Tài liệu PDF Laws of Inheritance

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MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Laws of Inheritance Laws of Inheritance Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Mendel generalized the results of his pea-plant experiments into four postulates, some of which are sometimes called “laws,” that describe the basis of dominant and recessive inheritance in diploid organisms As you have learned, more complex extensions of Mendelism exist that not exhibit the same F2 phenotypic ratios (3:1) Nevertheless, these laws summarize the basics of classical genetics Pairs of Unit Factors, or Genes Mendel proposed first that paired unit factors of heredity were transmitted faithfully from generation to generation by the dissociation and reassociation of paired factors during gametogenesis and fertilization, respectively After he crossed peas with contrasting traits and found that the recessive trait resurfaced in the F2 generation, Mendel deduced that hereditary factors must be inherited as discrete units This finding contradicted the belief at that time that parental traits were blended in the offspring Alleles Can Be Dominant or Recessive Mendel’s law of dominance states that in a heterozygote, one trait will conceal the presence of another trait for the same characteristic Rather than both alleles contributing to a phenotype, the dominant allele will be expressed exclusively The recessive allele will remain “latent” but will be transmitted to offspring by the same manner in which the dominant allele is transmitted The recessive trait will only be expressed by offspring that have two copies of this allele ([link]), and these offspring will breed true when selfcrossed Since Mendel’s experiments with pea plants, other researchers have found that the law of dominance does not always hold true Instead, several different patterns of inheritance have been found to exist 1/14 Laws of Inheritance The child in the photo expresses albinism, a recessive trait Equal Segregation of Alleles Observing that true-breeding pea plants with contrasting traits gave rise to F1 generations that all expressed the dominant trait and F2 generations that expressed the dominant and recessive traits in a 3:1 ratio, Mendel proposed the law of segregation This law states that paired unit factors (genes) must segregate equally into gametes such that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either factor For the F2 generation of a monohybrid cross, the following three possible combinations of genotypes could result: homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or homozygous recessive Because heterozygotes could arise from two different pathways (receiving one dominant and one recessive allele from either parent), and because heterozygotes and homozygous dominant individuals are phenotypically identical, the law supports Mendel’s observed 3:1 phenotypic ratio The equal segregation of alleles is the reason we can apply the Punnett square to accurately predict the offspring of parents with known genotypes The physical basis of Mendel’s law of segregation is the first division of meiosis, in which the homologous chromosomes with their different versions of each gene are segregated into daughter nuclei The role of the meiotic segregation of chromosomes in sexual reproduction was not understood by the scientific community during Mendel’s lifetime Independent Assortment Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that genes not influence each other with regard to the sorting of alleles into gametes, and every possible combination of alleles for every gene is equally likely to occur The independent assortment of genes can be illustrated by the dihybrid cross, a cross between two true-breeding parents that 2/14 Laws of Inheritance express different traits for two characteristics Consider the characteristics of seed color and seed texture for two pea plants, one that has green, wrinkled seeds (yyrr) and another that has yellow, round seeds (YYRR) Because each parent is homozygous, the law of segregation indicates that the gametes for the green/wrinkled plant all are yr, and the gametes for the yellow/round plant are all YR Therefore, the F1 generation of offspring all are YyRr ([link]) Art Connection This dihybrid cross of pea plants involves the genes for seed color and texture In pea plants, purple flowers (P) are dominant to white flowers (p) and yellow peas (Y) are dominant to green peas (y) What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes for a cross between PpYY and ppYy pea plants? How many squares you need to a Punnett square analysis of this cross? For the F2 generation, the law of segregation requires that each gamete receive either an R allele or an r allele along with either a Y allele or a y allele The law of independent assortment states that a gamete into which an r allele sorted would be equally likely to contain either a Y allele or a y allele Thus, there are four equally likely gametes that can be formed when the YyRr heterozygote is self-crossed, as follows: YR, Yr, yR, and yr Arranging these gametes along the top and left of a × Punnett square ... Eight principles of finance Principle 1: Buy assets that add valua; Avoid buying asset that don't On the simplest level, making optimal financial decisions has to do with buying assets that add value and advoid those that don't. For example, you need to decide whether to keep using your old, inefficient photocopying machine or buy an expensive new one that works faster, doesn't break down as often, and uses less ink and energy. The finance question about these two alternatives is: Which- keeing the old photocopier or buying a new one- adds more value to your business? To make a determination about hou valuable things (such as stocks, bonds, machines, companies) are, you need to be sure that you are comparing apples with apples and oranges with oranges. This sounds like a simple principle to follow, but it can be surprisingly tricky to implement! Principle 2: Cash is king The value of an asset is determined by the cash flows it produces over its life. The cash flow of an asset is the after-tax cash the asset produces at a given point in time. Given that it is too early to give you the full flavor of the difference between a cash flow and a profit number, we can give a small example. Suppose your pizza parlor sells $500 of pizzas on Tuesday night, and suppose the same day you bought $300 worth of indredients. Looking in the cash register at the end of the day, you expect to find $200, but instead you are surprised to find $300. The explanation: of the $500 of pizzas sold, you collected only $400- the other $100 of pizzas were sold to a campus fraternity that maintains an account with you and settles at the end of each month. Of the $300 ingredients you bought, you paid for only $100- the other $200 will be billed to you for payment in ten days. Cash flows are different from accounting prfits or sales receipts. The pizza parlor's accounting profit for the day is $200, but its cash flow for the day is $300 (=$400 collected from sales minus $100 paid for supplies). The difference between the two is due to the timing difference between inflows and outflows. (Of course, then days from now the pizza parlor will have a negative cash flow of $200 of paying for the ingredients.) In finance, cash flow is all-important. Most corporate financial data comes from accountants, who do a very good job at representing the economic realities of corporate activities. When making financial decisions, we have to translate the accounting data to their cash equivalents. Much of finance involves first translating accounting information into cash flows. Principle 3: The time dimension of financial decisions is important Many financial decisions have to do with comparing cash flows at different points in time. As an example: you pay for that new photocopy machine today (a cash outflow), but you save money in the future (a cash inflow).Finance has to do with correctly dealing with this time dimension of cash flows. Principle 4: Know how to compute the cost of financial alternatives Financial alternatives are often bewildering: is it more expensive to buy or lease a photocopier? When your credit card charges you "daily interest," it is more or less expensive than the bank loan, which charges you "monthly interest?" In making financial decisions, you need to know how to compute the cost of two or more competing alternatives. Principle 5: Minimize the cost of financing Many financial decisions have to do with choosing the right alternative. Should you finance that photocopier with a loan from the dealer or with a loan from the bank? Should you invest in a real estate project or leave your moneyin the stock market? Choosing the right financial alternative is, in many cases, a decision made separately from the investment decision: BIÊN BẢN THOẢ THUẬN GHI NHỚ Giữa Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon , Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh Tiểu bang Oregon , và Liên đoàn Những Người Chăm sóc Trẻ cho các Công nhân Viên chức Thành phố, Quận Hạt và Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ Được lập theo yêu cầu của Luật Thi hành số. 05-10 có tên Đại diện của Những người Chăm sóc Trẻ tại nhà đã được đăng ký và được chứng nhận BIÊN BẢN THOẢ THUẬN GHI NHỚ Đây là Biên bản Thoả thuận Ghi nhớ (Memorandum of Agreement - MOA) giữa Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon (OED), Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh Tiểu bang Oregon (DHS) và Liên đoàn những người Chăm sóc Trẻ cho các Công nhân, viên chức Thành phố, Quận hạt và Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ (AFSCME). Biên bản Thoả thuận Ghi nhớ này được lập theo yêu cầu của Lệnh Thi hành số. 05-10 có tên Đại diện của Những Người chăm sóc trẻ tại nhà có đăng ký và được chứng nhận. Theo hướng dẫn của lệnh thi hành, Các Cơ quan đã gặp gỡ và thảo luận với các thành viên của AFSCME Council 75 (Hội đồng AFSCME 75) đại diện cho những người chăm sóc trẻ tại nhà có đăng ký và được chứng nhận về những vấn đề hai bên cùng quan tâm. Các điều khoản của bản thoả thuận này yêu cầu phải có nguồn bảo trợ hợp pháp hoặc những thay đổi do luật pháp qui định sẽ chỉ có hiệu lực sau khi nguồn bảo trợ được cấp an toàn và những thay đổi do luật pháp qui định đang có hiệu lực. LỜI MỞ ĐẦU Với tư cách là các bên ký kết văn bản này, Liên đoàn những người chăm sóc trẻ cho AFSCME (sau đây được gọi là “Nghiệp đoàn”) và Bộ Việc làm Tiểu bang Oregon cùng Bộ Dịch vụ Nhân sinh (sau đây được gọi là “Các Cơ quan”) đồng ý hợp tác cùng xây dựng một hệ thống chăm sóc trẻ với phương châm tôn trọng những người chăm sóc, trợ giúp các gia đình đang đi làm và xúc tiến các hoạt động nâng cao an toàn và sự phát triển lành mạnh của trẻ em. Các cơ quan hiểu rằng những người chăm sóc trẻ là những nhà chuyên môn có vai trò quan trọng đối với sự phát triển, khả năng học tập và hạnh phúc của trẻ. Trong mọi giao tiếp với Nghiệp đoàn và những người chăm sóc, Các Cơ quan sẽ: • Đối sử tôn trọng với mọi người và tôn trọng nhân phẩm. • Bắt đầu ngay từ một giả thiết rằng những người chăm sóc trẻ là những người có ý định tốt đẹp và đang cố gắng hết sức mình với những thông tin họ có. • Duy trì một thái độ tích cực khi giao tiếp với những người chăm sóc trẻ. • Luôn luôn lắng nghe và thấu hiểu những nhu cầu của người chăm sóc trẻ. • Sẵn sàng giúp đỡ, trợ giúp và khích lệ. • Sử dụng quyền hạn trong phạm vi mà pháp luật cho phép một cách cẩn thận và thấu đáo. • Coi trọng sự thống nhất trên toàn quốc nhưng cũng phải khéo léo vận dụng các biện pháp để giải quyết từng trường hợp cá thể ở mức độ vừa đủ để không vi phạm đến các qui định. Nghiệp đoàn hiểu rằng chìa khoá để xây dựng thành công một hệ thống giáo dục và chăm sóc Trẻ em là có một cơ sở hạ tầng ổn định, vững mạnh có thể giải quyết được các vấn đề về sự an toàn, chất lượng, khả năng tiếp cận và khả năng chi trả. Nghiệp đoàn nhất trí hỗ trợ và tham gia vào việc phát triển một hệ thống thống nhất toàn quốc bao gồm các yếu tố sau: • Các chương trình đẩy mạnh ý thức nâng cao sự an toàn và chất lượng, gồm: o Tổ chức các khoá huấn luyện và phát triển chuyên môn cho người chăm sóc trẻ Page 1 of MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Ecology of Fungi Ecology of Fungi Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Fungi play a crucial role in the MIT Center for Real Estate Week 12: Real Estate and Regional Economic Growth • Exports, transfers, investments and the determinants of regional growth: demand. • Population growth and migration: supply • 3-Q model of regional response. Factor supply elasticity and the role of real estate. • Wages, productivity and real estate costs – across MSAs. MIT Center for Real Estate Income and Product Accounts in States Summary of Output and Income Accounts for Florida and Pennsylvania, 1991 Florida ($ billions) Pennsylvania ($ billions) Income Accounts* Income (Y) 262 242 Wages (w) 126 127 Other Income (y + G) 136 115 Consumption (C) 260 193 Private 214 161 Government 46 32 Federal Taxes (T) 38 41 Savings (S) -36 8 Output Accounts** Output (Q) 219 211 Wages (w) 126 127 Profits and Rents (π) 93 84 Consumption (C) 260 193 Investment (I) 44 27 Imports (M) 175 153 Exports (X) 92 144 INCOME (Y) - OUTPUT (Q) 43 31 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Accounts: Flow of Funds • Regions do not have to have individually balanced accounts. Surpluses in goods can be balanced by deficits in capital or government flows: the following cross border flows however must sum to zero. Trade surplus: X-M [exports - imports] Gov. surplus (Federal): G-T [spending – taxes] Capital surplus: I – S [investment - savings] Profits surplus: y - π [received - earned] • Notice the in Florida, huge trade deficit is made up with huge negative savings. MIT Center for Real Estate Sources of Regional Demand . • Some variables are determined directly by the size of a state’s economy (Income or Output) : imports (M), Federal Taxes (T), consumption or savings (S) and profits earned in the state (π). • Other variables are determined by forces largely outside of the region and serve to bring money into the state, generating growth and ultimately determining state size (level of income or output): - Exports (X) - Investment (I) - Federal spending (G) - Unearned income: SS, retirement…(y) MIT Center for Real Estate Characterizing Export growth and Investment? ∑ e i n i = ∑ e i N+ ∑ e i (N i -N) + ∑ e i (n i -N i ) i i i i Share | Mix Competitive | Shift (i): industry n,e: regional growth in activity, level of activity N: national growth of activity • Share: a matter of timing • Mix: Historic industrial structure • Competitive: “our” companies versus “theirs” [innovation –vs- production costs: “product cycle] MIT Center for Real Estate Study of impact of each Demand factor on the Boston Area Economy over time (Coulson) Mix effect Share effect Competitive effect Impact on Region 0 1 2 3 4 years since start 8 9 10 11 MIT Center for Real Estate Regional Supply shifts are as important • Migration into a region that results from factors in the origin and not destination. [US history 1820-1920]. • Birth rates in the state – 20 years earlier! (Mass –vs- California Net Reproduction Rates). • Recent immigration from Mexico and Asia. MIT Center for Real Estate P Output Market Simultaneous Equilibrium in a region’s product, labor and structures markets. 1. Product Demand=production costs. 2. Costs = average of wages and rents. 3. Wages equilibrate labor supply with labor demand (proportional to output). 4. Rents do the same in structures market. Q D Q C=α K R + α L W W/P Labor Market L D =α L Q L S R Real Estate Market L K K D =α K Q W K S R MIT Center for Real Estate Changes in Regional output, prices, wages and rents in reaction to shift in product demand Qd to Qd’. 1). Prices (and costs) must rise. Ditto output. 2). Wages and employment rise. 3). Likewise for rents and stock of structures. 4). Reverse for downward demand shifts 5). Supply Elasticity and the Magnitude of price versus quantity changes? P Output Market Q Q D C=α Types of Societies Types of Societies Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Maasai men are hunting with shepherd’s ... equal segregation of alleles is the reason we can apply the Punnett square to accurately predict the offspring of parents with known genotypes The physical basis of Mendel’s law of segregation is... wrinkled/green 3/14 Laws of Inheritance ([link]) These are the offspring ratios we would expect, assuming we performed the crosses with a large enough sample size Because of independent assortment... fraction of homozygous recessive offspring will be 1/4 Therefore, multiplying this fraction for each of the four genes, (1/4) × (1/4) × (1/4) × (1/4), we determine that 1/256 of the offspring