Tài liệu PDF Types of Groups

MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Types of Groups Types of Groups Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Most of us feel comfortable using the word “group” without giving it much thought In everyday use, it can be a generic term, although it carries important clinical and scientific meanings Moreover, the concept of a group is central to much of how we think about society and human interaction Often, we might mean different things by using that word We might say that a group of kids all saw the dog, and it could mean 250 students in a lecture hall or four siblings playing on a front lawn In everyday conversation, there isn’t a clear distinguishing use So how can we hone the meaning more precisely for sociological purposes? Defining a Group The term group is an amorphous one and can refer to a wide variety of gatherings, from just two people (think about a “group project” in school when you partner with another student), a club, a regular gathering of friends, or people who work together or share a hobby In short, the term refers to any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is somehow aligned with the group Of course, every time people are gathered it is not necessarily a group A rally is usually a one-time event, for instance, and belonging to a political party doesn’t imply interaction with others People who exist in the same place at the same time, but who not interact or share a sense of identity—such as a bunch of people standing in line at Starbucks—are considered an aggregate, or a crowd Another example of a nongroup is people who share similar characteristics but are not tied to one another in any way These people would be considered a category, and an example would be that all children born from approximately 1980–2000 are referred to as “Millennial.” Why are Millennials a category and not a group? Because while some of them may share a sense of identity, they not, as a whole, interact frequently with each other Interestingly, people within an aggregate or category can become a group During disasters, people in a neighborhood (an aggregate) who did not know each other might become friendly and depend on each other at the local shelter After the disaster ends and the people go back to simply living near each other, the feeling of cohesiveness may last since they have all shared an experience They might remain a group, practicing emergency readiness, coordinating supplies for next time, or taking turns caring for neighbors who need extra help Similarly, there may be many groups within a single 1/9 Types of Groups category Consider teachers, for example Within this category, groups may exist like teachers’ unions, teachers who coach, or staff members who are involved with the PTA Types of Groups Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) suggested that groups can broadly be divided into two categories: primary groups and secondary groups (Cooley 1909) According to Cooley, primary groups play the most critical role in our lives The primary group is usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-term emotional ways This group serves emotional needs: expressive functions rather than pragmatic ones The primary group is usually made up of significant others, those individuals who have the most impact on our socialization The best example of a primary group is the family Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal They may also be task-focused and time-limited These groups serve an instrumental function rather than an expressive one, meaning that their role is more goal- or task-oriented than emotional A classroom or office can be an example of a secondary group Neither primary nor secondary groups are bound by strict definitions or set limits In fact, people can move from one group to another A graduate seminar, for example, can start as a secondary group focused on the class at hand, but as the students work together throughout their program, they may find common interests and strong ties that transform them into a primary group Best Friends She’s Never Met Writer Allison Levy worked alone While she liked the freedom and flexibility of working from home, she sometimes missed having a community of coworkers, both for the practical purpose of brainstorming and the more social “water cooler” aspect Levy did what many in the internet age: she found a group of other writers online through a web forum Over time, a group of approximately 20 writers, who all wrote for a similar audience, broke off from the larger forum and started a private invitation-only forum While writers in general represent all genders, ages, and interests, it ended up being a collection of 20- and 30-something women who comprised the new forum; they all wrote fiction for children and young adults At first, the writers’ forum was clearly a secondary group united by the members’ professions and work situations As Levy explained, “On the internet, you can be present or ... Eight principles of finance Principle 1: Buy assets that add valua; Avoid buying asset that don't On the simplest level, making optimal financial decisions has to do with buying assets that add value and advoid those that don't. For example, you need to decide whether to keep using your old, inefficient photocopying machine or buy an expensive new one that works faster, doesn't break down as often, and uses less ink and energy. The finance question about these two alternatives is: Which- keeing the old photocopier or buying a new one- adds more value to your business? To make a determination about hou valuable things (such as stocks, bonds, machines, companies) are, you need to be sure that you are comparing apples with apples and oranges with oranges. This sounds like a simple principle to follow, but it can be surprisingly tricky to implement! Principle 2: Cash is king The value of an asset is determined by the cash flows it produces over its life. The cash flow of an asset is the after-tax cash the asset produces at a given point in time. Given that it is too early to give you the full flavor of the difference between a cash flow and a profit number, we can give a small example. Suppose your pizza parlor sells $500 of pizzas on Tuesday night, and suppose the same day you bought $300 worth of indredients. Looking in the cash register at the end of the day, you expect to find $200, but instead you are surprised to find $300. The explanation: of the $500 of pizzas sold, you collected only $400- the other $100 of pizzas were sold to a campus fraternity that maintains an account with you and settles at the end of each month. Of the $300 ingredients you bought, you paid for only $100- the other $200 will be billed to you for payment in ten days. Cash flows are different from accounting prfits or sales receipts. The pizza parlor's accounting profit for the day is $200, but its cash flow for the day is $300 (=$400 collected from sales minus $100 paid for supplies). The difference between the two is due to the timing difference between inflows and outflows. (Of course, then days from now the pizza parlor will have a negative cash flow of $200 of paying for the ingredients.) In finance, cash flow is all-important. Most corporate financial data comes from accountants, who do a very good job at representing the economic realities of corporate activities. When making financial decisions, we have to translate the accounting data to their cash equivalents. Much of finance involves first translating accounting information into cash flows. Principle 3: The time dimension of financial decisions is important Many financial decisions have to do with comparing cash flows at different points in time. As an example: you pay for that new photocopy machine today (a cash outflow), but you save money in the future (a cash inflow).Finance has to do with correctly dealing with this time dimension of cash flows. Principle 4: Know how to compute the cost of financial alternatives Financial alternatives are often bewildering: is it more expensive to buy or lease a photocopier? When your credit card charges you "daily interest," it is more or less expensive than the bank loan, which charges you "monthly interest?" In making financial decisions, you need to know how to compute the cost of two or more competing alternatives. Principle 5: Minimize the cost of financing Many financial decisions have to do with choosing the right alternative. Should you finance that photocopier with a loan from the dealer or with a loan from the bank? Should you invest in a real estate project or leave your moneyin the stock market? Choosing the right financial alternative is, in many cases, a decision made separately from the investment decision: 1 Unit 7 Types of memory As mentioned previously, one of the most important characteristics of a computer is its capability of storing information in its memory long enough to process it. Not all computers have the same type of memory. In this section, three types of memory will be discussed, core memory, semiconductor memory (or chip), and bubble memory. The memory of the first computers was made of a kind of grid of fine vertical and horizontal wires. At each intersection where the wires crossed, there was a small ferrite ring called a core (hence the name “core memory”) which was capable of being either magnetized or demagnetized. Every intersection had its unique address, consequently, when an electrical current was passed through the wires, the magnetized as well as the unmagnetized cores were identified by their respective addresses. Each core represented a binary digit of either 0 or 1, depending on its state. Early computers had a capacity of around 80.000 bits; whereas now, it is surprising to hear about computers with a memory capacity of millions of bits. This has been made possible by the advent of transistors and by the advances in the manufacture of miniaturized circuitry. As the result, mainframes have been reduced in both size and cost. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s and up to the mid-1970s, core memory dominated the market. In the 1970s, there was a further development which revolutionized the computer field. This was the ability to etch thousands of integrated circuits onto a tiny piece (chip) of silicon, which is a non-metallic element with semiconductor characteristics. Chips have thousands of identical circuits, each one capable of storing one bit. Because of the very small size of the chip, and consequently of the circuits etched on it, electronical signs do not have to travel far; hence, they are transmitted faster. Moreover, the size of the components containing the circuitry can be considerably reduced, a step which has led to the introduction of both minis and micro. As a result, computers have become smaller, faster, and cheaper. There is one problem with semiconductor memory, however: when power is removed, information in the memory is lost- unlike core memory, which is capable of retaining information during a power failure. Another development in the field of computer memories is bubble memory. The concept consists of creating a thin film of metallic alloys over the memory board. When this film is magnetized, it produces magnetic bubbles, the presence, or absence of which represents one bit of information. These bubbles are extremely tiny, about 0.1 micrometer in diameter. Therefore, a magnetic bubble can store information at a greater density than existing memories, which makes it suitable for micros. Bubble memories are not expensive, consume little power, are small in size, and are highly reliable. There is probably a lot more to learn about them, and research in this field continues. I. Main idea 1. Core memory was the first type of computer memory developed 2. There are at least three different kinds of memory used in computers. 3. Bubble memory is the latest development in the computer memory. 2 II. Understanding the passage Are the following statements true or false? 1. The most important function of a computer is to hold information in its memory in order to process it. 2. Minicomputers, microcomputers, and mainframes all have the same kind of memory. 3. Semiconductor memory was developed before core memory and after bubble memory. 4. Core memory uses small metal rings which can be magnetized or unmagnetized. 5. MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Ecology of Fungi Ecology of Fungi Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Fungi play a crucial role in the MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Types of Societies Types of Societies Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Maasai men are hunting with shepherd’s ... competing primary groups out -groups reference groups secondary groups Which of the following is NOT an example of an in-group? The Ku Klux Klan A fraternity 7/9 Types of Groups A synagogue A... reference groups can help you understand the source of the social identities you aspire to or want to distance yourself from College: A World of In -Groups, Out -Groups, and Reference Groups 5/9 Types of. .. examples of in -groups and out -groups; people may belong to, or be an outsider to, any of these 3/9 Types of Groups While these affiliations can be neutral or even positive, such as the case of a