 289 Morgan, J P., 181, 536 Morgan, Jacques de, Morgan, Lewis Henry, 156 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 92, 96, 97, 99, 103, 114, 161, 183, 170-71, 189, 182, 395 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Morgenstern, Oskar, 199, 235-37, 266, 277, 289-90 Morley, Edward, 402, 415, 507 Morrison, Herb, 520 Morton, William, 321 Moscoso, Mireya, 538 Moseley, Henry Gwyn Jeffreys, 508 Motion pictures, sound, 515, 577-79 Moufang, Ruth, 290 Mount Everest, climbing of, 26, 66-67 Mountaineering, 24-27 Alps, 25 Americas, 25 Himalayas, 25-26 Moyroud, Louis Marius, 611 Mueller, Paul Hermann, 508 Muller, Hermann J., 92, 96, 97, 99-101, 171-72, 178, 183 Mulliken, Robert Sanderson, 508 Murphy, John Benjamin, 395 Murrow, Edward R., 574 Mussolini, Benito, 404, 578 Mycenae, 4, Index 1900-1949 N Nageli, Karl von, 159 Nansen, Fridtjof, 14, 69 Nansen, Fridtjof, 469 Nash, John Forbes, 236, 237 National Geographic, 81, 87 National Geographic Society, 87, 190 National Health Service, 357-59 National Institutes of Health, 357-59 National Institute of Mental Health, 327 National Science Foundation, 153 Natural selection, 102-104, 106, 139, 141, 145, 187 Nazism and mathematics, 217-19 Needham, Joseph, 191 Nelson, Erik, 84 Nelson, Leonard, 204 Neolithic period, Nernst, Hermann Walther, 508 Nervous system, 91, 115-17 Neugebauer, Otto, 218 Neumann, Bernhard, 242 Neumann, Hanna, 242 Neumann, John von see Von Neumann, John Nevanlinna, Rolf, 257, 290 New Deal, 561-63 “New math,” 211, 252 New York Zoological Society, 51-52 Newton, Sir Isaac, 208, 211, 212-13, 402, 408, 415, 432, 434, 475, 541 Newtonian physics, 416, 418, 419, 424 Neyman, Jerzy, 238, 239 Nicholas Bourbaki see Bourbaki School of Mathematics Nicholson, Arnold Joseph, 191 Niel, Cornelis van, 137 T I M E S V O L U M E 633 Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 634 Nieuwland, Julius Arthur, 508 Nightingale, Florence, 240 Nipkow, Paul, 551, 590 Nishina, Yoshio, 412 Nitti, Federico, 364 Nobile, Umberto, 15, 51, 84 Noether, Emmy Amalie, 240, 241, 250, 251, 267, 271-72, 279, 294 Noguchi, Hideyo, 395 Non-Euclidean geometry, 227, 271 see also Euclidean geometry Noonan, Frederick, 58 Norgay, Tenzig, 25-26 Norris, George, 561 North Pole, exploration of, 1, 2, 14-17, 30, 50, 5354, 61-62, 68-70 see also Arctic, exploration of; Polar exploration Northeast Passage, 50-51 Northrop, John, 128, 177, 193 Northwest Passage, 10-12, 50-51 Nuclear reactors, 435-37 Nuclear weapons, 405-6, 407-12, 515 Nazi efforts to build a bomb, 410 Number theory, 252-54, 269 Nylon, 515, 548-551, 588, 589 O O’Neill, J A., 515 O’Neill, Ralph, 524 Oberth, Hermann, 541, 542, 595, 598 Ochsner, Alton, 297 Ode, Noel, 67 Odem, Eugene and Howard, 142 Office of Scientific Research and Development, 291 Ohain, Hans Pabst von, 547, 600 Oil, offshore drilling, 521-23 Okikiolu, George, 244 Okikiolu, Katherine, 244 Oldham, Richard, 459-61, 508, 611 Olds, Ransom Eli, 611 Oliver, Sir Thomas, 377 Olszewski, Karol Stanislav, 430 Oparin, Alexandr, 191 Opel, Fritz von, 84 Operationism, 175 Operations research, 219-21 Opie, Eugene L., 111 Oppenheimer, J Robert, 153, 407, 409, 410, 411, 426, 489-90, 599 Orth, Johannes, 330, 373 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 191 Osler, Sir William, 368 Ottenberg, Reuben, 316, 394 Otto, Nikolaus August, 559 Overbeek, Johannes van, 138 634 S C I E N C E A N D I T S P Paccard, Michel-Gabriel, 25 Paleontology, 41-43 Palfrey, F W., 397 Panama Canal, building of, 535-38, 595 Pangaea, 87 Panum, P L., 305 Pap test/Pap smears, 297, 327, 328, 381, 382 Papanicolaou, George, 297, 326, 381-82 Paradoxes, mathematical, 203-4 Parapsychology, 303 Pardee, Arthur, 589 Pare, Ambroise, 352, 353 Park, Thomas, 191-92 Parkes, Alexander, 529 Pascal, Blaise, 221, 245 Pasteur, Louis, 92, 123, 149, 304, 307, 310, 315, 333, 355 Paul VI, Pope, 320 Pauli, Wolfgang, 402, 419, 442-45, 480, 491 Pauling, Linus, 419, 490-91, 504 Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 129, 130, 131, 172-73, 309, 528 Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia, 508 Peano, Giuseppe, 202, 206, 208, 290 Pearl, Raymond, 140, 192 Pearson, Egon, 238, 239 Pearson, Karl, 192, 238, 239, 272 Peary, Robert E., 1, 2, 15, 50, 61-62, 68-70, 82, 83 Peck, Annie Smith, 84-85 Peking Man, 80, 182 Penfield, Wilder Graves, 192 Penicillin, 91, 297, 298, 298, 310-3, 315, 366, 367, 373, 374, 375, 388 Penzias, Arno, 429 Perey, Marguerite Catherine, 508-9 Periodic table, 444 Perkin, William Henry, 313, 484 Perner, Luigi, 85 Pérot, Alfred, 477 Perrin, Jean, 433, 509 Pesticides, 150, 151 Péter, Rózsa, 290 Petrie, William Matthew Flinders, 22, 55 Petroleum, exploration for, 47-48 Pfleumer, Fritz, 583, 611 Phagocytes, 191 Phenotypes, 95 Philbrick, George A., 611-12 Photosynthesis, 136 Pi, value of, 248, 249 Piaget, Jean, 395 Piatetski-Shapiro, Ilya, 265 Picard’s theorem, 259 Piccard, Auguste, 1, 3, 36-38, 40, 70, 83 Piccard, Jacques, 3, 70 Pickering, Edward C., 472 Pictarin, Harold, 559 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Times index Vol 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 635 Piggot, Charles Snowden, 509 Pincus, Gregory G., 320, 346 Pirquet, Clemens von, 395 Pituitary gland, 185 Pius XI, Pope, 320, 386 Place, Francis, 318 Planck, Max, 401, 402, 403, 407, 416, 418-20, 431, 433, 434, 443, 445, 470, 476, 485, 487, 488, 491-92 Plastics, 515, 529-32, 548-551, 585, 586, 588, 589 Plate, Ludwig, 192 Platonism, 202, 203 Pliny the Elder, 439-40 Poincaré, Jules Henri, 201, 235, 251, 255, 258, 264, 290, 349, 415, 416, 468 Poison gases, 450-52 Polanyi, Michael, 404 Polar exploration, 14-17 see also North Pole, exploration of;South Pole, exploration of Polo, Marco, 2, 61 Pólya, George, 257, 290 Polymers, 401, 437, 438, 548-551, 588, 589 Polysaccharides, 154 Poniatoff, Alexander, 583 Pontryagin, Lev Semenovich, 290-91 Pope, William Jackson, 484 Porsche, Ferdinand, 596-97 Possel, Rene de, 210 Post, Emil, 201, 203 Post, Wiley, 1, 30, 31, 32, 85 Potts, Percival, 332 Poulsen, Valdemar, 582, 612 Poussin, Charles, 294 Powell, William J., 56 Prandtl, Ludwig, 509 Prehistoric cave art see Lascaux cave paintings Priestley, Joseph, 322 Prime number theory, 254 Probability theory, 244-47 Proteins, 91 Psychoanalysis, 301, 375, 376 see also Psychotherapy Psychology, advances in, 300-4 Psychotherapy, 333, 334 Punnett, Reginald Crundall, 192 Putnam, George, 58 Pygmies, 27-30, 50 Pythagoras, 250 Q Quantum physics/quantum mechanics, 401, 418-20, 476, 480, 481, 494 Quick, Armand James, 395 Quimby, Harriet, 17, 71 Quinones, 196 S C I E N C E A N D I T S R Index Racovita, Emil G., 192 Radar, 515, 538-40, 599, 600 Radar mapping, 466-68 Radcliffe-Brown, A R., 144 Radiation, misuses of, 351 Radio, 515, 516, 573, 589, 590, 591 Radio astronomy, 401, 403, 427-30 Radioactivity/radiation, 401, 447-50 And medicine, 349-52 Dangers of, 449 Radiocarbon (C-14) dating, Raman, Chandrasekhara Venkata, 445, 509 Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 253, 273, 291 Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 91, 93, 115, 117, 173-74, 186 Ramsay, William, 479, 495 Ramsey, Frank Plumpton, 205, 291 RAND Corporation, 262 Randall, Sir John Turton, 612 Rank, Otto, 301, 302 Ransdell, Joseph E., 359 Raskob, John Jacob, 545 Rasmussen, Knud, 71-72 Rayleigh, Lord John William Strutt, 418, 477, 538 Read, Albert C., 85 Reber, Grote, 428 Rebeur-Paschwitz, Ernst von, 460 Reed, John, 383 Reed, Walter, 305, 306, 396, 536 Rees, Mina, 242, 291 Rehn, Louis, 335 Rehn, Ludwig, 337, 396 Reichstein, Tadeus, 188, 393, 396 Reines, Frederick, 491 Reisner, George Andrew, 85 Reitsch, Hanna, 85 Relativity theory, 227-28, 229-30, 270, 278, 288, 401, 402, 403, 415-17, 610 Remak, Robert, 218 Renault, Louis, 612 Rensch, Bernard, 192 Respiration, 346-49 Rham, Georges de, 291 Rhoads, Cornelius, 396 Ricci, Matteo, 230 Ricci-Curbastro, Gregorio, 288 Richard, Jules Antoine, 204, 205 Richards, Alfred Newton, 396 Richardson, Robert C., 432 Richardson, Sir Willans, 509 Richter, Charles, 401, 504, 509, 559 Richter, Max, 380 Riemann, Bernhard, 213, 214, 215, 269, 273 Reimann manifolds, 229-30 Riesz, Frigyes, 291 Riesz, Marcel, 291 Rio Verde, 19, 21, 59 T I M E S V O L U M E 1900-1949 635 Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 636 Ritcheouloff, Boris, 583 Ritchey, George, 421, 422 Ritz, Walter, 477 River of Doubt, 19-20, 72-73, 74 Rivers, Thomas, 128 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 91, 189 Robbins, Frederick Chapman, 128 Robertson, Oswald, 317 Robinson, Julia, 242 Roche, Baroness Raymonde de la see Deroche, Elise Rock, John, 320 Rock, Joseph F., 85 Rockefeller Institute/Rockefeller Foundation, 152, 153, 177, 257, 272, 348, 366, 369 Rockefeller, John D., 152 Rockets, 406, 515, 541-44, 594, 594, 598, 599, 607 Rodriguez, Fernando, 297 Roe, Anne, 174 Roentgen, Wilhelm see Röntgen, Wilhelm Rogers, Will, 85 Rohdenberg, G L., 331 Rondón, Cândido Mariano da Silva, 19-20, 72-73, 74 Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 299, 322, 326, 349, 350, 462, 474, 485 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 318, 343 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 157, 377, 405, 408, 410, 412, 417, 436, 476, 478, 489, 561, 562, 563 Roosevelt, Theodore, 1, 19-20, 72, 73-75, 535, 595 Rorschach, Hermann, 302, 396 Rosen, Samuel, 343 Rosing, Boris, 552, 612 Ross, Philip Hedgeland, 397 Rossby, Carl Gustav, 453, 455, 469, 509 Rotheim, Erik, 612 Rous, Francis, 127, 192, 298, 317, 332 Roux, Wilhelm, 117, 118, 119 Royal Geographic Society, 78, 88 Royal Society, 240, 241 Rumpff, Carl, 360 Runcorn, S K., 465 Rural electrification, 561-63 Rush, Benjamin, 305 Ruska, Helmuth, 128 Ruskin, John, 496 Russell, Bertrand, 130, 199, 202, 203, 203-4, 266, 281, 291, 291-92, 295 Russell, Henry Norris, 421, 424, 481, 509-10 see also Hertzsprung-Russell diagram Rutherford, Ernest, 418, 433, 434, 443, 462, 469, 471, 473, 479, 487, 492-93, 495, 512 Ryan, Father Thomas A., 320 Ryle, Sir Martin, 510 S Saaty, Thomas L., 262 Sabin, Florence, 382-83 Sachs, Julius von, 160 Saha, Meghnad, 445, 446, 510 636 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Sale, Chic, 578 Salomonsen, Carl Julius, 330 Salvarsan, 297, 313-5, 370 Sander, Bruno Hermann, 510 Sanger, Frederick, 497 Sanger, Margaret, 318-21, 346, 383-84 Santos-Dumont, Alberto, 85, 518 Sapir, Edward, 156 Sarnoff, David, 603, 612 Sauerbruch, Ernst, 335, 337, 354, 384-85 Saussure, Horace-Bénédict de, 25 Savoy, Gene, 21 Saxon, Eileen, 340 Schafer, Alice T., 242 Schaudinn, Fritz Richard, 314 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 440 Scheil, Jean-Vincent, Scherrer, Paul, 609 Schick, Bela, 396 Schjelderup-Ebbe, T., 132 Schmeisser, Louis, 612-13 Schmidt, Carl Frederick, 323, 324, 396 Schmidt, Erhardt, 215 Schreiner, Olive, 318 Schrieffer, J Robert, 431, 604 Schrödinger, Erwin, 158, 184, 233, 276, 402, 419, 420, 434, 444, 446, 474, 490, 492, 493-94 Schuchert, Charles, 510 Schur, Issai, 217, 218 Schwartz, Laurent, 200, 272-73 Schwarzschild, Karl, 417, 426, 482, 510 Science, 128, 155 Scientific American, 210, 601 Scientific research institutions, 151-53 Scopes “Monkey Trial,” 107-110 Scopes, John, 93, 107-110 Scott, Blanche, 17, 85-86 Scott, Charlotte Angas, 292 Scott, Dukenfield Henry, 138-39 Scott, Robert F., 2, 11, 15, 50, 75, 86 SCUBA, 608 see also Aqualung Seaborg, Glenn Theodore, 507, 510 Seaplane, 607 Sechenov, I M., 130 Secretin, 93, 111 Segré, Emilio, 404 Seismic wave transmissions, 459-61 Selberg, Atle, 273 Selfridge, Thomas O., 86 Selten, Reinhard, 237 Semiconductors, 515, 567-69 Semon, Richard, 192-93 Set theory, 204-5, 215, 225, 226 see also Theory of sets Seton, Ernest, 193 Sex hormones, 184 Sexual determination and differentiation, 112, 113, 190, 192 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Times index Vol 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 637 Seymour, Eleanor, 336 Shackleton, Ernest, 15, 75-76, 78 Shannon, Claude, 292, 555 Shapley, Harlow, 422, 510 Sharpey-Schafer, Edward, 111, 346, 347, 348, 349 Shaw, George Bernard, 65 Shaw, Louis, 348, 369 Shaw, William Napier, 454 Shea, John, Jr., 343 Sheldon, Mary (May) French, 86 Sherrington, Sir Charles Scott, 93, 116, 117, 130, 180, 368, 396 Shiga, Kiyoshi, 314 Shockley, William Bradford, 515, 555, 567-69, 604, 605, 613 Shoemaker, Eugene, 458 Shull, George Harrison, 193 Sidney, George Brown, 390 Siegel, Carl Ludwig, 292 Sieperinski, Waclaw, 226, 292 Sigerist, Henry, 385 Sikorsky, Igor, 30, 527, 559, 597-98 Silicones, 437-39 Silk Road, 2, 33-35 Simms, Frederick, 613 Simon, Theodore, 363, 364 Simpson, George Gaylord, 106, 174-75 Singer, Jacob, 335, 397 Sitter, Willem de, 423 Sittig, Lena Wilson, 580 Skinner, B F., 129, 130, 131, 175-76 Skolem, Thoralf Albert, 206, 292 see also Löwenheim-Skolem theorem Skyscrapers, 544-46 Slaby, Adolf Karl Heinrich, 613 Slater, John Clarke, 510-11 Slee, J Noah H., 320 Slipher, Vesto, 423, 511, 512 Sloan, Alfred P., 557 Smith, H J., 270 Smith, Lowell, 86 Smith, Oberlin, 582 Smith, Samuel L., 611 Smithsonian Institution, 195 Sneader, Walter, 361 Sobolev, Sergei L’vovich, 200 Socrates, 120 Soddy, Frederick, 462, 493, 494-96 Solar system, 466-68 Solberg, Halvor, 453, 454, 455, 469 Somerville, Mary, 240 Sommerfeld, Arnold, 419, 442, 480, 490, 491, 511 Sonar, 538-40 Sørensen, Søren Peter, 511 Sound barrier see Supersonic flight South America, exploration of, 1, 3, 19-22, 59-60, 72-73, 74 see also Indigenous peoples South Pole, exploration of, 1, 2, 14-17, 53-54, 75 S C I E N C E A N D I T S see also Antarctica, exploration of; Polar exploration Souttar, Henry, 337 Soviet Union and technology, 527-29 Space-time continuum, 227-28 And Riemann manifolds, 227-28 Space exploration, 541-44 see also Rocketry Spemann, Hans, 92, 117, 118, 193 Spencer, Perry LeBaron, 613 Sperr, ELmer Ambrose, 613 Spock, Dr Benjamin, 169 Sponable, Earl I., 578 Spooner, John, 536 Sputnik, 109 Stalin, Josef, 146, 157, 167, 173, 265, 407, 410, 412, 527, 528 Stanley, Robert M., 86 Stanley, Sir Henry Morton, 28 Stanley, Wendell, 91, 92, 125, 128, 177, 193, 298 Stark, Dame Freya Madeline, 76-77 Starling, Ernest H., 91, 93, 111, 181, 193-94, 344, 397 Stars, life cycles, 424-27 Statistics, 161-62, 237-40, 272 Staudinger, Hermann, 401, 511, 530 Stebbins, George Ledyard, 194 Steenrod, Norman, 292 Stefansson, Vihjalmur, 78, 86 Stein, Sir Aurel, 3, 86 Steinitz, Ernest, 200, 292-93 Stekel, Wilhelm, 301 Stern, Curt, 96, 99 Stern, Otto, 444 Stevens, Albert W., 86 Stevens, John, 536, 595 Stevens, Nettie M., 96, 112, 113, 114, 176-77, 179 Stevenson, Sir Thomas, 379 Stieltjes, T J., 214 Stille, Kurt, 583 Stimson, Henry, 408, 410 Stinson, Katherine, 17 Stirling, Matthew Williams, 87 Stochastic theory, 268 Stone, Hannah Meyer, 318 Stone, Marshall, 293 Stoney, George, 512 Stopes, Marie, 318-21, 386-87 Strassmann, Fritz, 449, 478, 487 Stratosphere, exploration of, 36-38, 70 Streptomycin, 298 Strutt, John William see Rayleigh, Lord Struve, Otto, 511 Sturtevant, Alfred H., 96, 97, 99, 161, 194 Sulfa drugs, 310-3, 374 Sullivan, Harry Stack, 302 Sumner, James Batcheller, 91, 128, 177-78, 193 Superconductivity, 401, 430-32 Superfluidity, 430-32 T I M E S V O L U M E Index 1900-1949 637 Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 638 Supersonic flight, 44-46, 79-80 Surgical techniques, 335-38 Sutton, Walter S., 91, 96, 112-15, 194 Svedberg, Theodor, 194, 496 Sverdrup, Harald, 453, 469, 511 Swinton, A A Campbell, 552, 603, 613 Swinton, Sir Ernest Dunlop, 570, 613 Synthetic fibers, 515 See also Nylon, Polymers Syphilis, 185, 280, 297, 298, 299, 313-5, 370, 378, 388 Szego, Gabor, 293 Szent-Györgyi, Albert, 124, 309, 397 Szilard, Leo, 404, 407, 408, 435, 450, 511-12 Szokefalvi-Nagy, Bela, 291 T Taft, William Howard, 74 Taggart, William H., 322 Takagi, Teiji, 293 Takamine, Jokichi, 194 Tape recorder, 515, 582-84 Tarski, Alfred, 205, 293 Tate, George Henry Hamilton, 87 Tatum, Edward, 98, 188, 194 Taussig, Frank, 387 Taussig, Helen B., 297, 338, 339, 340, 387-88, 390 Taussky-Todd, Olga, 241, 242, 273-74 Taxonomy, 138 Taylor, Frank B., 464 Teichmuller, Paul Julius, 293 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 34 Telephony, 591 see also Bell, Alexander Graham Television, 515, 516, 551-53, 586, 587, 590, 591, 603, 604, 612 Teller, Edward, 404, 406, 407, 408, 489 Tennessee Valley Authority/Tennessee River Valley, 561-63, 576 Terman, Lewis Madison, 397 Testing see Diagnostic tests Theiler, Max, 397 Theory of games see Game theory Theory of Relativity see Relativity theory Theory of sets, 214-15 see also Set theory Thesiger, Sir Wilfred Patrick, 77-78 Thible, Elisabeth, 17 Thomas, Lowell, 65 Thomas, Vivien T., 338, 339, 387 Thompson, Clara, 303, 304 Thompson, John Talafierro, 613 Thompson, Leonard, 345 Thompson, Sir D’Arcy Wentworth, 178 Thomson, Joseph John (J J.), 418, 462, 469, 512, 592 Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin, 141, 430, 431, 433, 459 638 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Tibet, exploration of, 12-14 Tichener, Edward B., 301 Timofeeff-Ressovsky, Nikolai, 98, 100, 161 Tinbergen, Nikolaas, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135-36, 166, 167, 194-95 Tiselius, Arne, 496-97 Titanic, 71 Todd, Jack, 274 Todd, John Lancelot, 397 Tom Swift character, 607 Tombaugh, Clyde William, 512 Tooth decay, 355-57 Topology, 201, 263-64, 285, 290 Set-theoretic, 224-26 Torres y Quevedo, Leonardo, 613-14 Transcendental numbers, 247-49 Transistors, 515, 567-69 see also Computers Trask, James Dowling, 397 Traube, Isidor, 440 Traut, Herbert F., 381 Trippe, Juan, 524 Trotsky, Leon, 146 Truman, Harry S., 412 Tschermak von Seysenegg, Erich, 94, 95, 160, 193 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 541, 542, 614 Tsvet, Mikhail, 512 Tswett, Mikhail, 137, 195 Tuberculosis, 299 Tucker, A W., 236 Tuffier, Theodore, 337 Tulloch, T G., 570 Turing, Alan Matheson, 199, 201, 203, 209, 222, 261, 274-75, 554, 555 Turner, J R., 317 Tutankhamen, tomb of, 1, 3, 22-24, 55-56 Tuve, Merle, 466 Twort, Frederick, 125, 127, 184, 195, 298 Tylor, Edward, 156 Typhoid fever, 196 Tyson, Edward, 28 U Uhlenbeck, George, 491 Ulam, Stanislaw, 293, 406 Uncertainty principle see Heisenberg Underhill, Miriam O’Brien, 87 Underwater exploration, 3, 38-41, 70 United States Fish Commission, 170 see also Woods Hole Ur, 87 Urey, Harold Clayton, 497-98 Urysohn, Pavel Samuilovich, 293-94 V Vaccines, 299 T I M E S V O L U M E Science Times index Vol 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 639 Vacuum tube, 5980 Vallée-Poussin, C J de la, 269, 273 Van der Waals, Johannes Diderik, 431, 483 Van Vleck, John Hasbrouck, 512 Vancouver, George, 11 Vane, John, 361 Vavilov, Nikolai Ivanovitch, 98, 100, 147 Veblen, Oswalk, 294 Veblen, Thorstein, 189 Vedder, Edward Bright, 397-98 Venereal disease, 326 Ventris, Michael, Vernadsky, Vladimir, 160 Verne, Jules, 41, 541, 542 Verrazano, Giovanni da, 10 Vesalius, Andreas, 321, 368 Victoria, Queen, 441 Vidor, King, 579 Vilcabamba, 52-53 Villard, Paul, 512 Vine, F J., 465 Vinogradov, Ivan, 253, 294 Viruses, 91, 92, 93, 125-29, 305 see also Bacteriophages Vitamins, 91, 190, 307-10 Vitamin K, 184 Vitcos, 52-53 Vogt, Hans, 577 Voisin, Charles, 57 Volterra, V., 140 Von Braun, Wernher, 404, 542, 598-99 Von Frisch, Karl see Frisch, Karl von Von Mises, Richard see Mises, Richard von Von Neumann, John, 199, 201, 203, 205, 216, 23537, 275-77, 289, 290, 404, 554, 555, 603, 608 Vorg, Ludwig, 25 W Waddington, C H., 195 Waerden, Bartel Leendert van der, 294 Wagner-Jauregg, Julius, 333, 388 Waksman, Selman, 149, 298, 398 Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 115 Walkhoff, Otto, 323 Wallace, John F., 536 Waller, Augustus D., 326 Walton, Ernest Thomas, 498-99 Warburg, Otto, 123, 164, 398 Waring, Edward, 253 Wartime medical advances, 352-54 Wartime uses of science see Military technology Washburn, Bradford, 87 Washington, Booker T., 157 Washington, George, 321 Wasserman, August von, 325, 398 Wassman, Karl, 315 Water purification, 439-42 Waters, Ralph, 337 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Watson-Watt, Sir Robert Alexander, 515, 539, 599600 Watson, James, 154 Watson, John Broadus, 130, 303, 398 Watson, Thomas J., Sr., 614 Wedderburn, Joseph Henry, 251, 294 Wegener, Alfred, 87, 463, 464, 465, 499 Weierstrass, Karl, 213 Weigert, Karl, 370 Weil, André, 210, 277 Weinberg, Wilhelm, 185 Weismann, August, 113, 118, 195 Weisstein, Eric, 255 Weizmann, Chaim, 512 Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich, Baron von, 512 Weldon, W F R., 195, 272 Weller, Thomas H., 128 Wells, H G., 318, 541, 594 Wells, Horace, 321, 322 Went, Frits, 137 Wertheim, Ernst, 398 Wertheimer, Max, 302, 398 Weskott, Johann Friedrich, 360 Wetmore, Alexander, 195 Weyl, Hermann, 230, 257, 271, 278-79 Wheeler, Anna Pell, 241, 294-95 Wheeler, William Morton, 131, 132, 133, 196 Whipple, George, 299, 440 Whitehead, Alfred North, 199, 202, 203, 204, 266, 281, 291, 292, 295 Whiting, Sarah F., 472, 513 Whitney, Eli, 556 Whitney, Hassler, 295 Whittaker, Sir Edmund Taylor, 286 Whittle, Sir Frank, 30, 515, 546, 547, 600 Whymper, Edward, 25 Wiechert, Emil, 460 Wieland, Heinrich Otto, 196 Wien, Wilhelm, 418 Wiener, Norbert, 295 Wigner, Eugene, 404 Wilcynski, Ernest Julius, 295 Wilkes, Charles, 14 Wilkes, Maurice Vincent, 614 Wilkins, A F., 599 Wilkins, Earnest, 243 Wilkins, Sir George Hubert, 78-79 Willard, William, 71 Williams, Frederic Calland, 614 Williams, J Leon, 355 Wills, Sir Alfred, 25 Willstätter, Richard, 91, 137, 177, 196 Wilson, C T R., 471 Wilson, E B., 176 Wilson, Edmund B., 96, 97, 99, 112, 113, 114, 17879 Wilson, Robert, 429 Wilson, Woodrow, 74 Winterbottom, Thomas, 305 T I M E S V O L U M E Index 1900-1949 639 Science Times index Vol Index 1900-1949 7/6/00 2:37 PM Page 640 Wireless telegraphy, 515 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 202 Wolbach, Simeon Burt, 397 Women and mathematics, 240-42 Women inventors, 579-82 Woodger, Joseph Henry, 196 Woodhead, Sims, 440 Woods Hole, 179, 190 see also United States Fish Commission Woodworth, Robert S., 303 Woolley, Charles Leonard, 87 Workman, Fanny, 85, 87-88 World Health Organization, 357-59 World Heritage sites, 21, 23 Wright, Almroth Edward, 196 Wright brothers (Wilbur and Orville), 2, 30, 33, 515, 559, 523, 524, 525, 600-1 Wright, Sewall, 103, 106, 161, 179-80 Wrinch, Dorothy, 490 Wroblewski, Zygmunt Florenty, 430 Wundt, Wilhelm, 301 X Y Yamagiwa, Katsusaburo, 332 Yamshchikova, Olga, 88 Yeager, Chuck, 1, 30, 44-46, 79-80 Yerkes, Robert Mearns, 398 Young, Grace Chisholm, 199, 240, 279, 295 Young, Hugh Hampton, 398-99 Young, William Henry, 199, 240, 279, 295 Younghusband, Sir Francis Edward, 88 Z Zariski, Oscar, 295 Zeeman effect, 443, 491 Zeeman, Peter, 507 Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von, 518, 602-3 Zermelo, Ernst, 205, 206, 211, 295 Zincke, Theodor, 479 Zinsser, Hans, 399 Zsigmondy, Richard Adolf, 614 Zuse, Konrad, 554, 614 Zworykin, Vladimir, 515, 516, 552, 591, 603-4 Zygotes, 95 X rays, 171, 326, 327, 332, 350, 351 see also Röntgen, Wilhelm 640 S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E ... approach to science is at the heart of Science and Its Times Readers of Science and Its Times will find a comprehensive treatment of the history of science, including specific events, issues, and trends... 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