Tài liệu PDF Ecology of Fungi

MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Ecology of Fungi Ecology of Fungi Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Fungi play a crucial role in the balance of ecosystems They colonize most habitats on Earth, preferring dark, moist conditions They can thrive in seemingly hostile environments, such as the tundra, thanks to a most successful symbiosis with photosynthetic organisms like algae to produce lichens Fungi are not obvious in the way large animals or tall trees appear Yet, like bacteria, they are the major decomposers of nature With their versatile metabolism, fungi break down organic matter, which would not otherwise be recycled Habitats Although fungi are primarily associated with humid and cool environments that provide a supply of organic matter, they colonize a surprising diversity of habitats, from seawater to human skin and mucous membranes Chytrids are found primarily in aquatic environments Other fungi, such as Coccidioides immitis, which causes pneumonia when its spores are inhaled, thrive in the dry and sandy soil of the southwestern United States Fungi that parasitize coral reefs live in the ocean However, most members of the Kingdom Fungi grow on the forest floor, where the dark and damp environment is rich in decaying debris from plants and animals In these environments, fungi play a major role as decomposers and recyclers, making it possible for members of the other kingdoms to be supplied with nutrients and live Decomposers and Recyclers The food web would be incomplete without organisms that decompose organic matter ([link]) Some elements—such as nitrogen and phosphorus—are required in large quantities by biological systems, and yet are not abundant in the environment The action of fungi releases these elements from decaying matter, making them available to other living organisms Trace elements present in low amounts in many habitats are essential for growth, and would remain tied up in rotting organic matter if fungi and bacteria did not return them to the environment via their metabolic activity 1/9 Ecology of Fungi Fungi are an important part of ecosystem nutrient cycles These bracket fungi growing on the side of a tree are the fruiting structures of a basidiomycete They receive their nutrients through their hyphae, which invade and decay the tree trunk (credit: Cory Zanker) The ability of fungi to degrade many large and insoluble molecules is due to their mode of nutrition As seen earlier, digestion precedes ingestion Fungi produce a variety of exoenzymes to digest nutrients The enzymes are either released into the substrate or remain bound to the outside of the fungal cell wall Large molecules are broken down into small molecules, which are transported into the cell by a system of protein carriers embedded in the cell membrane Because the movement of small molecules and enzymes is dependent on the presence of water, active growth depends on a relatively high percentage of moisture in the environment As saprobes, fungi help maintain a sustainable ecosystem for the animals and plants that share the same habitat In addition to replenishing the environment with nutrients, fungi interact directly with other organisms in beneficial, and sometimes damaging, ways ([link]) Shelf fungi, so called because they grow on trees in a stack, attack and digest the trunk or branches of a tree While some shelf fungi are found only on dead trees, others can parasitize 2/9 Ecology of Fungi living trees and cause eventual death, so they are considered serious tree pathogens (credit: Cory Zanker) Mutualistic Relationships Symbiosis is the ecological interaction between two organisms that live together The definition does not describe the quality of the interaction When both members of the association benefit, the symbiotic relationship is called mutualistic Fungi form mutualistic associations with many types of organisms, including cyanobacteria, algae, plants, and animals Fungus/Plant Mutualism One of the most remarkable associations between fungi and plants is the establishment of mycorrhizae Mycorrhiza, which comes from the Greek words myco meaning fungus and rhizo meaning root, refers to the association between vascular plant roots and their symbiotic fungi Somewhere between 80 and 90 percent of all plant species have mycorrhizal partners In a mycorrhizal association, the fungal mycelia use their extensive network of hyphae and large surface area in contact with the soil to channel water and minerals from the soil into the plant In exchange, the plant supplies the products of photosynthesis to fuel the metabolism of the fungus There are a number of types of mycorrhizae Ectomycorrhizae (“outside” mycorrhiza) depend on fungi enveloping the roots in a sheath (called a mantle) and a Hartig net of hyphae that extends into the roots between cells ([link]) The fungal partner can belong to the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota or Zygomycota In a second type, the Glomeromycete fungi form vesicular–arbuscular interactions with arbuscular mycorrhiza (sometimes called ... Eight principles of finance Principle 1: Buy assets that add valua; Avoid buying asset that don't On the simplest level, making optimal financial decisions has to do with buying assets that add value and advoid those that don't. For example, you need to decide whether to keep using your old, inefficient photocopying machine or buy an expensive new one that works faster, doesn't break down as often, and uses less ink and energy. The finance question about these two alternatives is: Which- keeing the old photocopier or buying a new one- adds more value to your business? To make a determination about hou valuable things (such as stocks, bonds, machines, companies) are, you need to be sure that you are comparing apples with apples and oranges with oranges. This sounds like a simple principle to follow, but it can be surprisingly tricky to implement! Principle 2: Cash is king The value of an asset is determined by the cash flows it produces over its life. The cash flow of an asset is the after-tax cash the asset produces at a given point in time. Given that it is too early to give you the full flavor of the difference between a cash flow and a profit number, we can give a small example. Suppose your pizza parlor sells $500 of pizzas on Tuesday night, and suppose the same day you bought $300 worth of indredients. Looking in the cash register at the end of the day, you expect to find $200, but instead you are surprised to find $300. The explanation: of the $500 of pizzas sold, you collected only $400- the other $100 of pizzas were sold to a campus fraternity that maintains an account with you and settles at the end of each month. Of the $300 ingredients you bought, you paid for only $100- the other $200 will be billed to you for payment in ten days. Cash flows are different from accounting prfits or sales receipts. The pizza parlor's accounting profit for the day is $200, but its cash flow for the day is $300 (=$400 collected from sales minus $100 paid for supplies). The difference between the two is due to the timing difference between inflows and outflows. (Of course, then days from now the pizza parlor will have a negative cash flow of $200 of paying for the ingredients.) In finance, cash flow is all-important. Most corporate financial data comes from accountants, who do a very good job at representing the economic realities of corporate activities. When making financial decisions, we have to translate the accounting data to their cash equivalents. Much of finance involves first translating accounting information into cash flows. Principle 3: The time dimension of financial decisions is important Many financial decisions have to do with comparing cash flows at different points in time. As an example: you pay for that new photocopy machine today (a cash outflow), but you save money in the future (a cash inflow).Finance has to do with correctly dealing with this time dimension of cash flows. Principle 4: Know how to compute the cost of financial alternatives Financial alternatives are often bewildering: is it more expensive to buy or lease a photocopier? When your credit card charges you "daily interest," it is more or less expensive than the bank loan, which charges you "monthly interest?" In making financial decisions, you need to know how to compute the cost of two or more competing alternatives. Principle 5: Minimize the cost of financing Many financial decisions have to do with choosing the right alternative. Should you finance that photocopier with a loan from the dealer or with a loan from the bank? Should you invest in a real estate project or leave your moneyin the stock market? Choosing the right financial alternative is, in many cases, a decision made separately from the investment decision: BIÊN BẢN THOẢ THUẬN GHI NHỚ Giữa Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon , Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh Tiểu bang Oregon , và Liên đoàn Những Người Chăm sóc Trẻ cho các Công nhân Viên chức Thành phố, Quận Hạt và Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ Được lập theo yêu cầu của Luật Thi hành số. 05-10 có tên Đại diện của Những người Chăm sóc Trẻ tại nhà đã được đăng ký và được chứng nhận BIÊN BẢN THOẢ THUẬN GHI NHỚ Đây là Biên bản Thoả thuận Ghi nhớ (Memorandum of Agreement - MOA) giữa Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon (OED), Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh Tiểu bang Oregon (DHS) và Liên đoàn những người Chăm sóc Trẻ cho các Công nhân, viên chức Thành phố, Quận hạt và Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ (AFSCME). Biên bản Thoả thuận Ghi nhớ này được lập theo yêu cầu của Lệnh Thi hành số. 05-10 có tên Đại diện của Những Người chăm sóc trẻ tại nhà có đăng ký và được chứng nhận. Theo hướng dẫn của lệnh thi hành, Các Cơ quan đã gặp gỡ và thảo luận với các thành viên của AFSCME Council 75 (Hội đồng AFSCME 75) đại diện cho những người chăm sóc trẻ tại nhà có đăng ký và được chứng nhận về những vấn đề hai bên cùng quan tâm. Các điều khoản của bản thoả thuận này yêu cầu phải có nguồn bảo trợ hợp pháp hoặc những thay đổi do luật pháp qui định sẽ chỉ có hiệu lực sau khi nguồn bảo trợ được cấp an toàn và những thay đổi do luật pháp qui định đang có hiệu lực. LỜI MỞ ĐẦU Với tư cách là các bên ký kết văn bản này, Liên đoàn những người chăm sóc trẻ cho AFSCME (sau đây được gọi là “Nghiệp đoàn”) và Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon cùng Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh (sau đây được gọi là “Các Cơ quan”) đồng ý hợp tác cùng xây dựng một hệ thống chăm sóc trẻ với phương châm tôn trọng những người chăm sóc, trợ giúp các gia đình đang đi làm và xúc tiến các hoạt động nâng cao an toàn và sự phát triển lành mạnh của trẻ em. Các cơ quan hiểu rằng những người chăm sóc trẻ là những nhà chuyên môn có vai trò quan trọng đối với sự phát triển, khả năng học tập và hạnh phúc của trẻ. Trong mọi giao tiếp với Nghiệp đoàn và những người chăm sóc, Các Cơ quan sẽ: • Đối sử tôn trọng với mọi người và tôn trọng nhân phẩm. • Bắt đầu ngay từ một giả thiết rằng những người chăm sóc trẻ là những người có ý định tốt đẹp và đang cố gắng hết sức mình với những thông tin họ có. • Duy trì một thái độ tích cực khi giao tiếp với những người chăm sóc trẻ. • Luôn luôn lắng nghe và thấu hiểu những nhu cầu của người chăm sóc trẻ. • Sẵn sàng giúp đỡ, trợ giúp và khích lệ. • Sử dụng quyền hạn trong phạm vi mà pháp luật cho phép một cách cẩn thận và thấu đáo. • Coi trọng sự thống nhất trên toàn quốc nhưng cũng phải khéo léo vận dụng các biện pháp để giải quyết từng trường hợp cá thể ở mức độ vừa đủ để không vi phạm đến các qui định. Nghiệp đoàn hiểu rằng chìa khoá để xây dựng thành công một hệ thống giáo dục và chăm sóc Trẻ em là có một cơ sở hạ tầng ổn định, vững mạnh có thể giải quyết được các vấn đề về sự an toàn, chất lượng, khả năng tiếp cận và khả năng chi trả. Nghiệp đoàn nhất trí hỗ trợ và tham gia vào việc phát triển một hệ thống thống nhất toàn quốc bao gồm các yếu tố sau: • Các chương trình đẩy mạnh ý thức nâng cao sự an toàn và chất lượng, gồm: o Tổ chức các khoá huấn luyện và phát triển chuyên môn cho người chăm sóc trẻ Page 1 of Washington State University • College of Agriculture and Home Economics THE ART OF CLOWNING EM4882 2 3 ContentsContents ContentsContents Contents OPPORTUNITIES 5 THE HISTORY OF CLOWNING 6 CLOWN MAKEUP 9 WORKSHEET 16 CLOWN COSTUMES 17 COMMUNICATING AS A CLOWN 21 CLOWN ETIQUETTE 24 PERFORMING A SKIT 25 PANTOMIME 30 PUPPETRY 33 VENTRILOQUISM 35 CLOWN PROPS 37 BALLOON ARTISTRY 38 REFERENCES 42 4 5 “CLOWNING” means happiness and laughter to many people. Clowns add much color and enjoyment to parades, community events, and promotional activities. Clowns interact with the audience as they wave, perform antics, and visit personally with young and old. 4-H clowning provides unique opportunities for individuals to develop physical and performing skills as well as participate in a variety of fun events. It helps develop communications and relationships with others, and strengthens self-confidence. Clowns can be teachers, too, as they give demonstrations and perform skits and routines on specific topics to share with the audience. Clowns support organizations by providing information and publicity for their service projects. Children and families are delighted to have a clown lead them in games and activities at birthday celebrations, reunions, and parties. Clowns also receive personal satisfaction as they bring a bit of cheer to hospital patients, homebound persons, and residents of convalescent homes. Whether or not your clown club decides to be a service club, performing club, promotional club, or a combination, there are plenty of ways to involve everyone. Opportunities 4-H clowns can become involved in many community activities and events. A clown may make people feel welcome to a grand opening or may urge people to patronize a car wash, a food stand, or a special attraction. Local service and community organizations often invite clowns to appear on their programs to entertain the audience. Clowning is an excellent way to promote the 4-H program and can be incorporated into any project area. Clowns take part in parades, fairs, community functions, and 4-H variety shows. School functions, banquets, parties, style reviews, and mall days are other events in which a 4-H clown can become involved. 6 The History of Clowning Some of the earliest clowns were court jesters. During the Middle Ages they performed for royalty, wearing festive costumes trimmed with tinkling bells. They made the king and courtiers laugh at their funny stories and wild antics. Harlequin clowns came after the jesters, appearing on the scene in sixteenth century Italian theater. They always wore tight-legged, full-sleeved costumes, bright with color in diamond-shaped patterns. They also wore black half-masks and white ruffled collars. Then came the Pierrot clowns. They had big pompons, like huge buttons, down the front of their loose-fitting white tunics and on the peaks of their pointed hats. They usually wore ruffled collars, and they were the first clowns to use white makeup. The clown suits worn to Halloween parties today are like the Pierrot costumes. The first great clown of the modern circus was Joseph Grimaldi. He appeared in London, England, in the early 1800s. At that time circuses were very small and had only one ring; thus, clowns were able to talk or sing directly to the fans. One of Grimaldi’s great songs was called “The Oyster Crossed in Love.” He sang it tenderly to an oyster, then ate the oyster. Joseph Grimaldi was so famous that clowns since then have been known as “Joeys.” One of America’s first great clowns was Dan Rice. He worked with performing pigs and stubborn mules. His funniest act was called “Pete Jenkins from Mud Corners.” The act IUBS Unesco IVQB REPRODUCTIVE ECOLOGY OF TROPICAL FOREST PLANTS Research lnsights and Management Implications by K.S. Bawa, P.S. Ashton, R. B. Primack, J. Terborgh, Çalleh Mohd. Nor, F.S.P. Ng and M. Hadley REPRODUCTIVE ECOLOGY OF TROPICAL FOREST PLANTS Research lnsights and Management Implications by K.S. Bawa, P.S. Ashton, R.B. Prirnack,J. Terborgh, Salleh Mohd.Nor, F.S.P. Ng and M. Hadley Based on an lnternatlonal workshop organlzed by UnesceMAB and IUBS, In cooperatlon wlth the Universltl Kebangsaan Malaysla and the Malayslan MAB National Commlttee, and heid In Bang1 (Malaysla) from 8-12 June 1987 SPECIAL ISSUE - 21 BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL THE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF BlOLOGlCAL SCIENCES NEWS MAGAZINE IUBS 1989 Preface The unabated devastation of tropical wildlands has become one of the most pressing issues of Our times. Not only are the rates of deforestation very high, but also approximately 40% of the existing forest areas have been degraded in recent times. It is estimated that tropical rain forests will largely disappear in about 30 years time, except for those that might be conserved as nature reser- ves. Obviously there is a need for greater investment in scientific research in ecology, conservation and management of tropical rain forests worldwide There are three crucial interrelated issues that a manager of indigenous fo- rests must address: depletion of forest resources, regeneration and restoration of forest ecosystems, and conservation of genetic resources. The challenges ge- nerated by the reduction and degradation of forest cover can be adequately met only if serious attempts are made to manage and restore forest ecosystems. Restoration inevitably must involve improved reforestation of degraded lands through plantations of native species, and the extension of forest boundaries by artificial and natural regeneration. Finally, coupled with effective management including restoration, conservation of existing genetic resources is of high prio- rity. The resources to be conserved and the manner in which they ought to be conserved are serious issues requiring strong scientific input. Most research on the reproductive ecology of tropical forest plants from flo- wering to regeneration, however, has had strong theoretical underpinnings. The test of predictions emerging from hypotheses relating to coevolution and the structure, organization and dynamics of communities has been a major impetus for much of the work. Nevertheless, many types of basic research in reproduc- tive ecology have strong practical applications in management and conserva- tion of forest resources (Bawa and Krugman, 1990). In June 1987 a workshop on the reproductive ecology of tropical forest plants was held at Bangi, Malaysia, to review recent research in plant reproduc- tive ecology and to examine the application of such research to the manage- ment and conservation of forest resources. Reproductive ecology was defined to include all stages of reproduction from the initiation of flowering to seedling establishment. The workshop was jointly sponsored by the Man and Biosphere Program of Unesco and the Decade of the Tropics Program of IUBS, in coope- ration with the Malaysian MAB National Committee and the Universiti Ke- bangsaan Malaysia. It was based on 20 invited papers and some 50 offered contributions, in the form of both oral and poster presentations. In this report, we provide a brief summary of the invited papers in the .. .Ecology of Fungi Fungi are an important part of ecosystem nutrient cycles These bracket fungi growing on the side of a tree are the fruiting structures of a basidiomycete They... Evolution Connection 4/9 Ecology of Fungi Coevolution of Land Plants and MycorrhizaeMycorrhizae are the mutually beneficial symbiotic association between roots of vascular plants and fungi A well-accepted... cross-section of a lichen thallus shows the (a) upper cortex of fungal hyphae, which provides protection; the (b) algal zone where photosynthesis occurs, the (c) medulla of fungal 6/9 Ecology of Fungi