Tài liệu PDF Types of Societies

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MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Types of Societies Types of Societies Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Maasai men are hunting with shepherd’s staves and spears How does technology influence a society’s daily occupations? (Photo courtesy of Abir Anwar/flickr) Maasai villagers, Tehranians, Americans—each is a society But what does this mean? Exactly what is a society? In sociological terms, society refers to a group of people who live in a definable community and share the same culture On a broader scale, society consists of the people and institutions around us, our shared beliefs, and our cultural ideas Typically, more advanced societies also share a political authority Sociologist Gerhard Lenski (1924–) defined societies in terms of their technological sophistication As a society advances, so does its use of technology Societies with rudimentary technology depend on the fluctuations of their environment, while industrialized societies have more control over the impact of their surroundings and thus develop different cultural features This distinction is so important that sociologists generally classify societies along a spectrum of their level of industrialization, from preindustrial to industrial to postindustrial Preindustrial Societies Before the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of machines, societies were small, rural, and dependent largely on local resources Economic production was limited to the amount of labor a human being could provide, and there were few specialized occupations The very first occupation was that of hunter-gatherer 1/7 Types of Societies Hunter-Gatherer Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the various types of preindustrial societies As the basic structure of human society until about 10,000–12,000 years ago, these groups were based around kinship or tribes Hunter-gatherers relied on their surroundings for survival—they hunted wild animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food When resources became scarce, the group moved to a new area to find sustenance, meaning they were nomadic These societies were common until several hundred years ago, but today only a few hundred remain in existence, such as indigenous Australian tribes sometimes referred to as “aborigines,” or the Bambuti, a group of pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic Republic of Congo Hunter-gatherer groups are quickly disappearing as the world’s population explodes Pastoral Changing conditions and adaptations led some societies to rely on the domestication of animals where circumstances permitted Roughly 7,500 years ago, human societies began to recognize their ability to tame and breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own plants Pastoral societies rely on the domestication of animals as a resource for survival Unlike earlier hunter-gatherers who depended entirely on existing resources to stay alive, pastoral groups were able to breed livestock for food, clothing, and transportation, creating a surplus of goods Herding, or pastoral, societies remained nomadic because they were forced to follow their animals to fresh feeding grounds Around the time that pastoral societies emerged, specialized occupations began to develop, and societies commenced trading with local groups The Bedouin Throughout Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula live the Bedouin, modernday nomads While many different tribes of Bedouin exist, they all share similarities Members migrate from one area to another, usually in conjunction with the seasons, settling near oases in the hot summer months They tend to herds of goats, camels, and sheep, and they harvest dates in the fall (Kjeilen) In recent years, there has been increased conflict between the Bedouin society and more modernized societies National borders are harder to cross now than in the past, making the traditional nomadic lifestyle of the Bedouin difficult The clash of traditions among Bedouin and other residents has led to discrimination and abuse Bedouin communities frequently have high poverty and unemployment rates, and their members have little formal education (Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada 2005) 2/7 Types of Societies The future of the Bedouin is uncertain Government restrictions on farming and residence are slowly forcing them to integrate into modern society Although their ancestors have traversed the deserts for thousands of years, the days of the nomadic Bedouin may be at an end This photo shows a Bedouin family from eastern Oman How will their society respond to the constraints modern society places on a nomadic lifestyle? (Photo courtesy of Tanenhaus/ Wikimedia Commons) Horticultural Around the same time that pastoral societies were on the rise, another type of society developed, based on the newly developed capacity for people to grow and cultivate plants Previously, the depletion of a region’s crops or water supply forced pastoral societies to relocate in search of food sources for their livestock Horticultural societies ... Eight principles of finance Principle 1: Buy assets that add valua; Avoid buying asset that don't On the simplest level, making optimal financial decisions has to do with buying assets that add value and advoid those that don't. For example, you need to decide whether to keep using your old, inefficient photocopying machine or buy an expensive new one that works faster, doesn't break down as often, and uses less ink and energy. The finance question about these two alternatives is: Which- keeing the old photocopier or buying a new one- adds more value to your business? To make a determination about hou valuable things (such as stocks, bonds, machines, companies) are, you need to be sure that you are comparing apples with apples and oranges with oranges. This sounds like a simple principle to follow, but it can be surprisingly tricky to implement! Principle 2: Cash is king The value of an asset is determined by the cash flows it produces over its life. The cash flow of an asset is the after-tax cash the asset produces at a given point in time. Given that it is too early to give you the full flavor of the difference between a cash flow and a profit number, we can give a small example. Suppose your pizza parlor sells $500 of pizzas on Tuesday night, and suppose the same day you bought $300 worth of indredients. Looking in the cash register at the end of the day, you expect to find $200, but instead you are surprised to find $300. The explanation: of the $500 of pizzas sold, you collected only $400- the other $100 of pizzas were sold to a campus fraternity that maintains an account with you and settles at the end of each month. Of the $300 ingredients you bought, you paid for only $100- the other $200 will be billed to you for payment in ten days. Cash flows are different from accounting prfits or sales receipts. The pizza parlor's accounting profit for the day is $200, but its cash flow for the day is $300 (=$400 collected from sales minus $100 paid for supplies). The difference between the two is due to the timing difference between inflows and outflows. (Of course, then days from now the pizza parlor will have a negative cash flow of $200 of paying for the ingredients.) In finance, cash flow is all-important. Most corporate financial data comes from accountants, who do a very good job at representing the economic realities of corporate activities. When making financial decisions, we have to translate the accounting data to their cash equivalents. Much of finance involves first translating accounting information into cash flows. Principle 3: The time dimension of financial decisions is important Many financial decisions have to do with comparing cash flows at different points in time. As an example: you pay for that new photocopy machine today (a cash outflow), but you save money in the future (a cash inflow).Finance has to do with correctly dealing with this time dimension of cash flows. Principle 4: Know how to compute the cost of financial alternatives Financial alternatives are often bewildering: is it more expensive to buy or lease a photocopier? When your credit card charges you "daily interest," it is more or less expensive than the bank loan, which charges you "monthly interest?" In making financial decisions, you need to know how to compute the cost of two or more competing alternatives. Principle 5: Minimize the cost of financing Many financial decisions have to do with choosing the right alternative. Should you finance that photocopier with a loan from the dealer or with a loan from the bank? Should you invest in a real estate project or leave your moneyin the stock market? Choosing the right financial alternative is, in many cases, a decision made separately from the investment decision: BIÊN BẢN THOẢ THUẬN GHI NHỚ Giữa Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon , Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh Tiểu bang Oregon , và Liên đoàn Những Người Chăm sóc Trẻ cho các Công nhân Viên chức Thành phố, Quận Hạt và Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ Được lập theo yêu cầu của Luật Thi hành số. 05-10 có tên Đại diện của Những người Chăm sóc Trẻ tại nhà đã được đăng ký và được chứng nhận BIÊN BẢN THOẢ THUẬN GHI NHỚ Đây là Biên bản Thoả thuận Ghi nhớ (Memorandum of Agreement - MOA) giữa Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon (OED), Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh Tiểu bang Oregon (DHS) và Liên đoàn những người Chăm sóc Trẻ cho các Công nhân, viên chức Thành phố, Quận hạt và Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ (AFSCME). Biên bản Thoả thuận Ghi nhớ này được lập theo yêu cầu của Lệnh Thi hành số. 05-10 có tên Đại diện của Những Người chăm sóc trẻ tại nhà có đăng ký và được chứng nhận. Theo hướng dẫn của lệnh thi hành, Các Cơ quan đã gặp gỡ và thảo luận với các thành viên của AFSCME Council 75 (Hội đồng AFSCME 75) đại diện cho những người chăm sóc trẻ tại nhà có đăng ký và được chứng nhận về những vấn đề hai bên cùng quan tâm. Các điều khoản của bản thoả thuận này yêu cầu phải có nguồn bảo trợ hợp pháp hoặc những thay đổi do luật pháp qui định sẽ chỉ có hiệu lực sau khi nguồn bảo trợ được cấp an toàn và những thay đổi do luật pháp qui định đang có hiệu lực. LỜI MỞ ĐẦU Với tư cách là các bên ký kết văn bản này, Liên đoàn những người chăm sóc trẻ cho AFSCME (sau đây được gọi là “Nghiệp đoàn”) và Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon cùng Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh (sau đây được gọi là “Các Cơ quan”) đồng ý hợp tác cùng xây dựng một hệ thống chăm sóc trẻ với phương châm tôn trọng những người chăm sóc, trợ giúp các gia đình đang đi làm và xúc tiến các hoạt động nâng cao an toàn và sự phát triển lành mạnh của trẻ em. Các cơ quan hiểu rằng những người chăm sóc trẻ là những nhà chuyên môn có vai trò quan trọng đối với sự phát triển, khả năng học tập và hạnh phúc của trẻ. Trong mọi giao tiếp với Nghiệp đoàn và những người chăm sóc, Các Cơ quan sẽ: • Đối sử tôn trọng với mọi người và tôn trọng nhân phẩm. • Bắt đầu ngay từ một giả thiết rằng những người chăm sóc trẻ là những người có ý định tốt đẹp và đang cố gắng hết sức mình với những thông tin họ có. • Duy trì một thái độ tích cực khi giao tiếp với những người chăm sóc trẻ. • Luôn luôn lắng nghe và thấu hiểu những nhu cầu của người chăm sóc trẻ. • Sẵn sàng giúp đỡ, trợ giúp và khích lệ. • Sử dụng quyền hạn trong phạm vi mà pháp luật cho phép một cách cẩn thận và thấu đáo. • Coi trọng sự thống nhất trên toàn quốc nhưng cũng phải khéo léo vận dụng các biện pháp để giải quyết từng trường hợp cá thể ở mức độ vừa đủ để không vi phạm đến các qui định. Nghiệp đoàn hiểu rằng chìa khoá để xây dựng thành công một hệ thống giáo dục và chăm sóc Trẻ em là có một cơ sở hạ tầng ổn định, vững mạnh có thể giải quyết được các vấn đề về sự an toàn, chất lượng, khả năng tiếp cận và khả năng chi trả. Nghiệp đoàn nhất trí hỗ trợ và tham gia vào việc phát triển một hệ thống thống nhất toàn quốc bao gồm các yếu tố sau: • Các chương trình đẩy mạnh ý thức nâng cao sự an toàn và chất lượng, gồm: o Tổ chức các khoá huấn luyện và phát triển chuyên môn cho người chăm sóc trẻ Page 1 of Washington State University • College of Agriculture and Home Economics THE ART OF CLOWNING EM4882 2 3 ContentsContents ContentsContents Contents OPPORTUNITIES 5 THE HISTORY OF CLOWNING 6 CLOWN MAKEUP 9 WORKSHEET 16 CLOWN COSTUMES 17 COMMUNICATING AS A CLOWN 21 CLOWN ETIQUETTE 24 PERFORMING A SKIT 25 PANTOMIME 30 PUPPETRY 33 VENTRILOQUISM 35 CLOWN PROPS 37 BALLOON ARTISTRY 38 REFERENCES 42 4 5 “CLOWNING” means happiness and laughter to many people. Clowns add much color and enjoyment to parades, community events, and promotional activities. Clowns interact with the audience as they wave, perform antics, and visit personally with young and old. 4-H clowning provides unique opportunities for individuals to develop physical and performing skills as well as participate in a variety of fun events. It helps develop communications and relationships with others, and strengthens self-confidence. Clowns can be teachers, too, as they give demonstrations and perform skits and routines on specific topics to share with the audience. Clowns support organizations by providing information and publicity for their service projects. Children and families are delighted to have a clown lead them in games and activities at birthday celebrations, reunions, and parties. Clowns also receive personal satisfaction as they bring a bit of cheer to hospital patients, homebound persons, and residents of convalescent homes. Whether or not your clown club decides to be a service club, performing club, promotional club, or a combination, there are plenty of ways to involve everyone. Opportunities 4-H clowns can become involved in many community activities and events. A clown may make people feel welcome to a grand opening or may urge people to patronize a car wash, a food stand, or a special attraction. Local service and community organizations often invite clowns to appear on their programs to entertain the audience. Clowning is an excellent way to promote the 4-H program and can be incorporated into any project area. Clowns take part in parades, fairs, community functions, and 4-H variety shows. School functions, banquets, parties, style reviews, and mall days are other events in which a 4-H clown can become involved. 6 The History of Clowning Some of the earliest clowns were court jesters. During the Middle Ages they performed for royalty, wearing festive costumes trimmed with tinkling bells. They made the king and courtiers laugh at their funny stories and wild antics. Harlequin clowns came after the jesters, appearing on the scene in sixteenth century Italian theater. They always wore tight-legged, full-sleeved costumes, bright with color in diamond-shaped patterns. They also wore black half-masks and white ruffled collars. Then came the Pierrot clowns. They had big pompons, like huge buttons, down the front of their loose-fitting white tunics and on the peaks of their pointed hats. They usually wore ruffled collars, and they were the first clowns to use white makeup. The clown suits worn to Halloween parties today are like the Pierrot costumes. The first great clown of the modern circus was Joseph Grimaldi. He appeared in London, England, in the early 1800s. At that time circuses were very small and had only one ring; thus, clowns were able to talk or sing directly to the fans. One of Grimaldi’s great songs was called “The Oyster Crossed in Love.” He sang it tenderly to an oyster, then ate the oyster. Joseph Grimaldi was so famous that clowns since then have been known as “Joeys.” One of America’s first great clowns was Dan Rice. He worked with performing pigs and stubborn mules. His funniest act was called “Pete Jenkins from Mud Corners.” The act 1 Unit 7 Types of memory As mentioned previously, one of the most important characteristics of a computer is its capability of storing information in its memory long enough to process it. Not all computers have the same type of memory. In this section, three types of memory will be discussed, core memory, semiconductor memory (or chip), and bubble memory. The memory of the first computers was made of a kind of grid of fine vertical and horizontal wires. At each intersection where the wires crossed, there was a small ferrite ring called a core (hence the name “core memory”) which was capable of being either magnetized or demagnetized. Every intersection had its unique address, consequently, when an electrical current was passed through the wires, the magnetized as well as the unmagnetized cores were identified by their respective addresses. Each core represented a binary digit of either 0 or 1, depending on its state. Early computers had a capacity of around 80.000 bits; whereas now, it is surprising to hear about computers with a memory capacity of millions of bits. This has been made possible by the advent of transistors and by the advances in the manufacture of miniaturized circuitry. As the result, mainframes have been reduced in both size and cost. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s and up to the mid-1970s, core memory dominated the market. In the 1970s, there was a further development which revolutionized the computer field. This was the ability to etch thousands of integrated circuits onto a tiny piece (chip) of silicon, which is a non-metallic element with semiconductor characteristics. Chips have thousands of identical circuits, each one capable of storing one bit. Because of the very small size of the chip, and consequently of the circuits etched on it, electronical signs do not have to travel far; hence, they are transmitted faster. Moreover, the size of the components containing the circuitry can be considerably reduced, a step which has led to the introduction of both minis and micro. As a result, computers have become smaller, faster, and cheaper. There is one problem with semiconductor memory, however: when power is removed, information in the memory is lost- unlike core memory, which is capable of retaining information during a power failure. Another development in the field of computer memories is bubble memory. The concept consists of creating a thin film of metallic alloys over the memory board. When this film is magnetized, it produces magnetic bubbles, the presence, or absence of which represents one bit of information. These bubbles are extremely tiny, about 0.1 micrometer in diameter. Therefore, a magnetic bubble can store information at a greater density than existing memories, which makes it suitable for micros. Bubble memories are not expensive, consume little power, are small in size, and are highly reliable. There is probably a lot more to learn about them, and research in this field continues. I. Main idea 1. Core memory was the first type of computer memory developed 2. There are at least three different kinds of memory used in computers. 3. Bubble memory is the latest development in the computer memory. 2 II. Understanding the passage Are the following statements true or false? 1. The most important function of a computer is to hold information in its memory in order to process it. 2. Minicomputers, microcomputers, and mainframes all have the same kind of memory. 3. Semiconductor memory was developed before core memory and after bubble memory. 4. Core memory uses small metal rings which can be magnetized or unmagnetized. 5. .. .Types of Societies Hunter-Gatherer Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the various types of preindustrial societies As the basic structure of. .. the majority of the power (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons) 5/7 Types of Societies Postindustrial Society Information societies, sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are... accessibility of 4/7 Types of Societies education and health care soared Gas lights allowed increased visibility in the dark, and towns and cities developed a nightlife One of the results of increased