Giáo trình ngữ âm âm vị tiếng anh

LỜI NÓI ĐẦU Giáo trình ngữ âm - âm vị tiếng Anh giới thiệu cho sinh viên chuyên ngữ sư phạm cử nhân tiếng Anh vấn ñề lý thuyết ngữ âm học âm vị học thuộc lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ học nói chung lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ cụ thể - tiếng Anh nói riêng Giáo trình trình bày khái quát kiến thức trình sản sinh lời nói, trình cấu âm lời nói, hoạt ñộng dây thanh, luồng từ lồng ngực, âm vị, biến thể âm vị, ñồng hóa, dị hóa, trọng âm ngữ ñiệu tiếng Anh Trong thời lượng tín chỉ, giáo trình ñược biên soạn cô ñọng, xúc tích dễ tiếp thu Phần tập cho sinh viên tập nhằm làm rõ củng cố phần lý thuyết Giáo trình ñược kết cấu sau: Phần I trình bày khái quát dẫn luận ngôn ngữ học, giới thiệu ngôn ngữ lời nói, ngôn ngữ chữ viết, vị trí ngữ âm - âm vị học lĩnh vực ngôn ngữ học Phần II giới thiệu trình sản sinh lời nói, trình cấu âm, hoạt ñộng dây hoạt ñộng luồng từ lồng ngực ñi khoang miệng khoang mũi Phần III nội dung trọng tâm giáo trình giới thiệu ngữ âm học, nguyên âm, phụ âm tiêu chí phân loại chúng Phần cung cấp kiến thức hoạt ñộng quan cấu âm, vị trí phát âm, phương thức cấu âm, vị trí lưỡi, ñộ nâng lưỡi, hình dáng môi ñộ dài ngắn nguyên âm Phần IV giới thiệu âm vị học, âm vị âm ñoạn tính âm vị siêu ñoạn tính Trong phần âm vị âm ñoạn tính, giáo trình giới thiệu âm vị, biến thể âm vị, biến thể tự do, số quy luật ñồng hóa, tượng dị hóa, âm tiết hóa, âm nối Trong phần siêu ñoạn tính, giáo trình tập trung trình bày mục âm tiết có trọng âm, âm tiết không trọng âm, trọng âm từ, vị trí trọng âm từ, chức trọng âm, phương thức nghiên cứu trọng âm từ góc ñộ người phát ngôn người nghe; Ngữ ñiệu tiếng Anh phần thiếu môn ngữ âm âm vị học Phần giới thiệu giọng ñiệu, ngôn ñiệu ngữ ñiệu, ý nghĩa hình thức biểu thị ngữ ñiệu chức chúng Giáo trình quán xuyến tất tượng ngữ âm âm vị tiếng Anh nhiều lý Những hạn chế nhược ñiểm giáo trình Chúng mong nhận ñược ý kiến ñóng góp ñồng nghiệp ñể giáo trình ñược tốt Introduction It is believed when we are speaking a foreign language there are times when the other person does not understand us, or we not understand the other person This case is called a communication breakdown Sometimes communication breakdown is due to a grammar or vocabulary mistake and sometimes it is due to a pronunciation mistake As we need to be able to analyze and correct our grammar and vocabulary mistakes we need to be able to analyze and correct our pronunciation mistakes In pronunciation, it is not necessary to pronounce every sound perfectly to be understood – only a few parts of each sentence are really important, but these parts are essential The native speaker depends on hearing these parts clearly; therefore we need to know which parts of a sentence must be clear and how to make them clear As the sound systems of English and Vietnamese differ greatly, Vietnamese speakers can have quite severe pronunciation problems Vietnamese is a tone language; that is, pitch changes distinguish word meaning Most words in Vietnamese consist of only one syllable; there are fewer consonants than in English and there are no consonant clusters On the other hand, the Vietnamese vowel system makes a large number of distinctions Vietnamese uses a modified Roman alphabet but many of the letters have quite different sound values from those of English This course cannot be learned in a few days If we tried to cover all of these topics quickly, the result would be little more than a dry terminological list with brief definitions, accompanied by a few diagrams and an abstract discussion of the associated theories It would not be especially useful for us to require you to memorize these terms with learning anything much about the underlying realities Instead of giving a tour of the whole of English phonetics and phonology, this portion has two more limited goals The first goal is to put language sound structure in context Why human languages have a sound structure about which we need to say anything more than that vocal communication is based on noises made with the eating and breathing apparatus? What are the apparent "design requirements" for this system, and how are they fulfilled? The second goal is to give you a concrete sense of what the language sound systems are like In order to this, we will go over, in a certain amount of detail, a few aspects of the phonetics and phonology of English, and also a bit about the contrastive phonetics and phonology of the Vietnamese language, a language spoken in our country, Vietnam Along the way, a certain amount of the terminology and theory of phonetics and phonology will emerge The first part of the course presents briefly introduction to language, to explaine speech and language, sounds and speech, writing, language and grammar, and phonetics and linguistics Unit II deals with the production of speech sounds through the speech chain, the speech mechanism, the vocal cords and the airstream In Unit III, the English sounds are mainly presented Unit IV is concerned with English phonology Segmental phonology and suprasegmental phonology are emerged in this last part, and they cover the main subject matters of the course such as phonemes, allophones, minimal pair, minimal set, free variation, transcription as well as sounds in connected speech Unit IV ends with matters dealing with weak forms, the English stress and intonation TABLE OF CONTENTS LỜI NÓI ĐẦU INTRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE 1.1 LANGUAGE AND SPEECH SOUNDS AND SPEECH 1.3 WRITING 1.4 LANGUAGE 1.5 GRAMMAR 1.6 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPEECH AND LANGUAGE 1.7 PHONETICS AND LINGUISTICS 10 CHAPTER II ENGLISH PHONETICS 14 2.1 THE STUDY OF HOW ORGANS OF SPEECH WORK IN PRODUCING SPEECH SOUNDS14 2.2 PHONETIC ASPECTS 15 2.3 THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS 18 2.4 THE SPEECH CHAIN 20 2.5 THE SPEECH MECHANISM (ARTICULATORS) 21 2.6 THE VOCAL CORDS 22 2.7 THE AIR STREAM 25 CHAPTER III THE ENGLISH SOUNDS 27 3.1 THE ENGLISH VOWELS 27 3.2 THE ENGLISH CONSONANTS 30 CHAPTER IV ENGLISH PHONOLOGY 37 4.1 SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY 37 4.1.1 Minimal Pairs 38 4.1.2 Minimal set 38 4.1.3 Phonemes – contrastive phonemes 39 4.1.4 Allophones – non-contrastive phonemes 39 4.1.5 Free Variation 40 4.1.6 The Transcription 40 4.1.7 The Description 41 4.2 SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH (GENERAL PHONOLOGICAL RULES) 42 4.2.1 Assimilation 48 4.2.2 Types of assimilation: 48 4.2.3 Basic Rules of Assimilation 49 4.2.4 Degrees of Assimilation 50 4.2.5 The Elision 50 4.2.6 Liaison (sound linking) 52 4.3 SUPRA-SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY 54 4.3.1Weak forms 55 4.3.2 Vowel reduction in English 55 4.3.3 Alternation 58 4.3.4 The English Stress 58 4.3.5 Stress is as an intonation unit 59 4.3.6 Word stress 60 4.3.7 Types of word stress 61 4.3.8 Function of word stress 62 4.3.9 Stress in phrasal verbs 63 4.3.10 Secondary stress 64 4.3.11 Degrees of stress in English 64 4.3.12Tonic Stress 66 4.3.13 Emphatic Stress 67 4.3.14 Contrastive Stress 67 4.3.15 New Information Stress 68 4.4 RHYTHM IN ENGLISH 68 4.5 THE ENGLISH INTONATION 70 4.5.1 Intonation Units 71 4.5.2 Tone 72 4.5.3 Functions of Intonation 77 4.5.4 Attitudinal function 77 4.5.5 Grammatical function 77 4.5.6 Accentual function 78 4.5.7 Interactive function approaches (discourse function) 78 APPENDIXES 81 APPENDIX ASSIMILATION 81 APPENDIX GLOSSARY TO PRONUNCIATION TERMS AND TERMINOLOGY 87 REFERENCES 91 CHAPTER I A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE 1.1 Language and Speech The purpose of speaking is to convey meaningful ideas to the listener In order to this, the listener should be able to interpret the meaning of the spoken sounds One way of doing this is by providing a coding mechanism with set of rules enabling the listener to interpret the meaning of the speech The human being uses linguistics as the tool for coding the information The coding mechanism is not straightforward The new ideas are converted into linguist structure This requires selection of appropriate words, phrases These words are ordered in sequence according to grammatical rules Sounds and speech From the linguistic point of view the smallest speech unit is known as phonemes, which indicates a different in meaning and is normally written between slashes as for example /m/ in hum In fact the sounds produced for individual phonemes vary depending on where it appears in a word, phonemes sets are different for different languages, as for example about 44 phonemes are sufficient to discriminate between all the sounds made in British English Phonemes are characterized into six different groups These are the vowels, diphthongs, semi vowels, stop, fricative and affricative consonants The grouping of these phonemes is based on the way these sounds are produced Each phoneme is a combined version of the first three dominant formant frequency which is originated due to the vibration of the vocal cord However the formant frequency largely varies depending on the speaker One of the chief characteristics of the human being is his ability to communicate to his fellows complicated messages concerning every aspect of his activity A man possessing the normal human faculties achieves this exchange of information mainly by means of two types of sensory stimulation, auditory and visual The child will learn from a very early age to respond to the sounds and tunes which his elders habitually use in talking to him; and a need to communicate, he will himself begin to imitate the recurrent sound patterns with which he has become familiar In other words, he begins to make use of speech; and his constant exposure to spoken form of his own language, together with his need to convey increasingly subtle types of information, leads to a rapid acquisition of the framework of his spoken language Nevertheless, with all the conditions in his favor, a number of years will pass before he has mastered not only the sound system used in his community but also has at his disposal a vocabulary of any extent or is entirely familiar with the syntactical arrangements in force in his language system It may be said that, as we grow older, the acquisition of a new language will normally entail a great deal of conscious, analytic effort, instead of the child’s ready and facile imitation 1.3 Writing Later in life the child will be taught the conventional visual representation of speech, he will learn to use writing Today, in considering those languages which have long possessed a written form, we are apt to forget that the written form is originally an attempt at reflecting the spoken language and that the latter precedes the former for both the individual and the community Indeed, in many languages, so parallel are the two forms felt to be that the written form may be responsible for changes in pronunciation or may tend to impose restraints upon its development In the case of English, this sense of parallelism may be encouraged by the obvious lack of consistent relationship between sound and spelling A written form of English, based on the Latin alphabet, has existed for more than 1,000 years and, though the pronunciation of English has been constantly changing during this time, few basic changes of spelling have been made since the fifteenth century The result is that written English is often inadequate and misleading representation of the spoken language of today Clearly it would be unwise, to say the least, to base our judgments concerning the spoken language on prejudices derived from the orthography Moreover, if we are to examine the essence of the English language, we must make our approach through the spoken rather than the written form Our primary concern will be the production, transmission, and reception of the sounds of English, in other words, the Phonetics of English 1.4 Language It is clear that the analysis of the spoken form of English is by no means simple Each of us uses an infinite number of different speech sounds when speaking English Indeed, it is true to say that it is difficult to produce two sounds which are precisely identical from the point of view of instrumental measurement: two utterances by the same person of the word “cat” may well show quite marked differences when measured instrumentally Yet we are likely to say that the same sound sequence has been repeated In fact we may hear clear and considerable differences of quality in the vowel of “cat” as in the London and Manchester pronunciation of the word; yet, though we recognize differences of vowel quality, we are likely to feel that we are dealing with a variant of the same vowel It seems that we are concerned with two kinds of reality: the concrete, measurable reality of the sounds uttered, and another kind of reality, an abstraction made in our minds, which appears to reduce this infinite number of different sounds to a manageable number of categories In the first concrete, we are dealing with sounds in relation to speech; at the second, abstract, our concern is the behavior of sounds in a particular language A language is a system of conventional signals used for communication by a whole community This pattern of conventions covers a system of significant sound units (the phonemes), the inflexion and arrangement of ‘words’, and the association of meaning with words An utterance, an act of speech, is a single concrete manifestation of the system at work As we have seen, several utterances which are plainly different on the concrete, phonetic level may fulfill the same function on the systematic language level It is important in any analysis of spoken language to keep distinction in mind and we shall later be considering in some detail how this dual approach to utterance is to be made It is not, however, always possible or desirable to keep the two level of analysis entirely separate: will draw upon our knowledge of the linguistically significant units to help us in determining how speech continuum shall be divided up on the concrete, phonetic level; and our classification of linguistic units will be helped by our knowledge of their phonetic features It is obvious that language is the system of human communication by means of a structured arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) to form larger units, e.g Morphemes, words, sentences In common usage it can also refer to nonhuman systems of communication such as the language of bees, the language of dolphin The possession of language distinguishes humans from other animals Today, linguists agree that the knowledge of a language is that of something quite abstract: it is a knowledge of rules and ways of saying and doing things with sounds, words, and sentences without any guiding principles for their use It is knowing what is in the language and what is not; it is knowing the possibilities the language offers and what is impossible This knowledge explains how it is we can understand sentences we have not heard before and reject others as ungrammatical: in the sense of without being possible in the language Communication among people is possible because such a knowledge is shared or even how it is acquired, - is not well understood The knowledge of a language is an internalized system of many things Probably without being aware of it, we know the sounds that are part of our language as well as those are not Knowledge of the sound patterns also includes knowing which sounds may start a word, end a word, and follow each other This, nevertheless, constitutes only one part of our linguistic knowledge Another important part is knowing that certain sounds and sound sequences signify or represent different concepts or “meaning” Note not all strings of words make sense in a language Our linguistic knowledge enable us to form larger and larger sentences by joining words into phrases, phrases into clauses, clauses into sentences, and sentences into discourses There is a difference between having the necessary knowledge to produce sentences in a language and the way we use this knowledge in linguistic performance or behavior In fact, our linguistic knowledge works on two levels: What we know linguistic competence and how we use this knowledge in actual behavior- linguistic performance 1.5 Grammar A language consists of all the sounds, words, and possible sentences When we know a language, we know the sounds, the words, and the rules for their combination The elements and rules constitute the grammar of a language Grammar represents our linguistic competence According to Victoria Fromkin (1984), the grammar includes the sound system, called phonology, the system of meaning, called semantics, the rules of words formation, called morphology; and rules of sentence combination, called syntax It also includes the rules of act of communication, called discourse Every human who speaks a language knows the grammar of that language Chomsky maintains that a native speaker has somewhere in his/ her brain a set of grammar rules which s/he uses to make sentences with This by no means that s/he can tell us what the rules are, or rather how that language works, grammatically Of course there may be some differences between the knowledge that one speaker has and of another, there must be shared knowledge because it enables speakers to talk to and to understand one another There are two types of grammar A description of the grammar is called Descriptive Grammar- it describes how a language is actually spoken and or written; it explains how it is possible for us to speak and understand speech; it does not state what is right or what is wrong; neither does it evaluate what is better nor prescribes how the language ought to be spoken or written, but it describes what is happening in the language Prescriptive Grammar prescribes rules for what is considered the best or the most correct usage It is based on the grammarians’ view of what is best Prescriptive grammar does not help speakers learn their language, but rather, it is an aid in foreign language teaching, or keeps a language in a country in uniform When talking all the aspects of grammar into consideration, linguists have identified some properties that all natural language share: systematic, arbitrary, and conventional; without these characteristics, communication among humans would hardly be possible 1.6 The differences between speech and language When observing a group of people engaged in a conversation you witness several kinds of communication There is first of all the voice, with all its complexity and richness of intonation and other modulation There is also a tapestry of gestures, including hand waving of various sorts, body stance, gaze, and other facial movements These combine to communicate intention The ordinary vehicle of linguistic communication is the voice, and speech is a primary mode of human language This is so hardly surprising for speech has several advantages over other vehicles of human communication It is extremely valuable to have a vehicle with other life-sustaining activities Because speech does not need to be seen, it can its work as effectively in darkness as in light, around corners, and in other visually inaccessible spots Although in its natural state it cannot span time, its physical reach is far greater than arm’s length Unlike singing, speech leaves eyes and the hands free for other work We can talk and listen while looking at things besides our interlocutors In the development of speech in the human species, when hands and eyes were occupied in hunting, fishing, food gathering, and other manual activities of work and play, speech was free to carry out other tasks: to report, point, ask for and give direction, explain, promise, bargain, warn Speech has still other advantages For one thing, the human voice is a complex vehicle with many channels It has variable volume, pitch, stress, and speed: it is capable of wide-ranging modulation Speech is not a single channel mode It has intonation and stress, as well as the more familiar grammatical levels Besides a set of sounds, speech takes advantages of the organization of those sounds – of their sequencing into words and sentences Like wring and singing, speech can take advantage of word choice and word order Intonation, stress and volume are more fully privileges of the spoken mode than of the written or signed modes Speech and writing are the two primary modes of linguistic communication, each with advantages and limitations For example, speech is the only modes of linguistic communication possible when visibility is hindered It is also the only mode in which the communication’s hands and eyes are left free to other things Speech has limitations too Speech has an evanescent character and vanishes upon being uttered unless it was tape-recorded or filmed Writing, on the other hand, has evolved to meet other needs It can be preserved for thousands of years Writing has another advantage over speech in that it can transcend space One can send a written massage anywhere on earth With technology, of course, this advantage of writing over speech is decreasing 1.6.1 Speech as Rule-Governed Language Use There is much more to the ability to speak than grammatical competence Being as the elements of a language, speech is used to put together into well-formed, or grammatical, sentences Speech falls far short of knowing how to accomplish the work that speakers accomplish with language, and falls short of native speaker fluency To be fluent in a language requires not only mastery of its grammatical rules but also competence in the appropriate use of the sentences that are structured by those rules Fluency requires knowledge of how to put sentences together in conversation, for example, and how to rely on nonlinguistic context and previous linguistic context in shaping utterances appropriately, and in interpreting them The point is that fluency presumes two kinds of competence: knowledge of how to form sentences and knowledge of what those sentences are capable of doing and of when and how to use them appropriately (as well as how to interpret them in context) The capacity that enables us to use language appropriately is called communicative competence It enables language users to weave utterances together into conversation, apologies, requests, directions, descriptions, Knowing a language presumes both communicative competence and grammatical competence To be fluent, grammatical competence and communicative competence are jointly needed We can summarize by saying that grammatical competence is the language user’s implicit knowledge of vocabulary, pronunciation, sentence structures and meaning, while communicative competence is the implicit knowledge that underlies the appropriate use of grammatical competence in the various situations of language use The rules that govern the appropriate use of language differ from one speech community to the next, so even a shared grammatical competence may not be adequate to make you a fluent speaker in another community, at least in some situations 1.6.2 Language as Rule-Governed Systems Precisely because the relationship between linguistic symbols and the things they represent is arbitrary, languages must be highly organized systems if they are to function as reliable vehicles of expressions and communication If there were no pattern to the way we voiced our thoughts and feelings, listeners would face an insuperable task in determining what we meant If language were not highly organized and patterned systems, listeners would find it impossible to unravel their arbitrary symbols for the content they encode It is not surprising then that languages have evolved over centuries into such extraordinary complex systems Language is rule governed It follows observable patterns that obey certain inherent rules Such rules are not imposed from the outside, and they not specify how something should be done Instead, they are merely the regularities that we can observe being followed when people use language In other words, the linguistic rules described are based on nothing more than the observed regularities of language behavior and of the underlying systems A language is a set of elements and a system of rules for combining those elements to form patterned sentences that can be used to specific jobs in specific contexts Utterances report something, greet someone, invite a friend to lunch, request the time of day, express admiration, propose marriage, create fictional worlds, and so on in an endless list And languages this using a finite system of elements and rules that a child normally masters in a few short years The mental capacity that enables speakers to form grammatical sentences is called grammatical competence In our course we focus on language as it is represented in spoken and written communication It is important to keep in mind that historically and developmentally, writing is a secondary mode of linguistic communication This can be a challenge to you as students, whose principal focus and principal context for discussing language has been written language Since speech and writing are the two modes of linguistic communication, language is a system of grammatical rules that structured the organization of expression Equally important is the role of language as a tool that we use to accomplish tasks with one another Structure and use go hand in hand and correspond to the dual function of language as an integral component of our mental functions and as a tool in the regulation of social interactions Human language is a system primarily of arbitrary symbols, although certain symbols are representational Communication that involves language can take place in any of two modes speech and writing To describe what language is, G.H Lewes compares as follows “Just as birds have wings, man has language The wings give the birds its peculiar aptitude for aerial locomotion Language enables man’s intelligence and passions to acquire their peculiar characters of intellect and sentiment.” Walt Whitman argues that “Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work , needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground.” H.G Widdowson points out language functions as follows “Language serves as a means of cognition and communication; it enables us to think for ourselves and to cooperate with other people in our community It provides for present needs and future plans, and at the same time carries with it the impression of things past” 1.7 Phonetics and Linguistics This course is primarily concerned with the sound system of English and it is proper that phonetic and phonemic analysis should occupy an important place in the study of any language It should be remembered that phonetic analysis constitutes but one step in a linguistic investigation A complete description of the current state of a 10 speaker to either of these functions, the tone is neutral or oblique, and is realised by a level pitch Ex IF you LIKE we can go via MANchester Naturally in speaking English it is an advantage to be able to produce the various pitch contours accurately and correctly The importance of intonation is not so much that is a part of a good accent, or of the way of speaking, although it is true, of course, that a good pronunciation always includes correct intonation as well as correct articulation and rhythm The importance of intonation is also that is a means of saying different things If you change the intonation of a sentence you change its meaning In the vast majority of cases, even though for any sentence we may make a guess at alike intonation, to be used except for ‘good reason” (there will probably be one tone we would give it if we were just reading it aloud out of context), there are always various possible intonation patterns; and all these will carry different meanings These different meanings are part of English grammar When we talk of grammatical distinctions we are accustomed to thinking of such things as tense, or mood, or different types of subordinate clause, where the difference in meaning is obvious: there is clearly a difference in meaning between present tense and past tense, or between indicative and imperative, or between because and although But the distinctions expressed by the choice of different tones are also distinctions in meaning, and they are of the same general kind; so they too belong in the realm of grammar (and, within grammar, the realm of syntax) Intonation is one of the many kinds of resources that are available in the language for making meaningful distinctions- syntactic distinctions Ex where are you going (normal question) Where are you going, may I ask? Would you like tea or coffee (‘or’ (which you like?) or would you like either? I know John // I know John (but I don’t know his wife.) It is more helpful to think of attitudes and emotions as part of meaning; to consider that all intonation patterns convey meaning In general, tone expresses speech function, while tonic prominence expresses the structure of information That is to say, the choice of tone relates to mood (kinds of statement, question, etc., modality 9assessment of the possibility, probability, validity, relevance etc of what is being said) and key (speaker’s attitude, of politeness, assertiveness, indifference, etc); in other words all the factors which go to make up the relation between the speaker and the hearer, in speech situation The choice of tonic prominence – where to put the tonic; also, in fact, where to divide up into tone groups – relates to how the message is divided into units of information, where the main “new information” lies, and how it ties up with what has been said before: anything that contributes to the structure of the discourse Many phonologists believe that it is possible to divide speech into small units in which each unit has at least one main or nuclear prominence This prominence will be marked by some variation in pitch, either predominantly rising or falling The unit thus defined may then have other, non-nuclear, prominences (usually just one), and other, non-prominent syllables The nuclear prominence is the last prominence in the unit, and such units are usually called tone units or tone groups Tone groups often have a slight pause after them, and are claimed to correspond most frequently in natural data with grammatical clauses (Halliday 1967) 79 In actual fact, it is not at all easy to isolate tone groups in natural data, especially in rapid, casual speech, and some linguists have abandoned the attempt altogether But the tone group is the central to the school of linguists who see intonation as being concerned with the information structure of utterances For Halliday, tone groups are informational units; the speaker decides how to segment the information to be transmitted and encodes each segment as a separate tone group The nuclear prominence, or tonic, projects what the speaker decides is NEW (in the sense of ‘newsworthy’) in the tone group The rest of the tone group may be said to be GIVEN, but only in the sense ‘of the background or framework in which the newsworthy items operate’ rather than “given” meaning ‘already mentioned or understood’ In brief, it seems clear that studying intonation in relation to discourse makes it possible to explain much more comprehensively the uses that the speakers make of intonation Practically all the separate functions traditionally attributed to intonation (attitudinal, accentual, and grammatical) could be seen as different aspects of discourse function It is too early to say how useful the discourse function will be, but even if it achieves nothing else, it can at least be claimed to have shown the inadequacy of attempting to analyse the function of intonation on the basis isolated sentences or tone-unit, removed from their linguistic and situational context Questions for discussion • What makes unstressed syllables differ from stressed syllables? • State the differences between stress and intonation of English • State the differences between stress and rhythm in English • When can picth change to become intonation of English? • State possible fuctions of intonation of English 80 APPENDIXES Appendix Assimilation Common Mistakes in English Pronunciation / t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p / / d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p / / n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p / / t / changes to / k / before / k / or /g/ / d / changes to / g / before / k / or / g / / n / changes to /ŋ/ before / k / or / g / / s / changes to /M/ before /M/ or / j / / z / changes to /N/ before /M/ or / j / /θ/ changes to / s / before / s / / t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p / basket maker Mixed bag Best man Mixed blessing cat burglar Mixed marriage cigarette paper Mixed metaphor circuit board pocket money coconut butter post mortem court martial pot plant direct method private property Dust bowl put back fast motion put by first base right pair 81 flight plan Secret police foot brake set point Front bench set back Front man set piece fruit machine Sheet metal Great Britain sit back harvest moon soft porn hatchet man split pea hit man split personality hot metal Street piano hot money Sweet basil last post Sweet pea Left Bank Sweet pepper light bulb Sweet potato light music test ban light meter test match light middleweight test paper market price that man midnight blue unit price mint bush wet blanket 82 private bill White bag private member White birch private patient White meat private parts White paper private practice / d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p / bad pain good cook Blood bank good morning Blood bath grand master Blood brother ground plan Blood poisoning head boy Blood pressure hold back Blood pudding lord mayor Broad bean mud bath card punch mud pie closed book Old Bailey command module old boy command post old man custard pie old maid custard powder old moon dead beat Oxford blue food poisoning red bag food processor Second mate gold plate sound barrier gold medal stand by gold mine united party 83 good man word blindness / n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p / action planning iron man American plan On me brown paper one pair brown bear open book chicken breast open market Common Market open prison man pen pal cotton belt pin money cotton picker queen bee Down payment queen mother fan belt question mark fan mail roman mile Foreign minister sun bath Foreign mission sun blind garden party tin plate Green belt town planning Green bean venetian blind hen party virgin birth human being wine box in blue wine bar iron maiden /t/ changes to /k/ before /k/ or /g/ cigarette card short cut Credit card smart card 84 cut glass street credibility Fat girl street cry first class that cake flat cap /d/ changes to /g/ before /k/ or /g/ bad girl Hard cash bird call Hard copy closed game Hard core cold call Hard court cold cream Highland cattle field glasses red carpet good cook Sand castle Grand Canyon second class ground control second coming ground cover second cousin had come Slide guitar had gone /n/ changes to /ŋ/ before /k/ or /g/ action group Open court common good roman calendar common ground roman candle garden cress roman catholic golden gate tin can golden goose tone control human capital Town clerk in camera Town crier 85 iron curtain /s/ changes to /M/ before /M/ or /j/ followed by a rounded vowel sound bus shelter nice yacht Dress shop Space shuttle nice shoes /z/ changes to /N/ before /M/ or /j/ followed by a rounded vowel sound cheese shop Where's yours? rose show These sheep /θ/ changes to / s / before / s / bath salts Earth science bath seat fifth set birth certificate fourth season both sexes fourth summer both sides North-south divide (source from http://www.btinternet.com/phono-html) 86 Appendix Glossary to pronunciation terms and terminology A Reference Glossary to Pronunciation Terms and Terminology There is a host of terms and jargon used when speaking about pronunciation Many teacher training courses require a thorough knowledge of these concepts and terms Here is a glossary giving descriptions and explanations of the most common terminology used in this field of study affricate Plosive followed immediately by a fricative allophone variations on a phoneme alveolar tip or blade of tongue against the gum just behind the upper teeth articulation of a Approach- as the articulating organs come together, hold-as they stay plosive together, release-as the separate and allow the blocked air to escape The release of a plosive not immediately followed by voicing for a aspiration vowel, a voiceless escape of breath (example voiceless plosives as in p, t, k) Variances in phonemic pronunciation in connected speech d followed by p, b or m is bilabial assimilation followed k or g is assimilation velar assimilation also t and n are possible assimilants as they are alveolar (known as de-alveolar assimilation) back Tongue in back of mouth for articulation bilabial lips pressed together blade front line of tongue centre Tongue in central part of the mouth for articulation centering Diphthong with vowel sound made by opening diphthongs clear L used before vowels and j close vowel sound with tongue close to palate closing Diphthong with second vowel phoneme made by closure diphthongs groups of consonants, when preceding consonant is voiceless, the clusters whole cluster is usually voiceless, and vice versa coalescence assimilation that eliminates phonemes The differences in allophones for any given phoneme which are complementary predictable (such as k being different based on the placement of Distribution the vowel) contextual elided and unelided forms both can be heard example last month in elision colloquial speech Two phonemes are contrastive by listing minimal pairs contrastiveness distinguished by the contrast being illustrated dark l used before consonants and before w and before a pause dental using the tongue against teeth devoicing after voiceless plosives voiced consonants become devoiced 87 egressive ejective consonant Outward direction of air consonant using egressive pharyngeal air stream when a phoneme is dropped in pronunciation as in Christmas, and listen high fall and low fall marked by asterisk respectively at top or fall bottom fortis plosives, affricates and fricatives strong articulation Choice between allophones is free in certain contexts without any free Variation apparent system fricative narrowing of passage above tongue front Tongue in highest part of the mouth for articulation glottal plosive vocal folds blocking the passage of air, also glottal stop glottis space between the vocal folds historical elision Dropped historically no question of inclusion Christmas, listen homophone word pronounced the same but spelled differently implosive ingressive pharyngeal air-stream ingressive Direction of air movement inwards inter-vocalic consonant between vowels lip rounding occurring at the same time as some other more labialization important articulation labio-dental lower lip with upper teeth lateral Blockage on the side from l phoneme sides of tongue have to rise to block air for the lateral Approach plosive lateral Release with l phoneme sides of tongue must drop to produce l after plosive lenis plosives, affricates and fricatives weak articulation lip-rounding Lips playing a role in producing certain vowels and other sounds manner Way of articulation nasal evident, lowered soft palate to allow air through with plosives an approach consists solely in the rising of the soft nasal approach palate with plosives when the release consists solely in the movement of nasal release the soft palate non-Audible When the release of the first plosive in an overlapping plosive Release sequence is not audible as it is masked by the second closure open vowel sound with tongue farther away from palate oral egressive Reverse click oral ingressive air flowing inwards from the mouth, click ordinary Tongue tip rises to produce plosive approach elision 88 Since the opposite of nasal is ORAl and the opposite of lateral is ordinary MEDIAN, the "ordinary" approach/release, characterizing for approach/release example the d in eddy is properly termed MEDIAL ORAL (This stuff is great!) ;-) overlapping In a sequence of plosives with different places of articulation plosive (grabbed it), release of first plosive articulation does not occur until consonants after the approach phase of the second air set in motion holding the vocal folds together and using air pharyngeal above pharyngeal ejective eggressive pharyngeal implosive ingressive place place of articulation plosive Complete blocking of the air-stream sound in which air-stream is entirely blocked for a short time, plosive p,b,t,d,k,g with plosives described in a chart as first part of >-< scheme > plosive theory being approach - being hold and < being release pulmonic air set in motion in the lungs pulmonic Egressive pronunciation from the lungs, ordinary speech egressive pulmonic in-breathing speech ingressive quality Differing positions of the body of the tongue high rise or low rise marked by asterisk respectively at top or rise bottom rise followed by unstressed The rise is spread out over the whole syllables roll or trill rapid series of closures and openings RP Received Pronunciation or SBS SBS Southern British Standard or Received Pronunciation secondary a secondary occurrence such as labialization, palatalization, articulation velarization accompanying a more important primary articulation valve that controls the entry of air from the throat (pharynx) into soft palate the nose stressed Given accent strong form see weak form syllabic sounds which are rather longer than usual and have syllable making consonants function like vowels, examples: '-l' and '-n' tip tip of tongue 89 unstressed without accent velar Raised back of tongue against soft palate vocal Folds in the larynx, behind the adam's apple voiced vibrating glottis voiced implosive voiced ingressive voiceless glottis wide open, non-vibrating glottis voicing voiced or voiceless Diagram showing when a word is voiced and unvoiced in its voicing diagram phonemes voicing, place, Standard manner of expressing sound (i.e voiced velar fricative) manner Used with articles, prepositions etc to differentiate from strong weak form form with different phoneme (source from http://www.btinternet.com/phono-html) 90 References Avery, P., Ehrilich, S., Teaching American English Pronunciation, OUP, 1998 Ashby, P., Speech sounds, Routledge, 2000 Ball, J M and Rahilly, J., Phonetics, The science of speech, Arnold, 1999 Brazil, D., The communication value of intonation in English, CUP, 1997 Carr, P 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CUP, 1990 60 Yu X Xtepanov, Những sở ngôn ngữ học ñại cương, NXBĐH THCN, 1984 93 ... High- closed ! ( Ț " * Middle- half open # + & Ǣ ) Low- open large $ Spread % Unrounded Rounded • Length of sounds: long are: ! * ( & % and short: " # $ + Ǣ ) Ț Ex: bad, bed = /$ //and /# /: -. .. producing labiodentals; can be rounded or spread to produce lip-shape vowel sounds - The larynx is an independent articulator used in speech - The Jaws are also called articulator The jaws cannot themselves... Cords: - The larynx contains the vocal folds - The vocal cords consist of folds of ligament extending from the thyroid cartilage in the front to the arytenoids cartilages at the back - The space