Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective

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In this book Jonathan Lowe offers a lucid and wide-ranging introduction to the philosophy of mind. Using aproblem-centred approach designed to stimulate as wellas instruct, he begins with a general examination of themind–body problem and moves on to detailed examina-tion of more specific philosophical issues concerningsensation, perception, thought and language, rational-ity, artificial intelligence, action, personal identity andself-knowledge. His discussion is notably broad in scope,and distinctive in giving equal attention to deep meta-physical questions concerning the mind and to the dis-coveries and theories of modern scientific psychology. Itwill be of interest to any reader with a basic groundingin modern philosophy.E. J. Lowe is Professor of Philosophy at the University ofDurham. His publications include Kinds of Being (1989),Locke on Human Understanding (1995), Subjects of Experience(1996) and The Possibility of Metaphysics (1998). AN INTRODUCTION TO THEPHILOSOPHY OF MIND AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE PHILOSOPHYOF MINDE. J. LOWEUniversity of Durham          The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom  The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.orgFirst published in printed format ISBN 0-521-65285-5 hardbackISBN 0-521-65428-9 paperbackISBN 0-511-04054-7 eBookE. J. Lowe 20042000(netLibrary)© ContentsPrefacepagexi1Introduction1Empiricalpsychologyandphilosophicalanalysis2Metaphysicsandthephilosophyofmind3Abriefguidetotherestofthisbook62Minds,bodiesandpeople8Cartesiandualism9Theconceivabilityargument11Thedivisibilityargument13Non-Cartesiandualism15Arepersonssimplesubstances?18Conceptualobjectionstodualisticinteraction21Empiricalobjectionstodualisticinteraction24Thecausalclosureargument26Objectionstothecausalclosureargument29Otherargumentsforandagainstphysicalism32Conclusions363Mentalstates39Propositionalattitudestates40Behaviourismanditsproblems41Functionalism44Functionalismandpsychophysicalidentitytheories48Theproblemofconsciousness51Qualiaandtheinvertedspectrumargument53Somepossibleresponsestotheinvertedspectrumargument55Theabsentqualiaargumentandtwonotionsofconsciousness59Eliminativematerialismand‘folkpsychology’61Someresponsestoeliminativematerialism64Conclusions66vii Contentsviii4Mentalcontent69Propositions70Thecausalrelevanceofcontent74Theindividuationofcontent79Externalisminthephilosophyofmind82Broadversusnarrowcontent84Content,representationandcausality89Misrepresentationandnormality92Theteleologicalapproachtorepresentation95Objectionstoateleologicalaccountofmentalcontent99Conclusions1005Sensationandappearance102Appearanceandreality103Sense-datumtheoriesandtheargumentfromillusion107Otherargumentsforsense-data110Objectionstosense-datumtheories112Theadverbialtheoryofsensation114Theadverbialtheoryandsense-data116Primaryandsecondaryqualities119Sense-datumtheoriesandtheprimary/secondarydistinction121Anadverbialversionoftheprimary/secondarydistinction125Docolour-propertiesreallyexist?126Conclusions1286Perception130Perceptualexperienceandperceptualcontent131Perceptualcontent,appearanceandqualia135Perceptionandcausation137Objectionstocausaltheoriesofperception143Thedisjunctivetheoryofperception145Thecomputationalandecologicalapproachestoperception149Consciousness,experienceand‘blindsight Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective By: OpenStaxCollege The Great Depression At times, such as when many people are in need of government assistance, it is easy to tell how the economy is doing This photograph shows people lined up during the Great Depression, waiting for relief checks At other times, when some are doing well and others are not, it is more difficult to ascertain how the economy of a country is doing (Credit: modification of work by the U.S Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons) How is the Economy Doing? How Does One Tell? 1/4 Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective The 1990s were boom years for the U.S economy The late 2000s, from 2007 to 2013 were not What causes the economy to expand or contract? Why businesses fail when they are making all the right decisions? Why workers lose their jobs when they are hardworking and productive? Are bad economic times a failure of the market system? Are they a failure of the government? These are all questions of macroeconomics, which we will begin to address in this chapter We will not be able to answer all of these questions here, but we will start with the basics: How is the economy doing? How can we tell? The macro economy includes all buying and selling, all production and consumption; everything that goes on in every market in the economy How can we get a handle on that? The answer begins more than 80 years ago, during the Great Depression President Franklin D Roosevelt and his economic advisers knew things were bad—but how could they express and measure just how bad it was? An economist named Simon Kuznets, who later won the Nobel Prize for his work, came up with a way to track what the entire economy is producing The result—gross domestic product (GDP)—remains our basic measure of macroeconomic activity In this chapter, you will learn how GDP is constructed, how it is used, and why it is so important Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective In this chapter, you will learn about: • • • • • Measuring the Size of the Economy: Gross Domestic Product Adjusting Nominal Values to Real Values Tracking Real GDP over Time Comparing GDP among Countries How Well GDP Measures the Well-Being of Society Macroeconomics focuses on the economy as a whole (or on whole economies as they interact) What causes recessions? What makes unemployment stay high when recessions are supposed to be over? Why some countries grow faster than others? Why some countries have higher standards of living than others? These are all questions that macroeconomics addresses Macroeconomics involves adding up the economic activity of all households and all businesses in all markets to get the overall demand and supply in the economy However, when we that, something curious happens It is not unusual that what results at the macro level is different from the sum of the microeconomic parts Indeed, what seems sensible from a microeconomic point of view can have unexpected or counterproductive results at the macroeconomic level Imagine that you are sitting at an event with a large audience, like a live concert or a basketball game A few people decide that they want a better view, and so they stand up However, when these people stand up, they block the view for other people, and the others need to stand up as well if they wish to see Eventually, nearly everyone 2/4 Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective is standing up, and as a result, no one can see much better than before The rational decision of some individuals at the micro level—to stand up for a better view—ended up being self-defeating at the macro level This is not macroeconomics, but it is an apt analogy Macroeconomics is a rather massive subject How are we going to tackle it? [link] illustrates the structure we will use We will study macroeconomics from three different perspectives: What are the macroeconomic goals? (Macroeconomics as a discipline does not have goals, but we have goals for the macro economy.) What are the frameworks economists can use to analyze the macroeconomy? Finally, what are the policy tools governments can use to manage the macroeconomy? Macroeconomic Goals, Framework, and Policies This chart shows what macroeconomics is about The box on the left indicates a consensus of what are the most important goals for the macro economy, the middle box lists the frameworks economists use to analyze macroeconomic changes (such as inflation or recession), and the box on the right indicates the two tools the federal government uses to influence the macro economy Goals In thinking about the overall health of the macroeconomy, it is useful to consider three primary goals: economic growth, low unemployment, and low inflation • Economic growth ultimately determines the prevailing standard of living in a country Economic growth is measured by the percentage change in real (inflation-adjusted) gross domestic product A growth rate of more than 3% is considered ... Anh được biết đến là xứ sở của sương mù và truyền thống củûa môn thể thao vua với những cái tên nổi tiếng như : Michael Owen, DavidBeckam …. Loài hoa biểu tượng của Anh là hoa Hồng Màu sắc đặc trưng của những dòch vụ công cộng là màu đỏ ( Điện thoại công cộng và xe buýt 2 tầng ) Quốc huy của Scôtlen Hoa Thistle- Hoa biểu tượng Trang phục và nhạc cụ truyền thống của nam giới A Gentle Introduction to the Spring Framework T he Spring Framework is an open source application framework written in Java, which supports Java 1.3 and later. It makes building business applications with Java much easier compared with using the classic Java frameworks and application programming interfaces (APIs), such as Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) and JavaServer Pages (JSP). Since its introduction, the Spring Frame- work has significantly improved the way people design and implement business applications by incorporating best-practice methodologies and simplifying development. As an introduction to the Spring Framework, this chapter will cover the following topics: • The process of developing a typical business application and the role the Spring Framework can play • An overview of the modules that make up the Spring Framework • An introduction to the sample application that you’ll be working with in this book • An example that demonstrates one of the Spring Framework’s core features: managing dependencies • How the Spring Framework integrates with Java Enterprise Edition (Java EE) • How to set up the Spring Framework in your applications Building a Business Application A modern business application typically consists of the following components: • Relational database: Stores the data related to the problem domain. The database is not nec- essarily part of the application, but the data-access classes have been written for the specific schema of the database, so that the application is closely coupled with the database schema. • Graphical user interface (GUI): Lets users interact with the business processes that are imple- mented by the application. Since the days of the web revolution, many business applications are web-based. • Business logic: Controls and monitors the execution of business processes. The business logic must work with the database and is called by the GUI. Unfortunately, as tens of thousands of Java developers worldwide can testify, developing business applications in Java can be very hard and frustrating. This is especially, although not exclu- sively, true at the join points, where the business logic meets the database and the GUI meets the business logic. 1 CHAPTER 1 9187ch01.qxd 8/2/07 10:05 AM Page 1 Java Platform Hurdles Java is one of the most powerful and easy-to-use programming languages for developing business applications, so it might seem strange to suggest that developing business applications in Java is difficult. The main hurdles involve its extensive set of libraries and frameworks, each of which adds a wide range of capabilities to Java. The parts of the Java platform that are crucial for building typical business applications are as follows: • The JDBC API allows Java applications to connect to a wide range of relational databases. • The Servlet and JSP specifications are crucial for web-based business applications. • Desktop applications rely heavily on the Swing or Standard Widget Toolkit (SWT) APIs. Each of these APIs offers useful capabilities for developing business applications, but most of them are very difficult to use. For example, it’s hard to use the JDBC API correctly for very basic queries on a database (see Chapter 5 for an example). JDBC is an intrusive API—it influences the design of an application in such a way that the focus of the design shifts away from its In this book Jonathan Lowe offers a lucid and wide-ranging introduction to the philosophy of mind. Using aproblem-centred approach designed to stimulate as wellas instruct, he begins with a general examination of themind–body problem and moves on to detailed examina-tion of more specific philosophical issues concerningsensation, perception, thought and language, rational-ity, artificial intelligence, action, personal identity andself-knowledge. His discussion is notably broad in scope,and distinctive in giving equal attention to deep meta-physical questions concerning the mind and to the dis-coveries and theories of modern scientific psychology. Itwill be of interest to any reader with a basic groundingin modern philosophy.E. J. Lowe is Professor of Philosophy at the University ofDurham. His publications include Kinds of Being (1989),Locke on Human Understanding (1995), Subjects of Experience(1996) and The Possibility of Metaphysics (1998). AN INTRODUCTION TO THEPHILOSOPHY OF MIND AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE PHILOSOPHYOF MINDE. J. LOWEUniversity of Durham          The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom  The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.orgFirst published in printed format ISBN 0-521-65285-5 hardbackISBN 0-521-65428-9 paperbackISBN 0-511-04054-7 eBookE. J. Lowe 20042000(netLibrary)© ContentsPrefacepagexi1Introduction1Empiricalpsychologyandphilosophicalanalysis2Metaphysicsandthephilosophyofmind3Abriefguidetotherestofthisbook62Minds,bodiesandpeople8Cartesiandualism9Theconceivabilityargument11Thedivisibilityargument13Non-Cartesiandualism15Arepersonssimplesubstances?18Conceptualobjectionstodualisticinteraction21Empiricalobjectionstodualisticinteraction24Thecausalclosureargument26Objectionstothecausalclosureargument29Otherargumentsforandagainstphysicalism32Conclusions363Mentalstates39Propositionalattitudestates40Behaviourismanditsproblems41Functionalism44Functionalismandpsychophysicalidentitytheories48Theproblemofconsciousness51Qualiaandtheinvertedspectrumargument53Somepossibleresponsestotheinvertedspectrumargument55Theabsentqualiaargumentandtwonotionsofconsciousness59Eliminativematerialismand‘folkpsychology’61Someresponsestoeliminativematerialism64Conclusions66vii Contentsviii4Mentalcontent69Propositions70Thecausalrelevanceofcontent74Theindividuationofcontent79Externalisminthephilosophyofmind82Broadversusnarrowcontent84Content,representationandcausality89Misrepresentationandnormality92Theteleologicalapproachtorepresentation95Objectionstoateleologicalaccountofmentalcontent99Conclusions1005Sensationandappearance102Appearanceandreality103Sense-datumtheoriesandtheargumentfromillusion107Otherargumentsforsense-data110Objectionstosense-datumtheories112Theadverbialtheoryofsensation114Theadverbialtheoryandsense-data116Primaryandsecondaryqualities119Sense-datumtheoriesandtheprimary/secondarydistinction121Anadverbialversionoftheprimary/secondarydistinction125Docolour-propertiesreallyexist?126Conclusions1286Perception130Perceptualexperienceandperceptualcontent131Perceptualcontent,appearanceandqualia135Perceptionandcausation137Objectionstocausaltheoriesofperception143Thedisjunctivetheoryofperception145Thecomputationalandecologicalapproachestoperception149Consciousness,experienceand‘blindsight Introduction to the Neoclassical Perspective Introduction to the Neoclassical Perspective By: OpenStaxCollege Impact of the Great Recession The impact of the Great Recession can be seen in many areas of the economy that impact our daily lives One of the most visible signs can be seen in the housing market where many homes and other buildings are abandoned, including ones that midway through construction (Credit: In this book Jonathan Lowe offers a lucid and wide-ranging introduction to the philosophy of mind. Using aproblem-centred approach designed to stimulate as wellas instruct, he begins with a general examination of themind–body problem and moves on to detailed examina-tion of more specific philosophical issues concerningsensation, perception, thought and language, rational-ity, artificial intelligence, action, personal identity andself-knowledge. His discussion is notably broad in scope,and distinctive in giving equal attention to deep meta-physical questions concerning the mind and to the dis-coveries and theories of modern scientific psychology. Itwill be of interest to any reader with a basic groundingin modern philosophy.E. J. Lowe is Professor of Philosophy at the University ofDurham. His publications include Kinds of Being (1989),Locke on Human Understanding (1995), Subjects of Experience(1996) and The Possibility of Metaphysics (1998). AN INTRODUCTION TO THEPHILOSOPHY OF MIND AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE PHILOSOPHYOF MINDE. J. LOWEUniversity of Durham          The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom  The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, AustraliaRuiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, SpainDock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africahttp://www.cambridge.orgFirst published in printed format ISBN 0-521-65285-5 hardbackISBN 0-521-65428-9 paperbackISBN 0-511-04054-7 eBookE. J. Lowe 20042000(netLibrary)© ContentsPrefacepagexi1Introduction1Empiricalpsychologyandphilosophicalanalysis2Metaphysicsandthephilosophyofmind3Abriefguidetotherestofthisbook62Minds,bodiesandpeople8Cartesiandualism9Theconceivabilityargument11Thedivisibilityargument13Non-Cartesiandualism15Arepersonssimplesubstances?18Conceptualobjectionstodualisticinteraction21Empiricalobjectionstodualisticinteraction24Thecausalclosureargument26Objectionstothecausalclosureargument29Otherargumentsforandagainstphysicalism32Conclusions363Mentalstates39Propositionalattitudestates40Behaviourismanditsproblems41Functionalism44Functionalismandpsychophysicalidentitytheories48Theproblemofconsciousness51Qualiaandtheinvertedspectrumargument53Somepossibleresponsestotheinvertedspectrumargument55Theabsentqualiaargumentandtwonotionsofconsciousness59Eliminativematerialismand‘folkpsychology’61Someresponsestoeliminativematerialism64Conclusions66vii Contentsviii4Mentalcontent69Propositions70Thecausalrelevanceofcontent74Theindividuationofcontent79Externalisminthephilosophyofmind82Broadversusnarrowcontent84Content,representationandcausality89Misrepresentationandnormality92Theteleologicalapproachtorepresentation95Objectionstoateleologicalaccountofmentalcontent99Conclusions1005Sensationandappearance102Appearanceandreality103Sense-datumtheoriesandtheargumentfromillusion107Otherargumentsforsense-data110Objectionstosense-datumtheories112Theadverbialtheoryofsensation114Theadverbialtheoryandsense-data116Primaryandsecondaryqualities119Sense-datumtheoriesandtheprimary/secondarydistinction121Anadverbialversionoftheprimary/secondarydistinction125Docolour-propertiesreallyexist?126Conclusions1286Perception130Perceptualexperienceandperceptualcontent131Perceptualcontent,appearanceandqualia135Perceptionandcausation137Objectionstocausaltheoriesofperception143Thedisjunctivetheoryofperception145Thecomputationalandecologicalapproachestoperception149Consciousness,experienceand‘blindsight Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective Introduction to the Keynesian Perspective By: OpenStaxCollege Signs of a Recession Home foreclosures were just one of the many signs and symptoms of the recent Great Recession During .. .Introduction to the Macroeconomic Perspective The 1990s were boom years for the U.S economy The late 2000s, from 2007 to 2013 were not What causes the economy to expand or contract?... decide that they want a better view, and so they stand up However, when these people stand up, they block the view for other people, and the others need to stand up as well if they wish to see Eventually,... recession), and the box on the right indicates the two tools the federal government uses to influence the macro economy Goals In thinking about the overall health of the macroeconomy, it is useful to consider