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VOLUME 1950-PRESENT Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery VOLUME 1950-PRESENT Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery Neil Schlager, Editor J o s h L a u e r, A s s o c i a t e E d i t o r Produced by Schlager Information Group Science and Its Times VOLUME 1950-present NEIL SCHLAGER, Editor JOSH LAUER, Associate Editor GALE GROUP STAFF Amy Loerch Strumolo, Project Coordinator Christine B Jeryan, Contributing Editor Mary K Fyke, Editorial Technical Specialist Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager Margaret A Chamberlain, Permissions Specialist Shalice Shah-Caldwell, Permissions Associate Mary Beth Trimper, Production Director Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Wendy Blurton, Senior Buyer Cynthia D Baldwin, Product Design Manager Tracey Rowens, Senior Art Director Barbara Yarrow, Graphic Services Manager Randy Bassett, Image Database Supervisor Mike Logusz, Imaging Specialist Pamela A Reed, Photography Coordinator Leitha Etheridge-Sims Junior Image Cataloger While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein Gale accepts no payment for listing, and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984 This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended © 2000 The Gale Group 27500 Drake Rd Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages or entries in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper ISBN: 0-7876-3939-7 Printed in the United States of America 10 Contents Preface ix Advisory Board xi Contributors xiii Introduction: 1950-present xvii Chronology: 1950-present xxi Exploration and Discovery Chronology of Key Events Overview Topical Essays The Decoding of Linear B Sheds New Light on Mycenaean Civilization Sir Edmund Hillary Leads the First Team to Reach the Summit of Mt Everest Around the World Beneath the Sea: The USS Triton Retraces Magellan’s Historic Circumnavigation of the Globe Deep-Sea Diving: Jacques Piccard and Donald Walsh Pilot the Trieste to a Record Depth of 35,800 Feet in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean 11 The Space Race and the Cold War 13 Women in Space 16 The 1969 Moon Landing: First Humans to Walk on Another World 19 Space Stations 22 Mandate from Heaven: The Tomb of Qin Shi Huang 25 The Unmanned Exploration of the Solar System: Mariner, Viking, Pioneer, and Voyager 28 Space Shuttles 31 Remains of the Titanic Discovered 33 Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager Pilot the First Aircraft to Fly around the World Nonstop 36 The Legacy of Cave Paintings 39 S C I E N C E A N D I T S The Circumnavigation of the Earth by Balloon 41 Future Space Exploration: New Research, Developments in Space Exploration, and the Search for Extraterrestrial Life 43 Biographical Sketches 46 Biographical Mentions 66 Bibliography of Primary Sources 75 Life Sciences Chronology of Key Events 77 Overview 78 Topical Essays Evolution and Creationism in American Public Schools 80 The Rise of Environmental Science 83 Trends in the Environmental Sciences since 1950 87 The Emergence of Biodiversity as an Issue of Importance 90 Advances in Ecological Theory 93 The Rise of Biotechnology as Big Business 96 Population Genetics and the Problem of Diversity 98 The Human Genome Project 101 Current Trends in Gene Manipulation 103 Agricultural Science since 1950 106 Advances in Understanding Non-Human Primate Behavior 109 Theories of the Origin and Early Evolution of Life 112 Cracking the Genetic Code 115 Advances in Gene Regulation, Gene Expression, and Developmental Genetics 118 Scientists Learn More about the Evolution and Acquisition of Human Language 122 The Advent of Sociobiology Sheds New Light on Animal Societies 124 Human Ancestors: The Search Continues 127 T I M E S V O L U M E v Contents 1950-present A Tyrannosaurus Rex Named Sue Advances in Neurobiology and Brain Function New Directions in Evolutionary Theory Advances in Plant Biology since 1950 The Study of Human Sexuality The Emergence of Biotechnology 130 133 135 138 141 143 Biographical Sketches 146 Biographical Mentions 175 Bibliography of Primary Sources 187 Mathematics Chronology of Key Events 189 Overview 190 Topical Essays The Proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem The Development of Computer Assisted Mathematics Gerd Faltings Proves Mordell’s Conjecture (1983) The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis The Rise and Fall of Catastrophe Theory Fractal Theory and Benoit Mandelbrot Stephen Cook Advances Knowledge of NP-Complete Problems, Assisting Computer Scientists Efron’s Development of the Bootstrap Mathematicians Complete the Classification of All Finite Simple Groups American Public Schools Begin Teaching New Math Patterns of Chaos The Proliferation of Popular Mathematics Books in the 1990s The Contributions of Japanese Mathematicians since 1950 Kepler’s Sphere-Packing Conjecture Is Finally Proved The Intimate Relation Between Mathematics and Physics The Flowering of Differential Topology Advances in Harmonic Analysis Advances in Algebraic Topology since 1950 Applications of Number Theory in Cryptography Lie Algebra Is Used to Help Solve Hilbert’s Fifth Problem The Resurrection of Infinitesimals: Abraham Robinson and Nonstandard Analysis Politics Impinges upon Mathematics 192 195 197 199 201 204 207 209 212 214 217 219 222 224 226 S C I E N C E A N D Chronology of Key Events 279 Overview 280 Topical Essays The Invention of the Heart-Lung Machine Launches the Era of Open-Heart Surgery The Development of Organ Transplantation Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases of the Eye The Development of Polio Vaccines Modern Advances in Surgery and in Medical Technology Emerging Diseases since 1950 Infant Mortality The AIDS Pandemic Medicine and Women: 1950-present Development of Prenatal Diagnostic and Surgical Techniques New Frontiers in Dentistry The Invention of the Artificial Heart Issues and Developments in Birth Control since 1950 The Discovery of Genetic Markers for Disease The Development of High-Tech Medical Diagnostic Tools Advances in Understanding Cancer The Global Eradication of Smallpox The Advent of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) The Advent of Total Hip Replacement Aging Issues since 1950 The Evolution of the U.S Healthcare System Trends in Alternative Medicine Trends in Epidemiology since 1950 Public Health Efforts since 1950 282 285 287 290 293 296 298 300 304 306 309 311 314 317 319 322 325 328 331 333 336 339 341 344 Biographical Sketches 347 Biographical Mentions 374 Bibliography of Primary Sources 382 229 231 233 236 238 240 242 Biographical Sketches 245 Biographical Mentions 265 Bibliography of Primary Sources 276 vi Medicine I T S Physical Sciences Chronology of Key Events 383 Overview 384 Topical Essays Plate Tectonic Theory and the Unification of the Earth Sciences Quasars: Beacons in the Cosmic Night The Discovery of Pulsars Advances in Radio Astronomy Revolutionize Man’s View of the Universe and its Origin The Debate Between “Big Science” and “Small Science” T I M E S V O L U M E 386 390 393 396 399 Scientists Get Closer to Determining the Age of the Universe 401 Advances Related to Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) 403 Finding Order among the Particles 405 Stephen Hawking Makes Pioneering Discoveries in Gravitational Field Theory 408 Toward the Unification of Forces 410 Edward Lorenz’s Groundbreaking Study of Weather Patterns Leads in Part to the Development of Chaotic Dynamics 413 Asteriods, Dinosaurs, and Geology: Catastrophic Events and the Theory of Mass Extinction 415 Solar System Exploration: 1970-2000 418 Planets Beyond Our Solar System 421 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents: New World under the Ocean 424 A World Within: The Search for Subatomic Particles 426 Hubble Space Telescope and Its Influence on Astronomy 429 Buckyballs: Carbon Goes 3-D 432 En Route to a Grand Unified Theory: The Unification of Electromagnetism and the Weak Nuclear Force at the Turn of the 1970s 435 The International Geophysical Year (IGY ), 1957-58 437 Advances Related to Silicon Transistors Spur the Microelectronics Revolution 490 Biographical Sketches 441 Biographical Mentions 462 Bibliography of Primary Sources 473 Technological Disasters: The Modern Challenge to the Enlightenment 542 Technology and Invention Futures Imperfect: Technology and Invention in the Twenty-First Century 547 Chronology of Key Events 475 Overview 476 Topical Essays The Development of Integrated Circuits Makes Possible the Microelectronics Revolution The Development of the Maser and Laser Leads to Widespread Commercial and Research Applications Nuclear Weaponry Harnessing Solar Power and Earth’s Renewable Energy Sources S C I E N C E A N D I T S 478 Nuclear Power 492 The Development of Computer Languages and Programmers 495 Contents 1950-present Xerox Introduces the First Photocopier 498 A Brief History of Robotics since 1950 500 The Advent of Modern Supertankers Facilitates the Transportation of Petroleum and Results in Environmental Catastrophe 504 Modern Airplane Technology: 1950-1999 506 The Development of Computer Operating Systems 509 The Explosion of Applications in Fiber Optics since 1960 512 The Evolution of Satellite Communications 515 The Development of the Video Recorder 518 The Development of Cellular Phones 521 The Internet Explosion 523 Advances in Microprocessor Technology 525 Calculators: A Pocket-Sized Revolution 528 Invention of the Bar Code Revolutionizes Retail Sales and Inventory Control 531 The Invention of the Fax Machine 534 The History, Development, and Importance of Personal Computers 536 The Invention of Compact Discs 540 The Rise of the Appropriate Technology Movement 545 Nuclear Submarines Revolutionize Naval Warfare, Intelligence Collection, and Spawn Technological Innovations 551 Biographical Sketches 553 Biographical Mentions 571 Bibliography of Primary Sources 581 480 484 General Bibliography 583 487 Index 585 T I M E S V O L U M E vii Preface T he interaction of science and society is increasingly a focal point of high school studies, and with good reason: by exploring the achievements of science within their historical context, students can better understand a given event, era, or culture This cross-disciplinary approach to science is at the heart of Science and Its Times Readers of Science and Its Times will find a comprehensive treatment of the history of science, including specific events, issues, and trends through history as well as the scientists who set in motion—or who were influenced by—those events From the ancient world’s invention of the plowshare and development of seafaring vessels; to the Renaissance-era conflict between the Catholic Church and scientists advocating a suncentered solar system; to the development of modern surgery in the nineteenth century; and to the mass migration of European scientists to the United States as a result of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s, science’s involvement in human progress—and sometimes brutality—is indisputable While science has had an enormous impact on society, that impact has often worked in the opposite direction, with social norms greatly influencing the course of scientific achievement through the ages In the same way, just as history can not be viewed as an unbroken line of everexpanding progress, neither can science be seen as a string of ever-more amazing triumphs Science and Its Times aims to present the history of science within its historical context—a context marked not only by genius and stunning invention but also by war, disease, bigotry, and persecution Format of the Series Science and Its Times is divided into seven volumes, each covering a distinct time period: S C I E N C E A N D I T S Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D Volume 2: 700-1449 Volume 3: 1450-1699 Volume 4: 1700-1799 Volume 5: 1800-1899 Volume 6: 1900-1949 Volume 7: 1950-present Dividing the history of science according to such strict chronological subsets has its own drawbacks Many scientific events—and scientists themselves—overlap two different time periods Also, throughout history it has been common for the impact of a certain scientific advancement to fall much later than the advancement itself Readers looking for information about a topic should begin their search by checking the index at the back of each volume Readers perusing more than one volume may find the same scientist featured in two different volumes Readers should also be aware that many scientists worked in more than one discipline during their lives In such cases, scientists may be featured in two different chapters in the same volume To facilitate searches for a specific person or subject, main entries on a given person or subject are indicated by bold-faced page numbers in the index Within each volume, material is divided into chapters according to subject area For volumes 5, 6, and 7, these areas are: Exploration and Discovery, Life Sciences, Mathematics, Medicine, Physical Sciences, and Technology and Invention For volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, readers will find that the Life Sciences and Medicine chapters have been combined into a single section, reflecting the historical union of these disciplines before 1800 T I M E S V O L U M E ix Preface 1950-present Arrangement of Volume 7: 1950-present Volume begins with two notable sections in the frontmatter: a general introduction to science and society during the period, and a general chronology that presents key scientific events during the period alongside key world historical events The volume is then organized into six chapters, corresponding to the six subject areas listed above in “Format of the Series.” Within each chapter, readers will find the following entry types: Chronology of Key Events: Notable events in the subject area during the nineteenth century are featured in this section Overview: This essay provides an overview of important trends, issues, and scientists in the subject area during the nineteenth century Topical Essays: Ranging between 1,500 and 2,000 words, these essays discuss notable events, issues, and trends in a given subject area Each essay includes a Further Reading section that points users to additional sources of information on the topic, including books, articles, and web sites Biographical Sketches: Key scientists during the era are featured in entries ranging between 500 and 1,000 words in length Biographical Mentions: Additional brief biographical entries on notable scientists during the era Bibliography of Primary Source Documents: These annotated bibliographic x S C I E N C E A N D I T S listings feature key books and articles pertaining to the subject area Following the final chapter are two additional sections: a general bibliography of sources related to the history of science, and a general subject index Readers are urged to make heavy use of the index, because many scientists and topics are discussed in several different entries A note should be made about the arrangement of individual entries within each chapter: while the long and short biographical sketches are arranged alphabetically according to the scientist’s surname, the topical essays lend themselves to no such easy arrangement Again, readers looking for a specific topic should consult the index Readers wanting to browse the list of essays in a given subject area can refer to the table of contents in the book’s frontmatter Additional Features Throughout each volume readers will find sidebars whose purpose is to feature interesting events or issues that otherwise might be overlooked These sidebars add an engaging element to the more straightforward presentation of science and its times in the rest of the entries In addition, the volume contains photographs, illustrations, and maps scattered throughout the chapters Comments and Suggestions Your comments on this series and suggestions for future editions are welcome Please write: The Editor, Science and Its Times, Gale Group, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills, MI 48331 T I M E S V O L U M E Advisory Board Amir Alexander Research Fellow Center for 17th and 18th Century Studies UCLA Amy Sue Bix Associate Professor of History Iowa State University Elizabeth Fee Chief, History of Medicine Division National Library of Medicine Sander Gliboff Ph.D Candidate Johns Hopkins University Lois N Magner Professor Emerita Purdue University Henry Petroski A.S Vesic Professor of Civil Engineering and Professor of History Duke University F Jamil Ragep Associate Professor of the History of Science University of Oklahoma David L Roberts Post-Doctoral Fellow, National Academy of Education Morton L Schagrin Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and History of Science SUNY College at Fredonia Hilda K Weisburg Library Media Specialist Morristown High School, Morristown, NJ S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E xi Contributors Mark H Allenbaugh Lecturer George Washington University Nathan L Ensmenger History & Sociology of Science University of Pennsylvania Peter J Andrews Freelance Writer Randolph Fillmore Freelance Science Writer Janet Bale Freelance Writer and Editor Richard Fitzgerald Freelance Writer Bob Batchelor Writer Arter & Hadden LLP Maura C Flannery Professor of Biology St John’s University, New York Katherine Batchelor Independent Scholar and Writer Donald R Franceschetti Distinguished Service Professor of Physics and Chemistry The University of Memphis Sherri Chasin Calvo Freelance Writer Jean-Franỗois Gauvin Historian of Science Musộe Stewart au Fort de l’Ile Sainte-Hélène, Montréal Geri Clark Science Writer Brooke E Coates Freelance Writer Professor of English Phillip H Gochenour Freelance Editor and Writer David A DeWitt Assistant Professor of Biology Liberty University Brook Ellen Hall Professor of Biology California State University at Sacramento Philip Downey Freelance Writer Thomas Drucker Graduate Student, Department of Philosophy University of Wisconsin H J Eisenman Professor of History University of Missouri-Rolla A N D Robert Hendrick Professor of History St John’s University, New York Jessica Bryn Henig History of Science Student Smith College Ellen Elghobashi Freelance Writer S C I E N C E Diane K Hawkins Head, Reference Services—Health Sciences Library SUNY Upstate Medical University I T S T I M E S V O L U M E xiii tention to the field of biomedicine, in which he was a pioneer sive digital computer, a model for the minicomputers that followed Born on April 30, 1904, in York, Pennsylvania, Stibitz was one of several children of a minister in the German Reformed Church He spent most of his youth in Dayton, Ohio, where his father taught ancient languages at Central Theological Seminary Stibitz attended Moraine Park School, an experimental progressive school in Dayton, and earned a full scholarship to Denison University He graduated from Denison in 1926 and in the following year earned a master’s degree in physics from Union College Later, he went on to Cornell University, where he earned his doctorate in 1930 Stibitz’s career entered a new phase in 1964, when he joined the faculty of the Dartmouth Medical School There he performed groundbreaking research in the new field of biomedicine, using computer applications to analyze the movement of oxygen through the lungs and to study the anatomy of brain cells He became a professor in 1966 and a professor emeritus in 1970 After graduating, Stibitz went to work for Bell Telephone Laboratories as a mathematical consultant and in the following year married Dorothea Lamson, with whom he had two daughters, Mary and Martha In 1937 he built his first binary adder in his kitchen using drycell batteries, metal strips from a tobacco can, and flashlight bulbs that he had soldered to wires from two telephone relays A replica of this extremely early computer can be found at the Smithsonian Institution Together with Samuel Williams, a Bell engineer, Stibitz expanded the adder to create the Model I Complex Calculator, which was introduced in January 1940 The Model I could work faster than 100 humans using desk calculators, and given its connection to Teletypes in other Bell offices, it may also be considered a forerunner of the time-sharing system in computers In late 1940 Stibitz presented the Model I before a joint meeting of three mathematical societies at Dartmouth He relayed problems through a Teletype hookup from Dartmouth to a computer at Bell Labs in New York City, receiving his answers within seconds This event is believed to be the first instance of remote computer operation From 1940 to 1945 Stibitz—still employed by Bell—was given on loan to the U.S Office of Scientific Research and Development In this capacity he created a number of more sophisticated binary computers, introducing concepts such as the excess code, floating decimal arithmetic, self-checking circuits, jump program instructions, taped programs, and “table-hunting” subcomputers With the end of the war, he became an independent consultant in applied mathematics for a number of government agencies and industrial firms He operated from Burlington, Vermont, where in 1954 he created an inexpenS C I E N C E A N D I T S Technology 1950-present In 1965 the American Federation of Information Processing Societies honored Stibitz with its Harry Goode Award, and in 1976 he was elected to the National Academy of Engineering He received the Emanuel R Piore Award in 1977 and the Computer Pioneer Award from the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers in 1982 In 1983 he was elected to the Inventors Hall of Fame Stibitz published a book in 1993, The Zeroth Generation, its title being a reference to the fact that his computers had preceded the “first generation” of computers He died on January 31, 1995, at his home in Hanover Center, New Hampshire JUDSON KNIGHT Charles Hard Townes 1915American Physicist C harles Townes conceived and built the first maser (1953), for which he won a share of the 1964 Nobel Prize in physics Townes later worked with Arthur Schawlow (1921- ) on extending maser principles to the visible portion of the spectrum, which resulted in the first detailed proposal for building a laser (1958) Charles Hard Townes was born in Greenville, South Carolina, on July 28, 1915 Having skipped seventh grade, he graduated from high school at age 15 He graduated summa cum laude from Furman University in 1935 with degrees in science and modern languages Townes received his physics masters degree from Duke University in 1936 before matriculating at the California Institute of Technology, where he earned his Ph.D in 1939 During World War II Townes worked at Bell Telephone Laboratories (1939-47) on radar-assisted bomb sights In 1948 he joined Columbia University’s physics department, where he became an expert on microwave spectroscopy—the study of interactions between microwaves and molecules Townes worked at the Columbia Radi- T I M E S V O L U M E 569 Technology 1950-present ation Lab on producing shorter microwaves and amplifying them for use in practical applications In 1951 Townes realized that Albert Einstein’s (1879-1955) theory of stimulated emission could be exploited to generate and amplify microwave radiation According to quantum theory, atoms only exist in certain discrete energy states Moving from one state to another requires the absorption or emission of fixed amounts of energy When atoms absorb photons of light they move to higher energy levels or excited states Excited atoms may spontaneously emit this extra energy as a photon of light or, as Einstein noted in 1916, emission may be accomplished by stimulation from another photon This stimulated emission results in two photons of the same frequency that can then go on to stimulate other excited atoms However, since most atoms are in lower energy states, emitted photons are generally absorbed rather than stimulating further emissions Townes saw that he could separate the higher-energy atoms and enclose them in a resonator cavity containing appropriate electromagnetic radiation to initiate stimulation These emissions would be reflected back into the systems to induce further emissions, resulting in a feedback process At sufficiently high radiation levels, the device would become self-oscillating and generate beams of coherent monochromatic radiation In 1953, after two years of work with James P Gordon and H J Zeiger, Townes successfully produced a working maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) Various design improvements followed, after which masers were quickly adapted for use in radio and radar astronomy, military radar, satellite communications, and atomic clocks In 1957 Townes turned his attention to creating an optical maser or laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) As the name suggests, the laser operates with visible light instead of microwaves Townes and Arthur Schawlow, having earlier collaborated on the classic Microwave Spectroscopy (1955), decided to work together on the optical maser Their “Infrared and Optical Masers” paper, published in the December 1958 Physical Review, provided the first detailed theoretical description of a laser Their work initiated the race to build the first working laser, a race that was won by Theodore H Maiman (1927- ) in 1960 Townes served as vice president and director of research at the Institute for Defense Analysis in Washington, D.C (1959-61) before be- 570 S C I E N C E A N D I T S coming provost and professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) between 1961 and 1966 He was awarded a share of the 1964 Nobel Prize in physics with Nicolai Basov (1922- ) and Aleksandr Prokhorov (1916- ), who independently produced a maser in 1955 Townes left MIT in 1966 for the University of California at Berkeley, where he remained until his retirement in 1986 Townes presently pursues research in astrophysics STEPHEN D NORTON Steven Wozniak 1950American Computer Designer and Electrical Engineer S teven Wozniak designed and built the Apple I, the first complete, small, easy-to-use computer His later Apple II added color capabilities, the simple computer language called BASIC, and came in one unit in a plastic case Along with Steve Jobs (1955- ), Wozniak co-founded the Apple Computer Company Steven Wozniak was born in California in 1950, the son of a Lockheed engineer At Homestead High in Sunnyvale, where he met Jobs, his spare time was spent building computers, arcade machines, and electronic devices in his garage He belonged to a computer club, though his friend Jobs did not At the University of Colorado, De Anza Community College, and the University of California at Berkeley, Wozniak majored in electrical engineering He dropped out of college and went to work for Hewlett-Packard in 1971, while Jobs worked at Atari Wozniak spent his spare time designing computers He and Steve Jobs unveiled the Apple I to the public at the first Computer Show in Atlantic City in August 1976 From the beginning, the Apple computer amazed the industry but did not sell well No one would invest in it, so Wozniak and Jobs sold their personal possessions and incorporated Apple Computer Company in 1977 The corporate logo, an apple with a stem, a bite out of it, and bright color stripes to emphasize the color capabilities of the computers, is still one of the most recognized logos in the industry Apple II was a distinct improvement Introduced the next year, it came in a plastic case, had color graphics, and ran BASIC and an accounting program called VisiCalc It was designed for those interested in what a computer T I M E S V O L U M E over $100 million at the time He still owns stock and continues to receive a small stipend from the company He finished his degree at the University of California at Berkeley and started a company to explore expanding the uses of electronics He became involved in a group dedicated to eliminating international dissension In 1990 he helped establish a company to investigate the legal ramifications of computers He also donated many Apple computers to schools He lives with his wife and several children in Los Gatos, California He is still involved with computers and is proud of his designs and the pioneering innovations the Apple computers represent Technology 1950-present LYNDALL B LANDAUER Biographical Mentions Steve Wozniak (Corbis Corporation Reproduced by permission.) could do—not just how it worked Orders skyrocketed and articles began to appear in magazines and newspapers about two college boys who had designed a successful computer in a garage By the time Apple III appeared, the company had moved out of the garage, hired midlevel managers, and had several thousand employees The machine was selling well even outside the United States By 1981, Apple sales topped $500 million Success changed the company An older, more conservative executive board wanted Apple to become more conventional Then the personal computer market became saturated, and Apple had to lay off 40 employees Steve Jobs, who owned 11% of Apple stock, became chairman of the board in March 1981 Steve Wozniak took a leave of absence He wanted to design computers, not run a business At this time Wozniak was involved in the crash of a small airplane he was piloting to San Diego As a result, he was afflicted with a form of amnesia in which he says he could not form new memories He didn’t remember the crash for months and could not remember what he had just done or said Slowly his ability to remember came back, but he was changed by the experience In 1982 Wozniak went back to work for Apple After disagreements with Jobs and the board, he left for good in 1985 He was worth S C I E N C E A N D I T S Robert E Benner American computer scientist who contributed toward advances in the use of computers for engineering and scientific applications Benner was involved in the development of linear and nonlinear optical systems, used in spectroscopic techniques for the characterization of materials In addition, he has worked on optical pattern recognition, used by computerized systems to read typed or written characters or to use cameras to help interact with people or their surroundings Harry Bertrand American inventor who was granted the first patent for an automobile airbag system with a crash sensor (1958), which allows the bag to inflate nearly simultaneously with an automobile’s impact, cushioning the driver’s impact with the steering wheel and/or dashboard It wasn’t until 1972 that any cars were produced with airbags (when the Ford Motor Co ran a demonstration project) In 1973 General Motors began offering its first airbag By the end of the twentieth century airbags had become standard safety equipment for automobiles Otis Boykin 1920-1982 American electrical engineer who invented the pacemaker, a guidance chip for missiles, and resistors for IBM computers Boykin graduated from Fisk University and the Illinois Institute of Technology In his career as an inventor, he created several electrical devices, including the chip T I M E S V O L U M E 571 Technology 1950-present used in all guided missiles and the small-component thick-film resistors used in IBM computers Boykins’s best known invention was the pacemaker, an artificial stimulator placed in the heart to keep it beating at regular intervals Ironically, Boykin died of heart failure in 1982 Daniel Bricklin 1951Computer electrical engineer who cocreated VisiCalc, the first electronic spreadsheet Bricklin began his computer-programming career while still in high school He received his bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering and computer science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1973 While studying for his M.B.A at Harvard University, he came up with the idea for an electronic spreadsheet, which he developed with the help of his friend, programmer Bob Frankston Together they founded Software Arts, Inc., where Frankston served as chairman from 1979 to 1985 Their VisiCalc program helped fuel the growth of the computer industry In 1995 Bricklin founded a new company, Trellix Corporation, to develop Internet productivity software Nolan Bushnell 1941Video-game pioneer who invented the first video arcade game and founded the Atari company Bushnell was inspired by one of the earliest video games, Spacewar, while studying at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology He developed his first game, Computer Space, in 1971 The game was too sophisticated for a general audience, so he went back to the drawing board and came up with Pong, a simple game based on table tennis In 1972 Bushnell founded the Atari Corporation, which went on to lead the electronic gaming revolution He sold Atari to Time Warner in 1977 and initiated several other ventures, including Chuck E Cheese, the arcadelike restaurant franchise Wesley Clark American computer scientist who was awarded the Eckert-Mauchly Award for his important contributions toward the development of the minicomputer, multiprocessor computers, and personal computers Minicomputers were the first step toward bridging the gap between large mainframe computers and personal computers They gave way to desktop workstations and, eventually, to very powerful and inexpensive personal computers All of these types of computers have been important in bringing greater 572 S C I E N C E A N D I T S computer performance to an increasing number of people Sir Christopher Cockerell 1910English engineer who invented the hovercraft Cockerell was born in Cambridge and studied at Cambridge University, where he initially focused his engineering skills in the fields of radio and radar before turning to hydrodynamics In the early 1950s he discovered that air could be used to speed a boat’s journey across water His hovercraft, which “hovered” a few inches above the water as it moved, was first built in 1958 Cockerell was knighted for his work in 1969 Edgar Frank Codd 1923British computer scientist who won the Alan Turing Award for his contributions to database management systems Codd first developed the concept of a relational database, the conceptual basis of most current database systems, which was realized in programs such as Dbase, Access, FoxPro, and others This conceptual breakthrough helped to revolutionize the computerization of records, with significant impacts in science, marketing, administration, and virtually any other field in which storing, organizing, and correlating large amounts of data is of value Ole-Johan Dahl 1931Norwegian computer scientist who, with Kirsten Nygaard, developed Simula, the first object-oriented programming language Object-oriented programming was a completely new paradigm in computer programming and has had a profound impact on the way in which computer programs are written Developed in the 1960s, object-oriented programming works with “objects,” or predefined chunks of program that more or less stand alone and can be assembled like building blocks into new, more complex programs Ray Milton Dolby 1933American electrical engineer and physicist whose name has become synonymous with the sophisticated noise reduction system he developed in the mid-1960s In 1963 Dolby accepted a two-year appointment as a United Nations advisor in India, before founding Dolby Laboratories in England in 1965 Among his many achievements, Dolby holds more than 50 U.S patents and has been presented with numerous T I M E S V O L U M E awards, including an Oscar in 1989 and the U.S National Medal of Technology in 1997 G W A Dummer English electrical engineer who first developed the concept of a microprocessor In a paper written in the early 1950s, Dummer proposed a single, monolithic device that would contain a great number of circuits and electronic components Though the inferior technology of the time prohibited Dummer from producing such a machine, it became a reality with the next two decades and spawned the computer revolution Harold E Edgerton 1903-1990 Electrical engineer who developed the use of stroboscopic photography Edgerton studied electrical engineering at the University of Nebraska, then went on to complete his graduate work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology In 1931 he pioneered the use of the stroboscope, a flashing strobe light that allows fastmoving objects to be photographed His work led to the development of the modern electronic flash Edgerton’s stop-action photographs captured athletes, animals, and even bullets moving through mid-air Edgerton was also a pioneer in underwater photography, collaborating with oceanographer Jacques-Yves Cousteau on numerous projects Philip Emeagwali 1955Nigerian computer scientist and mathematician who developed the world’s fastest supercomputer Emeagwali has made impressive contributions in a number of fields and, though forced from school at age 12, is widely regarded as one of the world’s most brilliant minds He has helped develop methods for oil recovery in nearly spent oil fields and made important contributions to the science of weather forecasting and a variety of mathematical specialties Douglas Carl Engelbart 1925Electrical engineer who invented the computer mouse and pioneered the design of modern interactive-computer environments The grandson of early western pioneers, Engelbart grew up near Portland, Oregon, and served with the Navy during World War II as an electronics technician He went on to work with NASA’s Ames Research Laboratory and the Stanford Research Institute Engelbart gained an interest in computers and envisioned an easily navigable interface that S C I E N C E A N D I T S would allow them to be used in offices around the world In 1963 he started his own research lab devoted to the augmentation of human intellect via technology Throughout the 1960s his lab developed a hypermedia-groupware system called NLS (oNLine System), which debuted— along with the first computer mouse—at the 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference Technology 1950-present Frederico Faggin 1941Italian-born American physicist and computer designer who, with Marcian Hoff and Stanley Mazor, created the first microprocessor He developed the original silicon gate technology while at Fairchild Semiconductor He then moved to Intel in 1970 to work on the 4004 microprocessor, improving Hoff’s design architecture with Mazor Faggin founded Zilog, Inc in 1974, which produced the Z80 microprocessor, an early rival to Intel’s 8080 He co-founded Synaptics in 1986 to develop neural-net chip technology Edward Albert Feigenbaum 1936American electrical engineer and pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) who is considered the “father” of expert systems technology The knowledge-based applications of AI have enhanced productivity in business, science, engineering, and the military In addition to his work as a professor of computer science at Stanford University, Feigenbaum was a co-founder of three firms in applied AI—IntelliCorp, Teknowledge, and Design Power Inc.—and served as Chief Scientist of the U.S Air Force from 1994 to 1997 Julian Feldman 1920?American information and computer science professor who with Edward Feigenbaum (1936- ) published the first book on artificial intelligence (AI), a collection of papers entitled Computers and Thought (1963), which cataloged research and defined the young field The book is a source of classic papers such as the 1950 paper by Alan Turing (1912-1954), “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.” Feldman also published articles based on his continued AI research in connectionism, a controversial theory regarding cognitive phenomena Jay Wright Forrester 1918Electrical engineer who invented computer memory storage Forrester was born in Nebraska and T I M E S V O L U M E 573 Technology 1950-present spent his early years on a cattle ranch His first engineering project was to create a 12-volt electrical system powered by wind, which provided his ranch with electricity After graduating from the University of Nebraska, he worked as a research assistant at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s high voltage lab, then went on to its servomechanisms lab In the mid-1940s Forrester began work on the U.S Navy sponsored Project Whirlwind, a huge computer developed at MIT as part of the United States’s defense against the Soviet Union While working on this project, Forrester invented the multicoordinate digital information storage device, which became known as magnetic-core memory storage, a precursor to modern random access memory (RAM) Robert Frankston American computer scientist who, with Daniel Bricklin, developed the first spreadsheet program for personal computers This program, called “Visicalc,” allowed accountants, scientists, and engineers to perform a huge number of interdependent calculations automatically, and to automatically recalculate the results if any input parameters were changed This development quickly led to industry standard programs such as Lotus 1-2-3 and Excel, which have since improved significantly, becoming exceptionally powerful tools for business management, finance, engineering design, and science Charles P Ginsburg 1920-1992 Engineer who developed the first practical videotape recorder Ginsburg was born in San Francisco, California, and graduated from San Jose State in 1948 He worked as a studio and transmitter engineer at a San Francisco radio station before joining the Ampex Corporation in 1952 Ginsburg developed a new method for recording a television signal by using a rapidly rotating recording head to apply high-frequency signals to magnetic tape Ginsburg led Ampex in the development of a special machine that ran the tape at a lower speed, working in conjunction with the high-speed recording heads His videotape recorder (VTR) changed the face of television Networks soon replaced live broadcasts with taped and edited shows Andy Grove 1936American computer scientist, engineer, and businessman who co-founded the computer company Intel Unlike many giants in the computer industry, Grove not only completed a col- 574 S C I E N C E A N D I T S lege degree, but went on to earn a doctorate He co-founded Intel in 1968 and became the company’s president in 1979 Since that time, Intel has rapidly emerged as one of the world’s most influential companies For his achievements, Grove has received numerous honors from American and international organizations John L Gustafson American computer scientist who has won three R & D 100 awards for his innovations Two of these awards were given for making important advances in benchmarking tests used to compare the performance of various configurations of computer equipment The other was awarded for being the first person to demonstrate parallel computer processing in a problem of practical significance William Edward Hanford 1908-1996 American chemist whose exploratory research in organic and polymer chemistry yielded over 120 U.S patents as well as hundreds of articles on industrial chemistry and research management Hanford’s research determined some of the basic chemistry for the polyurethane industry Under his direction, the first liquid detergent for home marketing was developed as was a refining process for the manufacture of petroleum products from coal Hanford also directed vital research into the use of polyols for flame-retardant products William R Hewlett 1913Electrical engineer who invented the audio oscillator and cofounded the Hewlett-Packard electronics corporation William Hewlett was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan He graduated from Stanford University with a B.A., then completed his master’s degree in electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology While in graduate school, he developed the design for his audio oscillator The machine, which generated low-frequency audio signals, was used by scientists, researchers, and even for the soundtrack to the Walt Disney film Fantasia Along with David Packard, whom he met while they were undergraduates at Stanford, Hewlett formed the Hewlett-Packard company in 1938 and marketed the audio oscillator as its first product Hewlett served as the company’s president from 1964 to 1977 and its chief executive officer from 1969 to 1978, after which he served on the board of directors T I M E S V O L U M E James Hillier 1915Canadian-born American physicist and inventor whose pioneering research on the electron microscope led to the development of the first commercially available electron microscope in North America Hillier, who holds more than 40 patents, is credited with the invention of the electron lens correction device and the electron microprobe microanalyser as well as being the first to picture bacterial viruses, an achievement that led to the use of the electron microscope as a practical research tool Jean Hoerni 1924-1997 Swiss-American physicist who invented the planar process, which led to the first integrated circuit The Swiss-born Hoerni completed doctorates at Cambridge University and the University of Geneva before immigrating to the United States in 1952 In the early 1950s, while working at the California Institute of Technology, Hoerni was recruited by Nobel laureate William Shockley to join his new Shockley Transistor Laboratories Hoerni and several of his colleagues soon formed a new company to develop their own integrated circuit His planar process, which fused a layer of silicon dioxide onto a chip before applying the conducting metal circuitry, helped give his Fairchild Semiconductor company the leading edge in the semiconductor industry Marcian Edward Hoff Jr 1937American electrical engineer who designed the first microprocessor In 1969 Hoff was assigned to work on Intel’s Busicom contract to produce a 12-chip hand-held calculator Employing Intel’s silicon-gated metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) technology, Hoff proposed an alternate singlechip architecture that combined the separate functions Refinements to his 2000 transistor CPU were later made by Stanely Mazor and Frederico Faggin, and the product was delivered in February, 1971 In 1980 Hoff became the first Intel Fellow Donald Fletcher Holmes 1910-1980 American chemist and inventor who with William Hanford (1908-1996), a colleague at E.I du Pont de Nemours & Co., developed polyurethane in 1942 Holmes spent his entire career with DuPont, working in the company’s textile divisions researching synthetic materials S C I E N C E A N D I T S that formed the basis for many of the global business segments of an organization once called “the world’s largest chemical company.” Technology 1950-present Nick Holonyak Jr 1928American engineer and inventor who first developed the light-emitting diode (LED), subsequently used in a wide variety of products LEDs are solid-state devices that emit light when energized First used in digital watches and calculators, LEDs required far less power and were more compact than their predecessors Though largely replaced by even more efficient liquid crystal displays (LCDs), LEDs are still used in many devices, such as miniature LED lasers Eugene Jules Houdry 1892-1962 French-born, American chemist whose method for catalytically cracking crude petroleum to produce high-octane gasoline revolutionized the refining industry During World War II approximately 90 percent of all Allied aviation fuel was produced by his process Also during the war, Houdry developed a catalytic process for producing synthetic rubber After World War II he focused on reducing carcinogens in automobile and industrial exhausts His 1962-patented catalytic converter is now standard on all American cars Jean Ichbiah French computer scientist who helped develop the Ada computer language, a programming language that won a U.S Department of Defense contest in the 1970s Searching for a single language to replace over 2000 then in use in a variety of Defense Department applications, Ichbiah lead the group that produced Ada, named for Lady Ada Lovelace Ada has subsequently been released to the public and is considered by many a powerful and easily learned high-level language Narinder S Kapany Indian physicist whose 1955 doctoral research in optics led to the development of fiber optics Originally viewed as either a novelty item or a way to transmit images from place to place, fiber optics subsequently found a myriad of uses, including data transmission and communications During the 1980s, a number of telecommunications companies installed high-capacity fiber optic communications systems that have since been put to use in data transmission Fiber optics are also used for imaging, including use as visual guides during surgical procedures T I M E S V O L U M E 575 Technology 1950-present Alan Kay American computer scientist who helped develop a number of commonly used computer features, notably the graphical user interface (GUI) system While working at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), Kay helped design GUI, the user-friendly graphics interface that utilized a “mouse” to point to “icons” and “windows” on the screen This system became the standard graphical interface adopted by Macintosh and the Windows 95, 98, and NT operating systems Kay also made important contributions toward developing the first laptop computer, and was primarily responsible for the Smalltalk computer language, an early object-oriented programming language Donald B Keck 1941American physicist who, with Robert Maurer and Peter Schultz, helped make fiber optics practical and useful Early optical fibers were fragile and suffered from high signal loss Keck, Maurer, and Schultz found that doping the glass with titanium and, later, germanium, markedly improved the strength and optical properties of the fibers This, in turn, made it possible to transmit signals farther and with greater accuracy, paving the way for their use in telecommunications and data transmission John George Kemeny 1926-1992 Hungarian computer scientist who, with Thomas Kurtz, developed the computer language BASIC A far simpler language than FORTRAN, COBOL, or other languages that existed at the time, BASIC was eventually transformed into more flexible and powerful variants, such as Visual Basic, used in many consumer software products BASIC, an acronym for “Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code,” was originally designed in 1964 to help teach computer programming to students at Dartmouth University Thomas Eugene Kurtz 1928American software engineer who, with John Kemeny, developed the computer language BASIC, an easy-to-learn language initially designed as a teaching tool for programming novices at Dartmouth College Kurtz once commented that if FORTRAN was the lingua franca (common language) of the computer world, BASIC was the “lingua playpen.” Available at no charge when developed in 1964, later versions of BASIC and 576 S C I E N C E A N D I T S its variants became standard computer languages used around the world Raymond Kurzweil American computer and software engineer who was awarded the Grace M Hopper Award for developing a device that scans and reads printed pages to the blind This machine is able to scan and recognize printed characters reliably, as well as implement pronunciation rules to make the synthesized voice understandable Kurzweil’s invention is expected to greatly increase the number of works available to the blind, in addition to the relatively few that are published in Braille Stephanie Louise Kwolek 1923American chemist who invented Kevlar and other high-strength synthetic fibers Kwolek studied chemistry in college, working with polymers at DuPont after graduation Actually, Kwolek started working at DuPont as a way to save money to attend medical school, only later deciding to make chemistry her career At DuPont she developed or helped develop hundreds of new fibers, including Kevlar, used in bulletproof vests and other high-strength applications Since its invention, Kevlar has saved the lives of many police, soldiers, and others William P Lear 1902-1978 American engineer best known for his work with corporate jet aircraft Lear also designed one of the first practical automobile radios, cramming a large volume of equipment into a package small enough to fit into a standard car He later designed a radio amplifier that became the basis for all RCA radios for many years, and invented the once-popular 8-track tape player In the aviation industry, Lear developed a lightweight automatic pilot device, aircraft navigational aids, and in 1962 founded Lear Jet Corporation, the renowned manufacturer of small jet aircraft for private and business travel Robert Steven Ledley 1926American biophysicist who revolutionized the science of radiology imaging with his invention of the whole body computed tomography (CT) scanner Ledley also pioneered the development of automated chromosome analysis for prenatal diagnosis of birth defects He authored numerous articles, primarily concerned with the use of computers in biology and medicine and bio- T I M E S V O L U M E medical engineering, as well as several books, and holds at least biomedical patents Robert D Maurer 1924American physicist who, with Donald Keck and Peter Schultz, helped develop the first practical glass for use in fiber optics systems The key problem that Maurer and his collaborators faced was finding a way to reduce signal loss and degradation to the point where at least 1% of the original signal remained after traveling one kilometer This was accomplished by adding germanium impurities to the glass in a process called “doping.” At present, over 90% of longdistance telephone calls in the United States travel over fiber optic lines, attesting to their importance Stanley Mazor 1941American computer designer who, along with Marcian Hoff and Federico Faggin, developed the first microprocessor He joined Intel in 1969 and worked with Faggin to improve Hoff’s microprocessor architecture Developed under contract for the Japanese calculator manufacturer Busicom, the resulting 4004-chip was formally announced to the industry in November 1971 Mazor also shares patents on the Symbol, which was developed while he was at Fairchild Semiconductor (1964-1969) Georges de Mestral 1907-1990 Swiss engineer who made “fastener history” when he developed Velcro—after a walk in the woods, during which he noticed how burrs caught on his clothing could be removed without damaging the fabric He used this discovery to design a “locking tape” based on the microscopic hooks and loops of the thistle specimens he had collected during his nature walk De Mestral named his invention, which he patented in 1955, for the French words velour (meaning “velvet”) and crochet (“hook”) Robert Metcalfe 1946American computer engineer who invented the Ethernet system of transmitting data from one computer to another Ethernet helped make Local Area Networks (LANs) possible by providing simple, high-speed data connections to transmit and share data and e-mail Ethernet was invented in 1973 and, a few years later, Metcalfe founded the 3Com company, an early S C I E N C E A N D I T S leader in Ethernet technology Metcalfe was awarded the IEEE Medal of Honor in 1996 for his contributions in this field Technology 1950-present Marvin Lee Minsky 1927American computer scientist who was a pioneer in the field of robotics and artificial intelligence Minsky co-founded MIT’s Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in 1959 and has been a lifelong proponent of machine intelligence In 1951 he built the SNARC, the first neural network simulator He has also developed many other robots and robotic devices, such as hands He continues to work toward developing computers that can think and reason in a human fashion Gary R Montry American computer engineer who, with Robert Benner and John Gustafson, made significant contributions to the field of parallel computer processing Parallel processing is the practice of linking a number of small computers together to form a “virtual computer” that performs at very high speeds Properly written operating systems, programming languages, and computer programs can take advantage of parallel and massively parallel computer architecture to perform at supercomputer speeds Such systems have the benefit of providing supercomputer performance for the cost of only several desktop computers and software Robert Moog 1934American musician and inventor who designed the Moog synthesizer, a device that can replicate virtually any sound from any musical instrument Moog combined an interest in music with skills in electronics and computers to create the Moog synthesizer His goal, to build a keyboard instrument that could electronically re-create the sound of any musical instrument, was realized in 1964 with the release of the first Moog synthesizer Using semiconductor technology, the Moog was relatively inexpensive and exceptionally versatile, winning converts throughout the music industry and spawning the proliferation of electronic keyboard music Gordon E Moore 1929American chemist who advanced in 1965 what is now known as Moore’s law Moore’s law states that the number of circuits that can be printed on computer chips (and therefore their processing power) will double every 18 months This T I M E S V O L U M E 577 Technology 1950-present prediction has proved phenomenally accurate Moore has recently scaled down the doubling time of Moore’s law to every two years He is Chairman Emeritus of Intel Corporation, the computer chip company he co-founded in 1968 Allen Newell 1927-1992 American computer scientist whose work with artificial intelligence contributed much toward greater understanding of both computer science and human cognition Newell’s primary work focused on the problem-solving and cognitive architecture that could lead to a computer replication of human thought Unlike many so-called “AI” programs that merely apply simple rules to a set of alternatives, Newell was working on developing computer systems that would actually think in a manner analogous to humans Kirsten Nygaard Norwegian computer scientist who, with OleJohan Dahl, developed the Simula computer programming language, one of the first objectoriented computer languages Simula became the basis for many follow-on languages, including Beta Object-oriented computer languages offer many benefits, providing both programmers and users with the ability to assemble and use complex programs composed of “plug and play” modules, or objects Object-oriented programming became increasingly popular in the 1980s and 1990s Kenneth H Olsen 1926American computer scientist who invented magnetic core memory and founded Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), which invented the minicomputer Magnetic core memory formed the basis for early computers, although it is not commonly used in more recent machines However, at the time, it was fundamental to the construction of computers and was a major advance in data storage In addition, DEC’s development of the minicomputer helped bring computing power to smaller businesses and academic researchers, starting a trend that culminated with the personal computer John T Parsons 1913American engineer who developed automated controls for machine tools, helping to turn many milling and shaping processes into precision, computer-guided tasks Prior to Parsons’s inventions, most of the processes on assembly lines 578 S C I E N C E A N D I T S still took place by hand at metal lathes and milling machines, resulting in a lack of precision and consistency Parsons was able to transform factories into more automated areas that turned out an endless stream of precision-machined components, enhancing the overall quality of most manufactured goods John Robinson Pierce 1910American electrical engineer who has been called the “father” of communication satellites for his research into passive and active satellites in synchronous and non-synchronous orbits His work influenced the launch of the first NASA satellite, Echo 1, as well as that of the first active relay satellite, Telstar Pierce has won numerous awards for his satellite work, including the National Medal of Science He has also researched psychoacoustics and computer-generated music Charles Plank 1915-1989 American chemical engineer who, with Edward Rosinski, developed the first zeolite catalytic cracking system for petroleum refining In catalytic cracking, materials called catalysts are used to speed up chemical reactions, helping to produce gasoline, fuel oil, and other petroleum products made from crude oil More efficient and less dangerous than traditional methods of fractional distillation, this process marked a major step forward for the petrochemical industry Roy J Plunkett 1910-1994 American chemical engineer who discovered polytetrafluoroetheylene (PTFE) in 1938 PTFE, or Teflon, is chemically inert and used as a nonstick cookware coating Teflon and its fluropolymer family members, such as Tefzel, are also widely used in the aerospace, electronics, and plastics industries Plunkett oversaw much of DuPont’s research, development, and production of new fluorochemical products and processes He was elected into the Plastics Hall of Fame in 1973 and retired from DuPont in 1975 Robert H Rines 1922American engineer who helped invent technologies leading to high-resolution image-scanning radar and sonar systems Rines’s inventions have found widespread use in military technology, including that used in the Persian Gulf War In addition, devices based on his discoveries are T I M E S V O L U M E widely used for ultrasound imaging in the body, in deep-sea exploration (as side-scan sonar sleds), and related areas He holds in excess of 60 patents for his inventions Rines has also written music for more than 10 Broadway and off-Broadway plays Dennis M Ritchie American software engineer who won the Alan M Turing Award for developing, with Kenneth Thompson, the Unix operating system in 1969 Widely regarded as one of the fastest and the most stable operating systems available, Unix forms the basis for a very high percentage of scientific and business computer networks It also serves as the foundation for the increasingly popular Linux operating system In addition to his work on Unix, Ritchie played a major role in developing the C programming language Larry Roberts American computer engineer who invented the concept of computer networking and data packet transmission, making possible the Internet, email, and the World Wide Web Telephone companies initially dismissed Roberts’s concept of “packet switching,” now the backbone of Internet data transmission, as impractical However, sending data in small packets by often varying routes and reassembling it at the destination proved much more efficient and reliable than other methods Roberts’s method subsequently became the global standard for data transmission Edward J Rosinski 1921American chemical engineer who, with Charles Plank, developed the first zeolite catalytic cracking system for petroleum refining In catalytic cracking, materials called catalysts are used to speed up chemical reactions, helping to produce gasoline, fuel oil, and other petroleum products made from crude oil More efficient and less dangerous than traditional methods of fractional distillation, this process marked a major step forward for the petrochemical industry Rosinski held or shared a total of 76 patents, most dealing with catalytic cracking, leading to new or improved techniques for processing hydrocarbons A paper that he and Plank co-authored was voted one of the 12 most important papers to be published in the journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Arthur Leonard Schawlow 1921American physicist whose early collaborations with Charles Townes on masers resulted in their S C I E N C E A N D I T S 1955 Microwave Spectroscopy They extended maser principles to light in 1958 when they published the first detailed proposal for building a laser Schawlow won a share of the 1981 Nobel Prize in physics for developments in laser spectroscopy, especially for the advanced techniques used by his Stanford research group to reveal details of atomic spectra and give improved values for fundamental constants Technology 1950-present Peter C Schultz 1947American physicist whose work with Robert Maurer and Donald Keck led to the development of the first useable optical fibers able to transmit data over long distances Scientists had attempted to transmit images over long distances through glass fibers for nearly a century, but were unsuccessful because of the relative opacity of thick glass with high levels of impurities that existed at the time Earl D Shaw 1937American physicist who has made important contributions to laser technology Shaw helped develop the free electron laser, infrared lasers, and tunable lasers Tunable lasers are important because, unlike conventional lasers, the wavelength of the emitted light can be changed, or tuned, for a particular application Shaw has applied his studies of tunable lasers to research into the physical properties of DNA and other biologically important molecules Michael Shrayer American software developer who wrote the first word processing program, Electric Pencil, heralded by many as not only the first, but one of the best word processing programs Electric Pencil had many of the functions found in later word processors, including the first “on-the-fly” spell checkers Electric Pencil’s chief advantages were simplicity, compact code (as compared to the bloated programs now in use), and speed It formed the basis for all subsequent word processing software Alan Shugart American computer engineer who invented the floppy disk drive and founded Seagate, a disk drive manufacturing company The floppy disk, which first came as an inch disk and has since shrunk to a standard 3.5 inches in size, helped to make data portable for the first time, allowing files to be transported from one computer to another or to be stored in a separate location T I M E S V O L U M E 579 Technology 1950-present Shugart also invented the disk drive interface that remains the industry standard ware cite the success and reliability of Linux as a model for future products Herbert Alexander Simon 1916American computer scientist and economist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Economics for his research into decision-making processes within economic organizations Simon has investigated the intellectual processes behind decision-making in an effort to help construct computer programs that can replicate human thought processes Along the way, he helped develop list processing computer languages that are commonly used among artificial intelligence researchers Earl Silas Tupper 1907-1983 American chemist and inventor who revolutionized the plastics industry with the development and introduction of Tupperware, which he invented in the 1930s but did not produce until 1947 because of World War II While a chemist at E.I duPont de Nemours, Inc., Tupper developed a synthetic polymer that produced a pliable but sturdy plastic, which he called Poly T In 1942 he founded the Tupperware Corporation, which became famous for its nesting plastic bowls with airtight lids Ivan Edward Sutherland 1938American electrical and computer engineer who is thought by many to have invented the field of virtual reality Sutherland also developed the first computer light pen, allowing direct interaction with the computer This device is often used by television sportscasters during “instant replays,” in addition to its other office uses Sutherland won the Alan M Turing Award for developing the Sketchpad program, considered the direct ancestor of virtually all computer graphics software today Frederic Waller 1886-1954 American photographer who invented Cinerama Waller gained technical skills at his father’s Brooklyn, New York, photography studio Securing fifty patents, Waller initiated peripheral audiovisual presentation methods that enhanced movie viewers’ depth perception Cinerama consisted of three projectors and a concave screen with plastic strips that absorbed reflected light while a sound system surrounded the audience Waller won a 1954 Academy Award for this invention His techniques were applied to flight simulators, computer games, and virtual reality processes Kenneth Thompson 1943American computer and software engineer who won recognition for his role in the development of the Unix operating system in 1969 Thompson and Dennis Ritchie developed Unix as an operating system that could be used on any type of computer, giving a stable, flexible, and consistent computing environment The widespread acceptance of Unix in science and industry settings is testimony to its success, as is the increasing popularity of the Linux operating system, a Unix derivative An Wang 1920-1990 Chinese-American computer engineer who invented the magnetic pulse controlling device, forming the basis for magnetic core memory This device helped to make possible the first computers with a large (by earlier standards) memory, making them more flexible and versatile Wang developed many other office automation and information processing devices, and eventually founded Wang Industries to manufacture and market these and other inventions Linus Torvalds 1970Finnish computer scientist responsible for the development of the Linux operating system for computers This system, which is available for free over the Internet, was begun by Torvalds while he was a university student in Finland The Linux system has become a favorite of a small number of computer programmers seeking an alternative to Microsoft’s Windows operating system Many programmers who favor free soft- 580 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Maurice Vincent Wilkes 1913English mathematician and computer scientist who developed some of the earliest computers, cache memory, and wide-bandwidth local area networks He was awarded the prestigious Kyoto Prize for Advanced Technology in 1992 In addition to his work on the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer), Wilkes helped set standards and paradigms for the emerging field of computer programming for stored program computers—that is, computers that store T I M E S V O L U M E the entire set of instructions (or program) in internal memory Nicolaus Wirth 1934Swiss computer scientist who developed Pascal, a computer programming language that revolutionized programming on personal computers Originally designed by Wirth as a “toy” to teach people how to write and compile programs, Pascal was simple and powerful enough to become popular, especially in the revised “Turbo Pascal” version Wirth later developed the Oberon language, a more serious and powerful successor to Pascal, and Modula-3, an object-oriented programming language that was briefly popular Nathaniel Convers Wyeth 1911-1990 American mechanical engineer and inventor who specialized in plastics (and was the brother of the artist Andrew Wyeth) In 1936 he received his B.S from the University of Pennsylvania Employed by duPont from 1936 until his retirement in 1976, he developed several basic manufacturing processes and earned 25 patents His research in the 1960s into the extrusion of nonwoven fibers led to the development of plastic shotgun shells In 1973 he patented the biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle, which became familiar as a container for carbonated beverages Neal Zierler American computer scientist who helped develop the first computer programming compiler for the MIT “Whirlwind” computer in 1953 A compiler is a program that translates a high-level computer language into machine language Compilers make it possible to write sophisticated programs without having to write code in ei- S C I E N C E A N D I T S ther binary (zeros and ones) or hexadecimal (base 16) languages Compilers also make it possible to write complex programs and to program in high-level languages such as FORTRAN, C++, and BASIC Technology 1950-present Bibliography of Primary Sources Books Feldman, Julian, and Edward Feigenbaum Computers and Thought (1963) The first published book on artificial intelligence (AI), consisting of a collection of papers that cataloged research and defined the young field Schumacher, Ernst Friedrich Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered (1973) Contained Schumacher’s assertion, immediately adopted by political progressives, that economic production should be a means to an end—that of increased wellbeing—and that this should be achieved with a minimum of resource consumption and resulting environmental degradation Schumacher argued that production from local resources should be used to fill local needs and that full employment, whether in the home or in an outside setting, is necessary for a healthy society Townes, Charles Hard, and Arthur Schawlow Microwave Spectroscopy (1955) Included description of the maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), a precursor to the development of lasers Periodical Articles Townes, Charles Hard, and Arthur Schawlow “Infrared and Optical Masers.” Physical Review (December 1958) Provided the first detailed theoretical description of a laser, leading to the construction of the first working version in 1960 Turing, Alan “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (1950) A classic early paper on artificial intelligence (AI) T I M E S V O L U M E 581 General Bibliography Books Agassi, Joseph The Continuing Revolution: A History of Physics from the Greeks to Einstein New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968 Allen, Garland E Life Science in the Twentieth Century New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978 Bunch, Bryan H Handbook on Current Science & Technology Detroit: Gale, 1996 Bynum, W F., et al., editors Dictionary of the History of Science Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981 Anderson, E W Man the Aviator London: Priory Press, 1973 Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh Science and Technology Desk Reference: 1,500 Frequently Asked or Difficult-to-Answer Questions Washington, D.C.: Gale, 1993 Arnold, Caroline Genetics: From Mendel to Gene Splicing New York: F Watts, 1986 Crone, G R Man the Explorer London: Priory Press, 1973 Asimov, Isaac Adding a Dimension: Seventeen Essays on the History of Science Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964 Elliott, Clark A History of Science in the United States: A Chronology and Research Guide New York: Garland, 1996 Bahn, Paul G., editor The Cambridge Illustrated History of Archaeology New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996 Erlen, Jonathan The History of the Health Care Sciences and Health Care, 1700-1980: A Selective Annotated Bibliography New York: Garland, 1984 Basalla, George The Evolution of Technology New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988 Benson, Don S Man and the Wheel London: Priory Press, 1973 Fearing, Franklin Reflex Action: A Study in the History of Physiological Psychology Introduction by Richard Held Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970 Berridge, Virginia and Philip Strong AIDS and Contemporary History New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Good, Gregory A., editor Sciences of the Earth: An Encyclopedia of Events, People, and Phenomena New York: Garland, 1998 Bowler, Peter J The Norton History of the Environmental Sciences New York: W W Norton, 1993 Graham, Loren R Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A Short History New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Brock, W H The Norton History of Chemistry New York: W W Norton, 1993 Grattan-Guiness, Ivor The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences: The Rainbow of Mathematics New York: W W Norton, 1998 Bruno, Leonard C Science and Technology Firsts Edited by Donna Olendorf, guest foreword by Daniel J Boorstin Detroit: Gale, 1997 Bud, Robert and Deborah Jean Warner, editors Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia New York: Garland, 1998 S C I E N C E A N D I T S Gullberg, Jan Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers Technical illustrations by Peter Hilton New York: W W Norton, 1997 Hellemans, Alexander and Bryan Bunch The Timetables of Science: A Chronology of the T I M E S V O L U M E 583 General Bibliography 1950-present Most Important People and Events in the History of Science New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988 Rudwick, M J S The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Paleontology New York: American Elsevier, 1972 Hellyer, Brian Man the Timekeeper London: Priory Press, 1974 Sarton, George Introduction to the History of Science Huntington, NY: R E Krieger Publishing Company, 1975 A History of Science Policy in the United States, 1940-1985: Report Prepared for the Task Force on Science Policy, 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Aeronautics, Meteorology, Astronomy, and Space Science Harlow, England: F Hodgson, 1981 World of Scientific Discovery Detroit: Gale, 1994 Young, Robyn V., editor Notable Mathematicians: From Ancient Times to the Present Detroit: Gale, 1998 T I M E S JUDSON KNIGHT V O L U M E ... D I T S Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D Volume 2: 70 0-1449 Volume 3: 1450-1699 Volume 4: 170 0- 179 9 Volume 5: 1800-1899 Volume 6: 1900-1949 Volume 7: 1950-present Dividing the history of science according... area For volumes 5, 6, and 7, these areas are: Exploration and Discovery, Life Sciences, Mathematics, Medicine, Physical Sciences, and Technology and Invention For volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, readers... unbroken line of everexpanding progress, neither can science be seen as a string of ever-more amazing triumphs Science and Its Times aims to present the history of science within its historical context—a