In this book Jonathan Lowe offers a lucid and wide-ranging introduction to the philosophy of mind. Using aproblem-centred approach designed to stimulate as wellas instruct, he begins with a general examination of themind–body problem and moves on to detailed examina-tion of more specific philosophical issues concerningsensation, perception, thought and language, rational-ity, artificial intelligence, action, personal identity andself-knowledge. His discussion is notably broad in scope,and distinctive in giving equal attention to deep meta-physical questions concerning the mind and to the dis-coveries and theories of modern scientific psychology. Itwill be of interest to any reader with a basic groundingin modern philosophy.E. J. Lowe is Professor of Philosophy at the University ofDurham. His publications include Kinds of Being (1989),Locke on Human Understanding (1995), Subjects of Experience(1996) and The Possibility of Metaphysics (1998). AN INTRODUCTION TO THEPHILOSOPHY OF MIND AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE PHILOSOPHYOF MINDE. J. LOWEUniversity of Durham The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.orgFirst published in printed format ISBN 0-521-65285-5 hardbackISBN 0-521-65428-9 paperbackISBN 0-511-04054-7 eBookE. J. Lowe 20042000(netLibrary)© ContentsPrefacepagexi1Introduction1Empiricalpsychologyandphilosophicalanalysis2Metaphysicsandthephilosophyofmind3Abriefguidetotherestofthisbook62Minds,bodiesandpeople8Cartesiandualism9Theconceivabilityargument11Thedivisibilityargument13Non-Cartesiandualism15Arepersonssimplesubstances?18Conceptualobjectionstodualisticinteraction21Empiricalobjectionstodualisticinteraction24Thecausalclosureargument26Objectionstothecausalclosureargument29Otherargumentsforandagainstphysicalism32Conclusions363Mentalstates39Propositionalattitudestates40Behaviourismanditsproblems41Functionalism44Functionalismandpsychophysicalidentitytheories48Theproblemofconsciousness51Qualiaandtheinvertedspectrumargument53Somepossibleresponsestotheinvertedspectrumargument55Theabsentqualiaargumentandtwonotionsofconsciousness59Eliminativematerialismand‘folkpsychology’61Someresponsestoeliminativematerialism64Conclusions66vii Contentsviii4Mentalcontent69Propositions70Thecausalrelevanceofcontent74Theindividuationofcontent79Externalisminthephilosophyofmind82Broadversusnarrowcontent84Content,representationandcausality89Misrepresentationandnormality92Theteleologicalapproachtorepresentation95Objectionstoateleologicalaccountofmentalcontent99Conclusions1005Sensationandappearance102Appearanceandreality103Sense-datumtheoriesandtheargumentfromillusion107Otherargumentsforsense-data110Objectionstosense-datumtheories112Theadverbialtheoryofsensation114Theadverbialtheoryandsense-data116Primaryandsecondaryqualities119Sense-datumtheoriesandtheprimary/secondarydistinction121Anadverbialversionoftheprimary/secondarydistinction125Docolour-propertiesreallyexist?126Conclusions1286Perception130Perceptualexperienceandperceptualcontent131Perceptualcontent,appearanceandqualia135Perceptionandcausation137Objectionstocausaltheoriesofperception143Thedisjunctivetheoryofperception145Thecomputationalandecologicalapproachestoperception149Consciousness,experienceand‘blindsight Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective By: OpenStaxCollege Signs of a Recession Home foreclosures were just one of the many signs and symptoms of the recent Great Recession During that time, many businesses closed and many people lost their jobs (Credit: modification of work by Taber Andrew Bain/Flickr Creative Commons) The Great Recession The Great Recession of 2008–2009 hit the U.S economy hard According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the number of unemployed Americans rose from 6.8 million in May 2007 to 15.4 million in October 2009 During that time, the U.S Census Bureau estimated that approximately 170,000 small businesses closed Mass layoffs peaked in 1/3 Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective February 2009 when 326,392 workers were given notice U.S productivity and output fell as well Job losses, declining home values, declining incomes, and uncertainty about the future caused consumption expenditures to decrease According to the BLS, household spending dropped by 7.8% Home foreclosures and the meltdown in U.S financial markets called for immediate action by Congress, the President, and the Federal Reserve Bank For example, programs such as the American Restoration and Recovery Act were implemented to help millions of people by providing tax credits for homebuyers, paying “cash for clunkers,” and extending unemployment benefits From cutting back on spending, filing for unemployment, and losing homes, millions of people were affected by the recession And while the United States is now on the path to recovery, the impact will be felt for many years to come What caused this recession and what prevented the economy from spiraling further into another depression? Policymakers looked to the lessons learned from the Great Depression of the 1930s and to the models developed by John Maynard Keynes to analyze the causes and find solutions to the country’s economic woes The Keynesian perspective is the subject of this chapter Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective In this chapter, you will learn about: • • • • Aggregate Demand in Keynesian Analysis The Building Blocks of Keynesian Analysis The Phillips Curve The Keynesian Perspective on Market Forces We have learned that the level of economic activity, for example output, employment, and spending, tends to grow over time In The Keynesian Perspective we learned the reasons for this trend The Macroeconomic Perspective pointed out that the economy tends to cycle around the long-run trend In other words, the economy does not always grow at its average growth rate Sometimes economic activity grows at the trend rate, sometimes it grows more than the trend, sometimes it grows less than the trend, and sometimes it actually declines You can see this cyclical behavior in [link] 2/3 Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective U.S Gross Domestic Product, Percent Changes 1930–2012 The chart tracks the percent change in GDP since 1930 The magnitude of both recessions and peaks was quite large between 1930 and 1945 (Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis, “National Economic Accounts”) This empirical reality raises two important questions: How can we explain the cycles, and to what extent can they be moderated? This chapter (on the Keynesian perspective) and The Neoclassical Perspective explore those questions from two different points of view, building on what we learned in The Aggregate Demand/Aggregate Supply Model 3/3 Anh được biết đến là xứ sở của sương mù và truyền thống củûa môn thể thao vua với những cái tên nổi tiếng như : Michael Owen, DavidBeckam …. Loài hoa biểu tượng của Anh là hoa Hồng Màu sắc đặc trưng của những dòch vụ công cộng là màu đỏ ( Điện thoại công cộng và xe buýt 2 tầng ) Quốc huy của Scôtlen Hoa Thistle- Hoa biểu tượng Trang phục và nhạc cụ truyền thống của nam giới A Gentle Introduction to the Spring Framework T he Spring Framework is an open source application framework written in Java, which supports Java 1.3 and later. It makes building business applications with Java much easier compared with using the classic Java frameworks and application programming interfaces (APIs), such as Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) and JavaServer Pages (JSP). Since its introduction, the Spring Frame- work has significantly improved the way people design and implement business applications by incorporating best-practice methodologies and simplifying development. As an introduction to the Spring Framework, this chapter will cover the following topics: • The process of developing a typical business application and the role the Spring Framework can play • An overview of the modules that make up the Spring Framework • An introduction to the sample application that you’ll be working with in this book • An example that demonstrates one of the Spring Framework’s core features: managing dependencies • How the Spring Framework integrates with Java Enterprise Edition (Java EE) • How to set up the Spring Framework in your applications Building a Business Application A modern business application typically consists of the following components: • Relational database: Stores the data related to the problem domain. The database is not nec- essarily part of the application, but the data-access classes have been written for the specific schema of the database, so that the application is closely coupled with the database schema. • Graphical user interface (GUI): Lets users interact with the business processes that are imple- mented by the application. Since the days of the web revolution, many business applications are web-based. • Business logic: Controls and monitors the execution of business processes. The business logic must work with the database and is called by the GUI. Unfortunately, as tens of thousands of Java developers worldwide can testify, developing business applications in Java can be very hard and frustrating. This is especially, although not exclu- sively, true at the join points, where the business logic meets the database and the GUI meets the business logic. 1 CHAPTER 1 9187ch01.qxd 8/2/07 10:05 AM Page 1 Java Platform Hurdles Java is one of the most powerful and easy-to-use programming languages for developing business applications, so it might seem strange to suggest that developing business applications in Java is difficult. The main hurdles involve its extensive set of libraries and frameworks, each of which adds a wide range of capabilities to Java. The parts of the Java platform that are crucial for building typical business applications are as follows: • The JDBC API allows Java applications to connect to a wide range of relational databases. • The Servlet and JSP specifications are crucial for web-based business applications. • Desktop applications rely heavily on the Swing or Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT) APIs. Each of these APIs offers useful capabilities for developing business applications, but most of them are very difficult to use. For example, it’s hard to use the JDBC API correctly for very basic queries on a database (see Chapter 5 for an example). JDBC is an intrusive API—it influences the design of an application in such a way that the focus of the design shifts away from its 1 An Introduction to the Grid 1.1 INTRODUCTION The Grid concepts and technologies are all very new, first expressed by Foster and Kesselman in 1998 [1]. Before this, efforts to orches- trate wide-area distributed resources were known as metacomput- ing [2]. Even so, whichever date we use to identify when efforts in this area started, compared to general distributed computing, the Grid is a very new discipline and its exact focus and the core com- ponents that make up its infrastructure are still being investigated and have yet to be determined. Generally it can be said that the Grid has evolved from a carefully configured infrastructure that sup- ported a limited number of grand challenge applications executing on high-performance hardware between a number of US national centres [3], to what we are aiming at today, which can be seen as a seamless and dynamic virtual environment. In this book we take a step-by-step approach to describe the middleware components that make up this virtual environment which is now called the Grid. 1.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE GRID Before we go any further we need to somehow define and char- acterize what can be seen as a Grid infrastructure. To start with, let us think about the execution of a distributed application. Here The Grid: Core Technologies Maozhen Li and Mark Baker © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE GRID we usually visualize running such an application “on top” of a software layer called middleware that unifies the resources being used by the application into a single coherent virtual machine. To help understand this view of a distributed application and its accompanying middleware, consider Figure 1.1, which shows the hardware and software components that would be typically found on a PC-based cluster. This view then raises the question, what is the difference between a distributed system and the Grid? Obvi- ously the Grid is a type of distributed system, but this does not really answer the question. So, perhaps we should try and establish “What is a Grid?” In 1998, Ian Foster and Carl Kesselman provided an initial defi- nition in their book The Grid: Blueprint for a New Computing Infras- tructure [1]: “A computational grid is a hardware and software infrastructure that provides dependable, consistent, pervasive, and inexpensive access to high-end computational capabilities.” This particular definition stems from the earlier roots of the Grid, that of interconnecting high-performance facilities at various US labo- ratories and universities. Since this early definition there have been a number of other attempts to define what a Grid is. For example, “A grid is a soft- ware framework providing layers of services to access and manage distributed hardware and software resources” [4] or a “widely Sequential applications Parallel programming environment Cluster middleware (Single system image and availability infrastructure) Cluster interconnection network/switch Network interface hardware Communications software PC/ Workstation Network interface hardware Communications software PC/ Workstation PC/ Workstation Network interface hardware Communications software PC/ Workstation Network interface hardware Communications software Sequential applications Sequential applications Parallel applications Parallel applications Figure 1.1 The hardware and software components of a typical cluster 1.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE GRID 3 distributed network of high-performance computers, stored data, instruments, and collaboration environments shared across insti- tutional boundaries” [5]. In 2001, In this book Jonathan Lowe offers a lucid and wide-ranging introduction to the philosophy of mind. Using aproblem-centred approach designed to stimulate as wellas instruct, he begins with a general examination of themind–body problem and moves on to detailed examina-tion of more specific philosophical issues concerningsensation, perception, thought and language, rational-ity, artificial intelligence, action, personal identity andself-knowledge. His discussion is notably broad in scope,and distinctive in giving equal attention to deep meta-physical questions concerning the mind and to the dis-coveries and theories of modern scientific psychology. Itwill be of interest to any reader with a basic groundingin modern philosophy.E. J. Lowe is Professor of Philosophy at the University ofDurham. His publications include Kinds of Being (1989),Locke on Human Understanding (1995), Subjects of Experience(1996) and The Possibility of Metaphysics (1998). AN INTRODUCTION TO THEPHILOSOPHY OF MIND AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE PHILOSOPHYOF MINDE. J. LOWEUniversity of Durham The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.orgFirst published in printed format ISBN 0-521-65285-5 hardbackISBN 0-521-65428-9 paperbackISBN 0-511-04054-7 eBookE. J. Lowe 20042000(netLibrary)© ContentsPrefacepagexi1Introduction1Empiricalpsychologyandphilosophicalanalysis2Metaphysicsandthephilosophyofmind3Abriefguidetotherestofthisbook62Minds,bodiesandpeople8Cartesiandualism9Theconceivabilityargument11Thedivisibilityargument13Non-Cartesiandualism15Arepersonssimplesubstances?18Conceptualobjectionstodualisticinteraction21Empiricalobjectionstodualisticinteraction24Thecausalclosureargument26Objectionstothecausalclosureargument29Otherargumentsforandagainstphysicalism32Conclusions363Mentalstates39Propositionalattitudestates40Behaviourismanditsproblems41Functionalism44Functionalismandpsychophysicalidentitytheories48Theproblemofconsciousness51Qualiaandtheinvertedspectrumargument53Somepossibleresponsestotheinvertedspectrumargument55Theabsentqualiaargumentandtwonotionsofconsciousness59Eliminativematerialismand‘folkpsychology’61Someresponsestoeliminativematerialism64Conclusions66vii Contentsviii4Mentalcontent69Propositions70Thecausalrelevanceofcontent74Theindividuationofcontent79Externalisminthephilosophyofmind82Broadversusnarrowcontent84Content,representationandcausality89Misrepresentationandnormality92Theteleologicalapproachtorepresentation95Objectionstoateleologicalaccountofmentalcontent99Conclusions1005Sensationandappearance102Appearanceandreality103Sense-datumtheoriesandtheargumentfromillusion107Otherargumentsforsense-data110Objectionstosense-datumtheories112Theadverbialtheoryofsensation114Theadverbialtheoryandsense-data116Primaryandsecondaryqualities119Sense-datumtheoriesandtheprimary/secondarydistinction121Anadverbialversionoftheprimary/secondarydistinction125Docolour-propertiesreallyexist?126Conclusions1286Perception130Perceptualexperienceandperceptualcontent131Perceptualcontent,appearanceandqualia135Perceptionandcausation137Objectionstocausaltheoriesofperception143Thedisjunctivetheoryofperception145Thecomputationalandecologicalapproachestoperception149Consciousness,experienceand‘blindsight Introduction to the Neoclassical Perspective Introduction to the Neoclassical Perspective By: OpenStaxCollege Impact of the Great Recession The impact of the Great Recession can be seen in many areas of the economy that impact our daily lives One of the most visible signs can be seen in the housing market where many homes and other buildings are abandoned, including ones that midway through construction (Credit: ... spiraling further into another depression? Policymakers looked to the lessons learned from the Great Depression of the 1930s and to the models developed by John Maynard Keynes to analyze the causes... analyze the causes and find solutions to the country’s economic woes The Keynesian perspective is the subject of this chapter Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective In this chapter, you will... tends to grow over time In The Keynesian Perspective we learned the reasons for this trend The Macroeconomic Perspective pointed out that the economy tends to cycle around the long-run trend In other