Analysis of the underwater emissions from outboard engines

ANALYSI S OF TH E UND ERW ATER EMI SSI ONS FROM OUTBOARD ENGI NES Charles Kelly, B Eng (Hons) This thesis is submitted for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of Mechanical, Manufacturing and Medical Engineering, Queensland University Technology, Brisbane, Australia April 2004 Erratum Research on the subject of outboard engine emissions has continued at QUT after the examination of this thesis As a result a gross error factor of 655 was discovered Essentially, each concentration with normalised concentration (ug/kWhr) should be increased by the above factor A paper with the corrected results has been submitted to an international journal The error does not effect the relative comparison made between emissions in the thesis nor the statistical analysis However, comparison with other emission results or emission guidelines does require the correction to be applied Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines The development of Environmentally Adapted Lubricants (EALs) and their use has been gaining momentum over the last decade It has been shown that raw EALs degrade in the environment in about one tenth the time of an equivalent mineral based lubricant Estimates and findings such as these serve to highlight the potential benefits of the EAL products, it is also important however to investigate the byproducts of their use to ensure that the benefits are not cancelled by an increase of, for instance, combustion by-products This thesis compares the emissions from a two-stroke outboard engine when using an EAL and an equivalent mineral lubricant, where the primary objective of the study is to characterise and quantify the pollutants that remain within the water column after combustion To accomplish this, tests were conducted both in the laboratory (freshwater) and in the field (seawater) for a range of throttle settings A 1.9kW two-stroke outboard engine was set-up in a test tank and water samples were taken from the tank after the engine had been run for a period at each of the throttle settings The tests were repeated for a 5.9kW four-stroke engine, however, the experiments were only conducted in the laboratory (freshwater) and using only a standard mineral lubricant Statistical analyses of the results were conducted using a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) A simple dilution model was used to estimate the initial outboard engine emission concentrations, which was extended to determine the concentrations at distances of 1, 10 and 100 metres from the source An investigation of the Total Toxicity Equivalence of the PAH pollutant concentrations (TEQPAH) was conducted using Toxicity Equivalent Factors (TEFs) Results for both types of engine and in both fresh and seawater showed that even the initial concentrations at the source, in almost all instances, were well below the ANZECC water quality guidelines trigger levels At a distance of metre from the source all concentrations were well below, and therefore, the Total Toxicity Equivalents of the PAHs were found to be even lower It is concluded that the emissions from a single outboard engine when using either an EAL or a mineral based lubricant are similar However, the use of EALs has further reaching advantages in that spilt raw lubricants will degrade in the environment up to 10 times faster than a mineral lubricant Also EALs are less toxic to aquatic and marine organisms and therefore the benefits of using them has to be viewed from a wider perspective The results in this thesis for a single outboard engine now form the basis for a more detailed environmental assessment of their impacts i Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines ABSTRACT I TABLE OF CONTENTS II LIST OF FIGURES VI LIST OF TABLES IX NOMENCLATURE XI ACRONYMS XIII PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM THE PROJECT XV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XVI SIGNED STATEMENT XVIII CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Project CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Background 2.2 The Two-Stroke Engine 2.2.1 How a Two-Stroke Engine Works 2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Engines 10 2.3 Tribology 11 2.3.1 General Characteristics of Petroleum 12 2.3.2 Types of Petroleum Products 12 2.3.3 Gasolines and Lubricating Oils 13 2.3.4 The General Fate of Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment 14 2.3.5 The Fuel/Oil Mixture as a Pollutant 15 2.3.5.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 15 2.3.5.2 Volatile Organic Compounds 28 2.3.6 2.4 2.4.1 Environmentally Adapted Lubricants 31 Previous Studies Related to Marine Engine Testing 33 European Studies 34 2.4.2 Studies in the USA 36 2.4.3 Australian Studies 39 2.4.4 Limitations within the Previous Studies 39 2.5 2.5.1 2.6 2.6.1 Engine Performance Modelling 42 Two-Stroke Engine Performance Modelling 44 Statistical Analyses 46 Chemometrics 46 ii Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines 2.6.1.1 Principal Components Analysis 47 CHAPTER 50 EQUIPMENT AND METHODOLOGIES 50 3.1 Experimental Equipment and Set-Up – Engines 50 3.2 Fuel Consumption Tests 61 3.2.1 3.3 3.3.1 3.4 3.4.1 3.5 Procedure 61 Preliminary Pollutant Investigation 62 Equipment and Procedure 62 Two – Stroke Engine Laboratory Tests 64 Equipment and Procedure 64 Two – Stroke Engine Field Tests 65 3.5.1 Field Test Site 65 3.5.2 Field Test Equipment and Procedure 66 3.6 Four – Stroke Engine Tests 67 3.6.1 Equipment 67 3.6.2 Procedure 67 3.7 PAH Identification and Quantification 67 3.7.1 Preparation of the Water Samples for Analysis 67 3.7.2 Extraction Procedure 68 3.7.3 Sample Analysis 69 3.7.4 Efficiency of the Extraction Procedure 70 3.7.5 Calculations 70 3.8 VOC Identification and Quantification 73 3.9 Raw Fuel and Oil Analyses 73 3.10 Engine Performance Modelling 73 3.11 Statistical Analysis 97 CHAPTER 98 RESULTS 98 4.1 Fuel Consumption Tests 99 4.1.1 Two-Stroke Engine FC Tests – Laboratory 99 4.1.2 Two-Stroke Engine FC Tests – Field 100 4.1.3 Four-Stroke Engine FC Tests – Laboratory 101 4.2 Preliminary Pollutant Investigation Results 101 4.3 Raw Fuel and Oil Results 102 4.4 Two - Stroke Engine Laboratory Test Results – PAHs 104 4.5 Two - Stroke Engine Laboratory Test Results – VOCs 107 4.6 Two - Stroke Engine Field Test Results – PAHs 108 4.7 Four - Stroke Engine Laboratory Results – PAHs 110 4.8 Four - Stroke Engine Laboratory Results – VOCs 110 4.9 Two-Stroke Engine Performance Modelling 111 4.9 General Discussion 114 iii Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines CHAPTER 117 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS ANALYSIS FOR THE TWO-STROKE ENGINE 117 5.1 Mineral vs EAL Laboratory Tests PAH Results 118 5.2 Mineral vs EAL Field Tests PAH Results 121 5.3 Fresh Water vs Sea Water PAH Results - Mineral Oil 124 5.4 Fresh Water vs Sea Water PAH Results – EAL 126 5.5 General Discussion 128 CHAPTER 130 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ANALYSIS FOR THE TWO-STROKE ENGINE 130 6.1 Mineral vs EAL Laboratory Tests VOC Results 131 6.2 General Discussion 133 CHAPTER 135 COMPARISON OF THE TWO-STROKE AND FOUR-STROKE ENGINE EMISSIONS 135 7.1 PAH Results for the Two and Four Stroke Engines 136 7.2 VOC Results for the Two and Four Stroke Engines 139 7.3 General Discussion 141 CHAPTER 144 POLLUTANT DILUTIONS 144 8.1 Dilution of the Fresh Water Laboratory PAH Results 147 8.2 Dilution of the Fresh Water Laboratory VOC Results 148 8.3 Dilution of the Sea Water PAH Results 149 8.4 Dilution of the Four-Stroke Engine Test Results 151 8.5 Two and Four-Stroke Engine Dilutions Comparisons 152 8.6 General Discussion 155 CHAPTER 157 TOXICITY OF THE POLLUTANTS 157 9.1 General Discussion 160 CHAPTER 10 162 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH 162 10.1 Conclusions 162 10.2 Future Research 164 REFERENCES 167 APPENDIX A – RESULTS OF THE PRELIMINARY POLLUTANT INVESTIGATION 172 APPENDIX B – SAMPLE CALCULATIONS 175 APPENDIX C – POLLUTANT DILUTIONS 179 iv Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines APPENDIX D: TWO-STROKE ENGINE PERFORMANCE MODELLING INPUT DATA 183 APPENDIX E: POWER AND TORQUE DATA FOR THE HONDA OUTBOARD ENGINE187 v Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Figure 1: Diagrammatical Representation of the Naphthalene Molecule 15 Figure 2: Diagrammatical Representation of the Anthracene and Phenanthrene Molecules 16 Figure 3: Diagram of the Heavier PAH Molecules Pyrene and Benzo(a)pyrene 16 Figure 4: An Underwater Image of the Exhaust Gases being emitted from the Hub of an Outboard Engine's Propeller 41 Figure 5: Test Tank Tap 51 Figure 6: Fuel Line Modifications (Rea, 2001) 54 Figure 7: Two-Stroke Outboard Engine Test Rig - Rear View 55 Figure 8: Two-Stroke Outboard Engine Test Rig - Front View 55 Figure 9: Carburettor Throttle Pin Travel (Rea, 2001) 56 Figure 10: Throttle Setting Gauges (Rea, 2001) 57 Figure 11: Warm-Up Stand (Rea, 2001) 58 Figure 12: Set-up of the Four-Stroke Engine Experimental Equipment for the Fuel Consumption and Engine Tests 59 Figure 13: Four-Stroke Engine Throttle Settings on Tiller Arm – Side View 60 Figure 14: Four-Stroke Engine Throttle Settings on Tiller Arm – Top View 60 Figure 15: Four-stroke Engine Warm-up Configuration 61 Figure 16: Set-up of the Two-Stroke Engine on a Small Timber Boat that was used for the In - Field Fuel Consumption Tests 62 Figure 17: Shows the Location of the Test Site 66 Figure 18: On Site Field Experiments in Progress 67 Figure 19: The Dismantled Two-Stroke Engine ready for Component Measurement 74 Figure 20: Engine Configuration Data Box 75 Figure 21: Basic Engine Dimension Data Box 76 Figure 22: Ignition and Combustion Details Data Box 77 Figure 23: Comparison of Output Power at Different Ignition Timing 79 Figure 24: Ambient Condition Data Box 79 Figure 25: Fuel and Scavenge Details 81 Figure 26: Comparison of Different Air-Fuel Ratios 86 vi Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Figure 27: Run Parameters Data Box 86 Figure 28: Inlet Valve Detail Data Box 88 Figure 29: Image of the Reed Petal and Stop Plate 89 Figure 30: Transfer Port Data Box 90 Figure 31: The Axial Attitude Angle 90 Figure 32: The Radial Attitude Angle 91 Figure 33: Exhaust Port Data Box 92 Figure 34: Diagram of a Typical Inlet Duct with Reed Valve 93 Figure 35: Inlet Duct Data Box 94 Figure 36: Transfer Duct Data Box 94 Figure 37: Exhaust Pipe and Box Muffler Data Box 95 Figure 38: Exhaust System of the Outboard Engine 96 Figure 39: the Power Curve Developed by the MOTA Software after the Modelling Exercise was Undertaken 112 Figure 40: Differences Between the Results of the Actual and Modelled Fuel Consumption Rates for the Two-Stroke Engine 113 Figure 41: PCA Graph for the Comparison of the Lab Two-Stroke Engine Tests – Mineral vs EAL121 Figure 42: PCA Graph for the Comparison of the Field Test Results – Mineral vs EAL 123 Figure 43: PCA Graph for the Comparison of the Laboratory and Field Test Results – Mineral Oil 125 Figure 44: PCA Graph for the Comparison of the Laboratory and Field Test Results – EAL 127 Figure 45: PCA Graph for the Comparison of the Laboratory VOC Results 132 Figure 46: PCA Graph for the Comparison of the PAHs from both Engines 137 Figure 47: A Comparison of the Total PAH Emissions from the Two and Four-Stroke Engines 138 Figure 48: A Comparison of the Total VOC Emissions from the Two and Four-Stroke Engines 140 Figure 49: Comparison of the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption for the Two and Four-Stroke Engines 141 Figure 50: A Schematic of the Two-Stroke Engine Cycle (Rea 2001) 141 Figure 51: Shows the Decay Rate for the Pollutant Concentrations with Distance from the Propeller 146 vii Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Figure 52: The Concentrations of the Total PAH Pollutants at 100% Throttle vs Distance from the Source 152 Figure 53: The Concentrations of the Total VOC Pollutants at 100% Throttle vs Distance from the Source 153 Figure 54: Outboard Engine Passing Velocity Measuring Probe 154 Figure 55: Velocity Disturbance Caused by an Outboard Engine in Open Water 154 Figure 56: A Comparison of the TEQPAH between the Two and Four-Stroke Engines 160 viii Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines This table is not available online Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library Appendix A – Preliminary Results 173 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines This table is not available online Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library Appendix A – Preliminary Results 174 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines APPEND I X B – Sa m p l e Ca l cu l a t i o n s The data obtained from the analyses were provided in terms of parts per million (ppm); these had to be corrected based on the sample volume and the extracted volume from the above procedures Example calculations follow for this and the previously mentioned corrections; the recovery efficiency calculation is also shown The calculations shown are from the data recovered for the naphthalene concentration in the mineral oil 100% throttle test – run 1, and are presented finally in terms of μg/L Data Sample Volume: 100mL - Vsample Extracted Volume: 1.5mL – Vextract Known concentration of naphthalene in the standard mix: 100μg/mL – Kconc Detected concentration of naphthalene in the standard mix: 98.36μg/mL – Dconc Detected concentration of naphthalene in oil blank sample: 0.19μg/mL – Bconc Detected concentration of naphthalene in the mineral oil 100% throttle test: 10.70μg/mL – Nconc Initial Corrections The initial detected concentrations in the blank sample and the 100% throttle setting sample were corrected for the difference in the detected concentration of the standard mix as follows Appendix B – Sample Calculations 175 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Blank Sample ⎛ K conc ⎞ ⎛ 100.000μg / mL ⎞ ⎟⎟ * Bconc ⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * 0.190μg / mL = 0.193μg / mL ⎝ 98.360μg / mL ⎠ ⎝ Dconc ⎠ 100% Throttle Setting Sample ⎛ K conc ⎞ ⎛ 100.000μg / mL ⎞ ⎟⎟ * N conc ⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ * 10.700μg / mL = 10.878μg / mL ⎝ 98.360μg / mL ⎠ ⎝ Dconc ⎠ Next, the concentration found in the blank sample was deducted from the concentration found in the 100% throttle-setting sample 10.878μg / mL − 0.193μg / mL = 10.685μg / mL Further Corrections The concentration above is expressed in terms of μg/mL; however, this represents the concentration in the extracted sample and not the actual concentration that occurs in the test tank Given that we know the sample volume and the extracted volume, we can determine the actual concentration in the test tank water as follows If the required concentration is x μg/mL, then there must be x * 1.5μg in 1.5mL, where x is the detected concentration Since this came from a 100mL sample of water, the actual concentration is simply determined as: ( ) C& * V (10.685 * 1.5μg ) = 0.160μg / mL C& tan k = 100 extract ⇒ Vsample 100mL There now needs to be another correction based on the recovery efficiency of the extraction procedure After processing and correcting the spiked samples using the above procedure, the mean concentration of naphthalene found in the spiked samples Appendix B – Sample Calculations 176 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines was 2.20μg/mL The known concentration of the spike was 3.00μg/mL Therefore, the recovery efficiency for naphthalene was determined to be: 2.20μg / mL = 0.733 or 73.3% 3.00μg / mL The next correction was made to account for the recovery efficiency and the subsequent value expressed in terms of μg/L ⎛ ⎞ ⎟ ⇒ 0.160 μg / mL * ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 0.218μg / mL Cactual = C& tan k * ⎜ ⎜η ⎟ ⎝ 0.733 ⎠ ⎝ re cov ery ⎠ 0.218μg 1000mL * = 218μg / L 1mL 1L The above value represents the concentration in the test tank; a figure not of much use because it is an amount confined to a finite volume of water Realistically, this amount of pollutant would be dispersed into some undefined volume of water, and hence more calculations are needed It was decided to express the results as an emission rate that could eventually be related to all outboard engines of this design The first step to doing this was to express the results as an amount of pollutant emitted per litre of fuel/oil mixture consumed; the calculation follows The engine run took 1200 seconds, and the rate of fuel consumption during that time was 0.395mL/s The conversion from concentration to amount of naphthalene emitted per litre of fuel consumed is: 1000mL 1L * *C C& FC = (FC * T ) actual 1L Appendix B – Sample Calculations 177 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines 1L 1000mL * 218μg / L = 459.9 μg/L of fuel consumed * (0.395mL / s *1200s ) 1L The final conversion was to express the result as an emission rate; the calculations follow 1g E& n = C& FC * FC * * Pwr 1000000μg ⎛ 459.9 μg / L *1.422 L / hr * ⎜ ⎝ 1.809kW Appendix B – Sample Calculations μg ⎞ ⎟ = 362.7 kW hr ⎠ 178 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines APPEND I X C – Po l l u t a n t D i l u t i o n s Diluted concentrations of the PAH pollutants metre from the propeller when using the mineral lubricant for the two-stroke engine laboratory tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Naphthalene Acenaphthylene Acenaphthene Flourene Phenanthrene Anthracene Flouranthene Pyrene Chrysene 1, - Benzanthracene Benzo(k)fluoranthrene Benzo(a)pyrene Indeno(1,2,3 - C.D)pyrene & 1.2:5.6 - Dibenzanthracene 1.12 - Benzoperylene 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.06E-06 3.53E-08 5.81E-07 0.00E+00 8.14E-06 0.00E+00 3.00E-08 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.99E-06 5.40E-07 2.47E-07 40% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 7.31E-04 1.57E-05 1.15E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 6.00E-05 3.96E-05 0.00E+00 2.40E-04 7.94E-05 0.00E+00 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.10E-03 0.00E+00 9.75E-06 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 3.96E-05 3.12E-05 0.00E+00 1.10E-03 6.16E-05 0.00E+00 80% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.54E-03 0.00E+00 5.58E-05 0.00E+00 4.38E-04 5.51E-05 7.11E-05 4.31E-05 0.00E+00 1.05E-03 1.45E-04 3.79E-04 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.98E-03 6.13E-07 6.04E-05 0.00E+00 8.30E-04 7.92E-05 3.83E-05 4.76E-06 0.00E+00 4.72E-04 5.43E-05 3.03E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 3.28E-05 1.96E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 4.08E-05 3.79E-05 Diluted concentrations of the PAH pollutants metre from the propeller when using the EAL for the two-stroke engine laboratory tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Naphthalene Acenaphthylene Acenaphthene Flourene Phenanthrene Anthracene Flouranthene Pyrene Chrysene 1, - Benzanthracene Benzo(k)fluoranthrene Benzo(a)pyrene Indeno(1,2,3 - C.D)pyrene & 1.2:5.6 - Dibenzanthracene 1.12 - Benzoperylene 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 9.85E-05 5.47E-05 1.05E-04 1.34E-05 3.19E-03 1.38E-05 1.51E-04 9.81E-05 0.00E+00 2.27E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 40% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 6.24E-04 8.57E-06 5.15E-05 3.36E-05 9.99E-04 6.30E-06 0.00E+00 3.01E-05 2.00E-06 2.22E-04 1.07E-04 0.00E+00 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 5.54E-04 1.34E-05 3.61E-05 3.18E-05 5.60E-04 2.84E-06 3.27E-06 1.61E-05 1.79E-05 1.17E-03 3.26E-05 0.00E+00 80% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 3.10E-05 7.07E-07 1.92E-05 1.15E-05 5.24E-04 5.34E-06 4.69E-06 1.62E-04 1.02E-06 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.26E-03 8.82E-06 6.92E-05 4.93E-05 9.70E-06 3.77E-06 0.00E+00 2.30E-05 1.34E-04 7.14E-05 6.28E-04 1.51E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 Appendix C – Pollutant Dilutions 179 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Diluted concentrations of the VOC pollutants metre from the propeller when using the mineral oil for the two-stroke engine laboratory tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene o, m-xylenes p-xylene C3 benzenes C4 benzenes Naphthalene Alkyl naphthalenes 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 5.74E-03 1.60E-02 1.71E-03 5.25E-03 3.90E-03 9.47E-03 5.83E-03 0.00E+00 40% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.51E-02 5.05E-02 7.07E-03 2.04E-02 1.36E-02 5.37E-02 3.54E-02 4.58E-04 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.16E-02 4.00E-02 6.17E-03 1.76E-02 1.16E-02 4.79E-02 3.33E-02 4.48E-04 80% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.06E-02 3.67E-02 5.31E-03 1.54E-02 1.04E-02 3.94E-02 2.59E-02 6.39E-04 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.49E-02 5.21E-02 7.16E-03 2.10E-02 1.48E-02 5.22E-02 3.15E-02 6.10E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.15E-03 1.37E-03 Diluted concentrations of the VOC pollutants metre from the propeller when using the EAL for the two-stroke engine laboratory tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene o, m-xylenes p-xylene C3 benzenes C4 benzenes Naphthalene Alkyl naphthalenes 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.12E-02 3.06E-02 3.67E-03 8.95E-03 6.99E-03 2.50E-02 9.83E-03 1.44E-04 40% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.72E-02 5.63E-02 7.56E-03 2.19E-02 1.59E-02 6.91E-02 4.54E-02 7.12E-04 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.51E-02 4.88E-02 6.18E-03 1.71E-02 1.24E-02 4.51E-02 2.69E-02 4.29E-04 80% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.33E-02 4.24E-02 4.88E-03 1.37E-02 1.06E-02 3.27E-02 1.82E-02 4.22E-04 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.89E-02 6.42E-02 8.67E-03 2.61E-02 1.75E-02 5.60E-02 3.11E-02 9.00E-04 0.00E+00 9.10E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.21E-03 Appendix C – Pollutant Dilutions 180 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Diluted concentrations of the PAH pollutants metre from the propeller when using the mineral lubricant for the two-stroke engine field tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Naphthalene Acenaphthylene Acenaphthene Flourene Phenanthrene/Anthracene Flouranthene Pyrene Chrysene 1, - Benzanthracene Benzo(k)fluoranthrene Benzo(a)pyrene Indeno(1,2,3 - C.D)pyrene & 1.2:5.6 - Dibenzanthracene 1.12 - Benzoperylene 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.01E-03 1.24E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.47E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 4.17E-03 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 2.55E-03 0.00E+00 3.01E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 2.12E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 6.51E-04 7.74E-04 0.00E+00 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 2.68E-03 3.21E-05 3.05E-05 0.00E+00 1.06E-04 9.61E-05 3.90E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 4.10E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 Diluted concentrations of the PAH pollutants metre from the propeller when using the EAL for the two-stroke engine field tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Naphthalene Acenaphthylene Acenaphthene Flourene Phenanthrene/Anthracene Flouranthene Pyrene Chrysene 1, - Benzanthracene Benzo(k)fluoranthrene Benzo(a)pyrene Indeno(1,2,3 - C.D)pyrene & 1.2:5.6 - Dibenzanthracene 1.12 - Benzoperylene Appendix C – Pollutant Dilutions 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 2.31E-03 7.75E-06 1.41E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 6.39E-04 3.44E-03 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 2.00E-03 7.92E-06 2.94E-05 1.15E-05 1.15E-05 1.40E-05 1.29E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 3.31E-03 0.00E+00 3.37E-05 1.26E-04 1.26E-04 0.00E+00 1.60E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 7.12E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 181 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Diluted concentrations of the PAH pollutants metre from the propeller for the fourstroke engine laboratory tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Naphthalene Acenaphthylene Acenaphthene Flourene Phenanthrene Anthracene Flouranthene Pyrene Chrysene 1, - Benzanthracene Benzo(k)fluoranthrene Benzo(a)pyrene Indeno(1,2,3 - C.D)pyrene & 1.2:5.6 - Dibenzanthracene 1.12 - Benzoperylene 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 7.50E-05 5.53E-05 7.44E-05 1.78E-04 6.67E-05 0.00E+00 2.36E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 40% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 7.00E-05 1.16E-05 9.05E-06 4.45E-05 4.52E-05 4.71E-05 3.20E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 5.38E-05 7.70E-06 6.95E-06 3.27E-05 2.36E-05 2.94E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 80% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 4.86E-05 4.97E-06 4.87E-06 2.07E-05 2.42E-05 3.11E-05 4.46E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.44E-04 0.00E+00 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 5.36E-05 4.42E-06 6.82E-06 2.27E-05 2.87E-05 2.85E-05 1.71E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.98E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.18E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 2.26E-04 Diluted concentrations of the VOC pollutants metre from the propeller for the fourstroke engine laboratory tests Diluted Concentrations at a Distance of 1m from the Propeller Compound Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene o, m-xylenes p-xylene C3 benzenes C4 benzenes Naphthalene Alkyl naphthalenes 20% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 2.50E-04 4.34E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 40% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 1.39E-03 3.18E-03 4.16E-04 1.61E-04 8.24E-05 2.16E-03 1.04E-03 3.40E-04 60% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 7.01E-04 1.40E-03 1.71E-04 6.57E-05 3.52E-05 9.77E-04 4.54E-04 2.17E-04 80% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 7.59E-04 1.53E-03 1.81E-04 7.05E-05 4.21E-05 1.07E-03 6.61E-04 3.32E-04 100% Throttle Setting (ug/L) 8.98E-04 1.29E-03 1.52E-04 5.91E-05 3.32E-05 8.19E-04 4.44E-04 2.21E-04 0.00E+00 1.16E-03 4.26E-04 6.39E-04 2.45E-04 Appendix C – Pollutant Dilutions 182 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines APPEND I X D : TW O- STROKE ENGI NE PERFORMANCE MOD ELLI NG I NPUT D ATA Basic Engine Configuration: Bore: 47mm Stroke: 43mm Connecting Rod: 81mm Gudgeon Pin Offset: 0mm Bore/Stroke Ratio: 1.093 Connecting Rod Length/Stroke Ratio: 1.8837 Reed valve controlled induction Box muffler exhaust system Pipe Step Factor: Lower Limit: 1.6 Upper Limit: 6.6 Value: 5.5 Scavenging Parameters: Maximum Short Circuit Ratio: 0.10 Maximum Displacement Scavenging Fraction: 0.90 Scavenge Ratio for Zero Short Circuit: 1.00 Scavenge Ratio for No Displacement Scavenging: 0.40 Box Name Clearance Volume (cc) Swept Volume (cc) Crankcase Cylinder Box Muffler 100.30 8.5 70.00 74.60 74.60 - Calorific Value of Fuel (btu/lb) 18536.3 Compression Ratio 7.74 6.71 - Air/Fuel Ratio Throttle Area Ratio 11.50 1.000 Combustion Parameters: Combustion Efficiency: 0.85 Burn Period: 60º Ignition Timing: 20º BTDC Appendix D – Two-Stroke Engine Performance Modelling Input Data 183 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Ambient Conditions: Temperature: 20ºC Pressure: 101325 Pascals Piston Port Dimensions: Port Name Number Bridged of Ports (y/n) Transfer Exhaust n - Maximum Angular (deg) 50.47 67.29 Port Arc (mm) 20.70 27.60 Width Chord (mm) 20.04 26.04 Port Name Total Area (sq.cm) Attitude Axial (deg) Transfer Exhaust 2.5991 3.4274 15.0 0.0 Height (mm) 7.01 15.02 Corner Top (mm) 3.51 7.51 Radii Bottom (mm) 3.51 7.51 Angle Radial (deg) 35.0 0.0 Piston Port Timings: Port Name TRANSFER EXHAUST Start Open (deg at TDC) 118.5 99.8 Full Open (deg at TDC) 151.2 180.0 Start Open (mm from TDC) 33.99 27.98 Full Open (mm from TDC) 41.01 43.00 Reed Valve Details: Number of Reed Valve Blocks: Reed Block Dimensions Port Name Number of Ports Width (mm) Length (mm) Corner Radius (mm) Inlet 10.00 25.00 2.00 Appendix D – Two-Stroke Engine Performance Modelling Input Data Stop Plate Radius (mm) 65.00 Block Angle (degrees) 90.00 184 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Reed Petal Details (Uniform Thickness) Port Name Width (mm) Inlet 15.00 Unclamped Thickness Length (mm) (mm) 25.50 Density (kg/m3) Young’s Modulus (gn/m2) 7850.0 207.0 0.200 Natural Frequencies (hz) 255.11 1598.88 4477.13 8772.59 Reed Port Dimensions Port Name Inlet Maximum Port Area (sq.cm) 4.9313 Restricted Max Petal Deflection at Tip (mm) 5.00 Inlet Duct - Note: Section is the inlet duct portion in the reed valve block Section Length (mm) 31.0 19.0 13.0 Diameter in (mm) 10.1 16.0 16.0 Diameter out (mm) 10.1 16.0 13.8 Area in (sq.cm) 0.80 2.01 2.01 Area out (sq.cm) 0.80 2.01 1.50 Transfer Ducts (2 separate ducts) Smooth entry to each transfer duct is NOT assumed Diameters and areas are those of each individual duct in a group Section Length (mm) 50.0 Diameter in (mm) 21.9 Diameter out (mm) 21.9 Area in (sq.cm) 3.77 Area out (sq.cm) 3.77 Exhaust Duct (single air cooled system) Section leads to a box muffler Section Length (mm) Barrel 19 19 Diameter (mm) in out 20 26.9 24.4 26.9 Area (sq.cm) in out 3.14 5.68 4.68 5.68 Tail Pipe Section Diameter (mm) 18.2 Length (mm) 20.0 Appendix D – Two-Stroke Engine Performance Modelling Input Data Area (sq.cm) 2.60 185 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Engine Performance Indicators Speed Power Torque Power Torque (RPM) 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000 4250 4500 (kW) 0.367 0.544 0.711 0.855 0.995 1.104 1.214 1.304 1.385 1.464 1.537 1.613 1.684 1.743 1.798 1.844 1.883 (Nm) 7.008 6.929 6.787 6.53 6.334 6.022 5.798 5.534 5.289 5.083 4.893 4.738 4.595 4.439 4.292 4.142 3.996 (hp) 0.492 0.73 0.953 1.146 1.334 1.48 1.629 1.748 1.857 1.963 2.061 2.162 2.258 2.338 2.411 2.472 2.525 (ft lbf) 5.169 5.11 5.006 4.816 4.672 4.442 4.277 4.081 3.901 3.749 3.609 3.495 3.389 3.274 3.166 3.055 2.947 Appendix D – Two-Stroke Engine Performance Modelling Input Data 186 Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines APPEND I X E: POW ER AND TORQUE D ATA FOR THE H OND A OUTBOARD ENGI NE Power vs RPM Curve 7.00 6.00 Power (kW) 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 RPM Power Curve for the Honda Outboard Engine Torque vs RPM 14.00 12.00 Torque (Nm) 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 RPM Torque Curve for the Honda Outboard Engine Appendix E – Power and Torque Data for the Honda Outboard Engine 187 ... Objectives of the Project To investigate the underwater emissions from outboard engines, which: Requires identification of the pollutants, and Quantification of the pollutants • To compare the above from. .. detailed description of the two-stroke engine cycle Chapter – Literature Review Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines At the start of the cycle, a mixture of fuel and air is... Shows the Decay Rate for the Pollutant Concentrations with Distance from the Propeller 146 vii Analysis of the Underwater Emissions from Outboard Engines Figure 52: The Concentrations