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1 Unit 7 Types of memory As mentioned previously, one of the most important characteristics of a computer is its capability of storing information in its memory long enough to process it. Not all computers have the same type of memory. In this section, three types of memory will be discussed, core memory, semiconductor memory (or chip), and bubble memory. The memory of the first computers was made of a kind of grid of fine vertical and horizontal wires. At each intersection where the wires crossed, there was a small ferrite ring called a core (hence the name “core memory”) which was capable of being either magnetized or demagnetized. Every intersection had its unique address, consequently, when an electrical current was passed through the wires, the magnetized as well as the unmagnetized cores were identified by their respective addresses. Each core represented a binary digit of either 0 or 1, depending on its state. Early computers had a capacity of around 80.000 bits; whereas now, it is surprising to hear about computers with a memory capacity of millions of bits. This has been made possible by the advent of transistors and by the advances in the manufacture of miniaturized circuitry. As the result, mainframes have been reduced in both size and cost. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s and up to the mid-1970s, core memory dominated the market. In the 1970s, there was a further development which revolutionized the computer field. This was the ability to etch thousands of integrated circuits onto a tiny piece (chip) of silicon, which is a non-metallic element with semiconductor characteristics. Chips have thousands of identical circuits, each one capable of storing one bit. Because of the very small size of the chip, and consequently of the circuits etched on it, electronical signs do not have to travel far; hence, they are transmitted faster. Moreover, the size of the components containing the circuitry can be considerably reduced, a step which has led to the introduction of both minis and micro. As a result, computers have become smaller, faster, and cheaper. There is one problem with semiconductor memory, however: when power is removed, information in the memory is lost- unlike core memory, which is capable of retaining information during a power failure. Another development in the field of computer memories is bubble memory. The concept consists of creating a thin film of metallic alloys over the memory board. When this film is magnetized, it produces magnetic bubbles, the presence, or absence of which represents one bit of information. These bubbles are extremely tiny, about 0.1 micrometer in diameter. Therefore, a magnetic bubble can store information at a greater density than existing memories, which makes it suitable for micros. Bubble memories are not expensive, consume little power, are small in size, and are highly reliable. There is probably a lot more to learn about them, and research in this field continues. I. Main idea 1. Core memory was the first type of computer memory developed 2. There are at least three different kinds of memory used in computers. 3. Bubble memory is the latest development in the computer memory. 2 II. Understanding the passage Are the following statements true or false? 1. The most important function of a computer is to hold information in its memory in order to process it. 2. Minicomputers, microcomputers, and mainframes all have the same kind of memory. 3. Semiconductor memory was developed before core memory and after bubble memory. 4. Core memory uses small metal rings which can be magnetized or unmagnetized. 5. Types of Hormones Types of Hormones Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Maintaining homeostasis within the body requires the coordination of many different systems and organs Communication between neighboring cells, and between cells and tissues in distant parts of the body, occurs through the release of chemicals called hormones Hormones are released into body fluids (usually blood) that carry these chemicals to their target cells At the target cells, which are cells that have a receptor for a signal or ligand from a signal cell, the hormones elicit a response The cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones make up the endocrine system Examples of glands of the endocrine system include the adrenal glands, which produce hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine that regulate responses to stress, and the thyroid gland, which produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolic rates Although there are many different hormones in the human body, they can be divided into three classes based on their chemical structure: lipid-derived, amino acid-derived, and peptide (peptide and proteins) hormones One of the key distinguishing features of lipid-derived hormones is that they can diffuse across plasma membranes whereas the amino acid-derived and peptide hormones cannot Lipid-Derived Hormones (or Lipid-soluble Hormones) Most lipid hormones are derived from cholesterol and thus are structurally similar to it, as illustrated in [link] The primary class of lipid hormones in humans is the steroid hormones Chemically, these hormones are usually ketones or alcohols; their chemical names will end in “-ol” for alcohols or “-one” for ketones Examples of steroid hormones include estradiol, which is an estrogen, or female sex hormone, and testosterone, which is an androgen, or male sex hormone These two hormones are released by the female and male reproductive organs, respectively Other steroid hormones include aldosterone and cortisol, which are released by the adrenal glands along with some other types of androgens Steroid hormones are insoluble in water, and they are transported by transport proteins in blood As a result, they remain in circulation longer than peptide hormones For example, cortisol has a half-life of 60 to 90 minutes, while epinephrine, an amino acid derived-hormone, has a half-life of approximately one minute 1/6 Types of Hormones The structures shown here represent (a) cholesterol, plus the steroid hormones (b) testosterone and (c) estradiol Amino Acid-Derived Hormones The amino acid-derived hormones are relatively small molecules that are derived from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan, shown in [link] If a hormone is amino acid-derived, its chemical name will end in “-ine” Examples of amino acid-derived hormones include epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are synthesized in the medulla of the adrenal glands, and thyroxine, which is produced by the thyroid gland The pineal gland in the brain makes and secretes melatonin which regulates sleep cycles 2/6 Types of Hormones (a) The hormone epinephrine, which triggers the fight-or-flight response, is derived from the amino acid tyrosine (b) The hormone melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms, is derived from the amino acid tryptophan Peptide Hormones The structure of peptide hormones is that of a polypeptide chain (chain of amino acids) The peptide hormones include molecules that are short polypeptide chains, such as antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin produced in the brain and released into the blood in the posterior pituitary gland This class also includes small proteins, like growth hormones produced by the pituitary, and large glycoproteins such as follicle-stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary [link] illustrates these peptide hormones Secreted peptides like insulin are stored within vesicles in the cells that synthesize them They are then released in response to stimuli such as high blood glucose levels in the case of insulin Amino acid-derived and polypeptide hormones are water-soluble and insoluble in lipids These hormones cannot pass through plasma membranes of cells; therefore, their receptors are found on the surface of the target cells 3/6 Types of Hormones The structures of peptide hormones (a) oxytocin, (b) growth hormone, and (c) folliclestimulating hormone are shown These peptide hormones are much larger than those derived from cholesterol or amino acids Career Connection EndocrinologistAn endocrinologist is a medical doctor who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine glands, hormone systems, and glucose and lipid metabolic pathways An endocrine surgeon specializes in the surgical treatment of endocrine diseases and glands Some of the diseases that are managed by endocrinologists: disorders of the pancreas (diabetes mellitus), disorders of the pituitary (gigantism, acromegaly, and pituitary dwarfism), disorders of the thyroid gland (goiter and Graves’ disease), and disorders of the adrenal glands (Cushing’s disease and ... MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Ecology of Fungi Ecology of Fungi Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Fungi play a crucial role in the MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Types of Societies Types of Societies Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Maasai men are hunting with shepherd’s MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Laws of Inheritance Laws of Inheritance Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Mendel generalized the results MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Types of Groups Types of Groups Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Most of us feel comfortable using the ... the surface of the target cells 3/6 Types of Hormones The structures of peptide hormones (a) oxytocin, (b) growth hormone, and (c) folliclestimulating hormone are shown These peptide hormones are... of hormones can diffuse through plasma membranes? lipid-derived hormones amino acid-derived hormones peptide hormones glycoprotein hormones A Free Response Although there are many different hormones. . .Types of Hormones The structures shown here represent (a) cholesterol, plus the steroid hormones (b) testosterone and (c) estradiol Amino Acid-Derived Hormones The amino acid-derived hormones