Gisa rauh syntactic categories Their identification and description in linguistic theories (oxford surveys in syntax and morphology) oxford university press, USA (2010)

Oxford Surveys in Syntax and Morphology provides overviews of the major approaches to subjects and questions at the centre of linguistic research in morphology and syntax. The volumes are accessible, critical, and up to date. Individually and collectively they aim to reveal the field’s intellectual history and theoretical diversity. Each book published in the series will characteristically contain: (1) a brief historical overview of relevant research in the subject; (2) a critical presentation of approaches from relevant (but usually seen as competing) theoretical perspectives to the phenomena and issues at hand, including an objective evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of each approach to the central problems and issues; (3) a balanced account of the current issues, problems, and opportunities relating to the topic, showing the degree of consensus or otherwise in each case. The volumes will thus provide researchers and graduate students concerned with syntax, morphology, and related aspects of semantics with a vital source of information and reference.

Syntactic Categories OX F O R D S U RV EYS I N S Y N TA X A N D M O R PH O LO G Y general editor: Robert D Van Valin, Jr, Heinrich-Heine University and the University at Buffalo, State University of New York advisory editors: Guglielmo Cinque, University of Venice; Daniel Everett, Illinois State University; Adele Goldberg, Princeton University; Kees Hengeveld, University of Amsterdam; Caroline Heycock, University of Edinburgh; David Pesetsky, MIT; Ian Roberts, University of Cambridge; Masayoshi Shibatani, Rice University; Andrew Spencer, University of Essex; Tom Wasow, Stanford University published Grammatical Relations Patrick Farrell Morphosyntactic Change Olga Fischer Information Structure: The Syntax-Discourse Interface Nomi Erteschik-Shir Computational Approaches to Syntax and Morphology Brian Roark and Richard Sproat Constituent Structure (Second edition) Andrew Carnie Processing Syntax and Morphology: A Neurocognitive Perspective Ina Bornkessel-Schlesewsky and Matthias Schlesewsky Syntactic Categories Gisa Rauh in preparation The Acquisition of Syntax and Morphology Shanley Allen and Heike Behrens The Phonology–Morphology Interface Sharon Inkelas Complex Sentences Toshio Ohori Argument Structure: The Syntax–Lexicon Interface Stephen Wechsler Syntactic Categories Their Identification and Description in Linguistic Theories GISA RAUH Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With oYces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York # Gisa Rauh 2010 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Library of Congress Control Number: 2010922496 Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire ISBN 978–0–19–928142–8 (Hbk.) 978–0–19–928143–5 (Pbk.) 10 Contents General Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Introduction 1.1 Categories and categorization in linguistics 1.2 Subject matter, aims, and outline The traditional parts of speech Introduction The grammar of Dionysius Thrax The parts of speech in the Te´khne¯ grammatike¯ The traditional parts of speech in selected grammars of the nineteenth century 2.5 Parts of speech as semantic categories 2.6 Problems with the traditional parts of speech 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 The American Structuralists’ approach: Syntactic categories as distributional classes 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Introduction Language as an object of scientific study Towards a description of the structures of languages Identifying syntactic categories Inconsistencies and problems concerning the identification of syntactic categories Syntactic categories in early Generative Grammar 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Introduction Aspects of the Chomskyan theory of language On the organization of a Generative Grammar: two examples Syntactic categories and universal grammar Reducing the set of categories Universal vs language-specific syntactic categories Categories, features, and projections x xi xiii 1 13 13 14 17 20 24 28 31 31 34 36 41 48 54 54 57 60 68 73 76 82 5.1 Introduction 82 5.2 A modular theory of grammar: the Theory of Principles and Parameters 84 vi contents 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 General theoretical considerations On determining the D-structure of sentences On deriving S-structure, LF, and PF Some important questions 5.3 X-bar theory: on X 5.3.1 The origin of X-bar theory and the identification of major (lexical) categories 5.3.2 Towards a motivation of the categorial features 5.3.3 Including minor categories 5.3.4 Identifying functional categories 5.4 Lexical and functional categories and the licensing of constituents 5.4.1 Licensing complements and specifiers of lexical heads 5.4.2 Licensing specifiers of functional heads 5.4.3 Licensing complements of functional heads vs licensing functional heads in extended projections of lexical heads 5.4.4 A modified u-theory and the licensing of functional heads and adjuncts in projections of lexical heads 5.5 Morphosyntax and syntactic categories 5.5.1 Morphosyntax, word order, and the splitting of IP 5.5.2 Splitting CP and yet more functional categories 5.5.3 Consequences for the identification and description of syntactic categories 5.6 Features, checking, and syntactic categories 5.6.1 Introductory remarks 5.6.2 An outline of the MP 5.6.3 Syntactic categories in the MP 5.7 Feature-based representations of syntactic categories in the PPT and the MP Syntactic categories, functional features, and feature structures 84 87 89 92 93 93 96 98 102 107 108 110 113 115 120 120 124 127 129 129 131 136 141 150 6.1 Introduction 150 6.2 A lexical-functional approach to language 153 6.2.1 Considering language universal and language particular needs 6.2.2 On generating annotated c-structures 153 155 contents 6.3 Syntactic categories in LFG 6.3.1 Functional features and the description of lexical and functional categories 6.3.2 Conditions on c-structures and their impact on the description of syntactic categories 6.4 HPSG as a system of signs 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 Feature structures On deriving feature structures of type word in the lexicon Syntactic principles and rules Instead of transformations 6.5 Syntactic categories in HPSG 6.5.1 Feature structures and the description of syntactic categories 6.5.2 Some examples as illustration 6.6 Feature structures and syntactic categories in LFG and HPSG Notional approaches to syntactic categories and Cognitive Grammar vii 161 162 165 169 171 175 178 183 186 186 190 196 206 7.1 Introduction 206 7.2 Parts of speech, syntactic categories, and notionally-based categorization 209 7.3 Cognitive Grammar as a usage- and meaning-based alternative to formal grammars 214 7.3.1 General assumptions 7.3.2 Grammatical constructions: symbolization, categorization, and integration 7.3.3 Prototypical and non-prototypical component and clause structures 7.4 Towards an identification of syntactic categories in Cognitive Grammar 7.4.1 Basic and non-basic grammatical categories 7.4.2 Grammatical constructions and distribution 7.5 Some problems in the identification of syntactic categories A notional-feature basis for syntactic categories in a Localist Case Grammar 8.1 Introduction 215 220 229 237 237 250 257 264 264 viii contents 8.2 Notional features and the description of word classes 268 8.2.1 Basic word classes or ‘primary categories’ 8.2.2 Intermediate primary categories 8.2.3 Secondary categories 269 271 274 8.3 Subcategorizations and redundancies in the lexicon 279 8.3.1 Categorial selection of complements and by retro-complements 8.3.2 Functor features specifying valencies 8.4 Building syntactic structures 8.4.1 Syntactic projection 8.4.2 Building surface structures 8.5 Syntactic categories in a Localist Case Grammar 280 282 288 289 290 298 8.5.1 General assumptions, inconsistencies, and problems 8.5.2 Extensions and revisions 299 305 8.6 Notional approaches to syntactic categories and the question of category structure 313 Syntactic categories and language typology 322 9.1 Introduction 322 9.2 Investigating linguistic categories in language typology 325 9.2.1 Parts of speech or ‘word classes’ 9.2.2 Syntactic categories or parts of speech? 9.2.3 Lexical and syntactic categories 9.3 A grammatical model for language typology: Dik’s Functional Grammar 9.3.1 General assumptions, aims, and architecture of the grammar 9.3.2 Deriving underlying clause structures 9.3.3 Expression rules 9.3.4 Syntactic categories in FG 9.4 An alternative approach: Role and Reference Grammar 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 Syntactic structures Logical structures and semantic representations The linking system Syntactic vs lexical categories in RRG 325 332 339 345 346 348 351 355 359 359 369 374 378 contents 9.5 The special situation of language typology 10 Syntactic categories and parts of speech: Two types of linguistic categorization 10.1 Syntactic categories in linguistic theories: results and conclusions 10.2 Parts of speech as cognitive lexical categories References Author Index Subject Index ix 383 389 389 396 401 425 428 422 references Van Valin, Jr., R D (1990) ‘Functionalism, Anaphora, and Syntax: Review of Functional Syntax, by S Kuno’ Studies in Language 14: 169–219 —— (1993) ‘A Synopsis of Role and Reference Grammar’, in R D Van Valin, Jr (ed.), Advances in Role and Reference Grammar Amsterdam: John Benjamins 1–164 —— (2000) ‘Functional Linguistics’, in M AronoV, and J Reese-Miller (eds.) The Handbook of Linguistics Oxford: Blackwell, 319–36 —— (2001) An Introduction to Syntax Cambridge: Cambridge University Press —— (2005) Exploring the Syntax-Semantics Interface Cambridge: Cambridge University Press —— (2008) ‘RPs and the Nature of Lexical and Syntactic Categories in Role and Reference Grammar’, in R D Van Valin Jr (ed.), Investigations of the Syntax-Semantics-Pragmatics Interface Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 161–78 Van Valin, Jr., R D., and Foley, W A (1980) ‘Role and Reference Grammar’, in E A Moravcsik, and J R Wirth (eds.) Syntax and Semantics Vol XIII: Current Approaches to Syntax New York: Academic Press, 329–52 Van Valin, Jr., R D., and LaPolla, R (1997) Syntax: Structure, Meaning, and Function Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Vendler, Z (1957 [1967]) Linguistics in Philosophy Ithaca: Cornell University Press ¨ stmann, J.-O., Blommaert, J (1995) (eds.) Handbook of Verschueren, J., and O Pragmatics Manual Amsterdam: John Benjamins Vogel, P M., and Comrie, B (eds.) (2000) Approaches to the Typology of Word Classes Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Wells, R S (1947) ‘Immediate Constituents’, Language 23: 321–43 Wierzbicka, A (2000) ‘Lexical Prototypes as a Universal Basis for CrossLinguistic IdentiWcation of ‘‘Parts of Speech’’ ’, in P M Vogel, and B Comrie (eds.), Approaches to the Typology of Word Classes Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 285–317 Williams, E (1980) ‘Predication’, Linguistic Inquiry 11: 203–38 —— (1983) ‘Semantic vs Syntactic Categories’, Linguistics and Philosophy 6: 423–46 Wissowa, G (1954) ‘Priscianus’, in G Wissowa et al (eds.), Paulys Realencyclopa¨die der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Vol XXII, 2: 2328–48 Wittgenstein, L (1953 [2001]) Philosophical Investigations New York: Macmillan Wouters, A (1979) The Grammatical Papyri from Graeco-Roman Egypt: Contributions to the Study of the ‘Ars grammatica’ in Antiquity Bru¨ssel, Paleis der Academie¨n (Verhandelingen van de koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en schone Kunsten van Belgie¨ Klasse der Letteren XLI, nr 92) references 423 Wunderlich, D (1996) ‘Lexical Categories’, Theoretical Linguistics 22: 1–48 Zimmermann, J (1990) ‘Syntactic Categorization’, in W Bahner, J Schildt, and D Viehweger (eds.), Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Congress of Linguistics, Berlin, GDR, 1987 Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 864–67 Zwarts, J (1992) X’-Syntax – X’-Semantics: On the Interpretation of Functional and Lexical Heads Utrecht: OTS Dissertation Series This page intentionally left blank Author Index Aaronson, D Abney, S T 103–5, 113–4, 116, 301, 307–8 Adger, D 130 n 29, 132–3, 135 n 31, 137, 145 Alexander, L G 13 Anderson, J M 3, 12, 208, 210, 213, 263, 264–321, 338–40, 345, 357, 393, 394 Aoun, Y 97–8, 210 Apollonius Dyscolus 15 n 5, 17, 21, 21 n 12 Arens, H 20, 25 n 17 Aristarchus 15 Aristotle 25, 204, 313 n 23, 369, 390 Armon-Lotem, S 130 n 29 Arms, D G 74 Arnauld, A 11, 25 Askedal, J O 255 n 16 Auroux, S 24 n 15 Bach, E 74 Baker, M C 94 n 10, 123, 208 n 2, 340–2, 384–6, 388, 395 Barwise, J 153, 269 n Bates, E 207 Becker, A L 74 Belletti, A 123–4 Bender, E M 153 Bergenholtz, B 52, 210 Bever, T G 151 Bickel, B 323 Blank, D L 21 n 12 Bloch, B 33, 37, 39–40, 51, 210 Bloomfield, L 2–3, 33, 35–41, 47 n 20, 51, 57 n 8, 210 Boas, F 4, 31, 33–6, 52 Bobaljik, J 130 n 29, 131 n 30, 139 Borer, H 341–4, 383–8, 396 Bresnan, J 11, 83, 150–69, 196, 198, 301, 394 Breul, C 148 n 29 Brody, M 130 n 29 Bybee, J 394 Carrier, J 312 n 22 Chafe, W L 214 Chomsky, N 2, 3, 11, 13, 25 n 19, 45–6, 54–74, 76–81, 82–96, 111, 115–6, 123–4, 128–39, 145, 148, 150, 162–3, 206–8, 214, 235, 264, 266, 280, 301, 315, 324, 345–6, 390–1 Chomsky, W 54 n Cinque, G 106, 112, 124–5, 127, 136, 138, 140, 142, 143 Collins, C 130 n 29, 133, 144 n 40 Comrie, B 323 Cook, W A 266 n Corver, N 105, 116, 394 Croft, W 4, 5, 13, 52, 207, 208 n 2, 209, 213, 215, 323–4, 333–40, 400 Cruse, D A 215 Davidson, D 100 n 15, 115 Davidson, T 16–9 Di Benedetto, V 14 n Diez, F C 21–4, 28–9 Dik, S C 12, 13, 208, 213, 324, 345–52, 356–8, 383, 387 Dionysius Thrax 10, 14–20, 209, 332, 389 Dirven, R 215 Downing, B T 323 Dowty, D 211 n 3, 369 Emeneau, M B 33 n Emonds, J 5, 14, 79, 82, 95 n 12, 96, 101, 105, 164, 210 Erbse, H 14 n Ernst, T 149, 262 Evans, N 215, 329–30, 333 Fanselow, G 96, 97 Felix, S W 96, 97 Ferres, S Fiengo, R 83 Fillmore, C J 6, 72–5, 78, 80, 207, 208, 214, 264–266, 283, 284, 291, 313, 336 n Fodor, J A 67 n 14, 86 n 2, 151, 315 Foley, W A 12, 125 n 27, 208, 324, 358, 387 Fought, J G 33 n 3, 36 n 7, 40 n 11 Francis, W N 37–8, 41 n 12, 51, 210 426 author index Frede, M 14 n 2, 17 n 8, 25 n 18 Fries, C C 11, 33, 40, 44–46, 47, 49, 50, 78, 143, 209, 391, 392, 393, 394, 400 Fukui, N 111 Gaifman, H 265 Garrett, M F 151 Gazdar, G 83, 150–2, 184 n 15 Geeraerts, D 215 Geis, M L 74 Gil, D 337–8 Gipper, H 315 Giusti, G 105 Givo´n, T Gleason, H A 4–6, 29, 51, 211 Goldberg, A 336 n Green, M 215 Greenberg, J H 322–3, 358 Grimshaw, J 105, 107–8, 113–4, 119, 140–1, 145, 162, 312 Groat, E 131 n 30 Gruber, J S 266 n 4, 283 Gue´ron, J 3, 112 n 21, 142 n 37 Haeberli, E 130 n 29, 131 n 30 Haegeman, L 3, 106, 111, 112 n 21, 142 n 37 Hale, K 342 Halle, M 315 Hankamer, J 212 Harley, H 342 Harris, Z S 11, 33–4, 37–55, 60–1, 63–4, 68–9, 76–7, 80, 93, 148, 199, 327, 390–1 Haspelmath, M 2–4, 7, 324, 339 Haugen, E 41 n 12 Haumann, D 105, 119, 263 Hawkins, J A 322 Hays, D G 265 Hengeveld, K 13, 331, 345, 357–8 Heringer, H J 265 Higginbotham, J 100 n 15, 114–6, 149, 202, 204, 392 Hill, A A 33, 37–8 Himmelmann 343–4, 379, 381, 384–8, 395 Hockett, C F 33, 38–9, 52, 210 Hoekstra, T 345 Holmberg, A 133 Hopper, P J 5, 330, 340 Huddleston, R 13, 307 Huybregts, R 152 Ingram, D 323 Jackendoff, R S 82–3, 94–9, 101, 163, 210, 212–3, 301 Jacobsen, W H 327 Jaeggli, O A 312 Jakobson, R 70 Jolly, J 301 Joos, M 33, 41 n 12 Kaplan, R M 83, 150–2, 156 Katz, J 67 n 14, 315 Kay, P 336 n Kayne, R 130, 206, 230 Keenan, E L 79, 323 Kemp, A 16 n 6, 17 n 8, 18 n Keyser, S J 342 Klein, E 151 Kluckhohn, C 34 n Koizumi, M 139 Koopman, H 105, 109, 126 Kratzer, A 133 Kraus, M 25 n 16 Laenzlinger, C 112, 263 Lakoff, G 6, 73–6, 93, 207, 214, 268, 313, 315–9 Lambrecht, K 368 Lancelot, C 11, 25–7 Langacker, R W 12, 13, 208, 210, 212–68, 306, 263 n 14, 312–3, 317–8, 320–1, 336, 345, 393 LaPolla, R 12, 324, 358–60, 365–6, 369–70, 372, 374–5, 379 Lasnik, H 83, 85, 87 n 3, 90, 95 Lees, R B 57 n Lefebvre, C 147, 394 Lehmann, C 147, 323, 394 Lersch, L 24 n 15, 25 n 16 Lo¨bel, E 105 Lyons, J 2–3, 5, 210–3 Malouf, R 200, 394 Marantz, A 342 Ma¨tzner, E 22–4, 28–9 McCawley, J D 73, 74, 76, 207 Mehler, J 74 n 21 Mervis, C B 6, 204, 268, 314–5, 397 Miller, G A 399 Murray, S O 36 n Muysken, P 102, 112, 142, 147, 394 Nash, L 130 n 29, 139 Newmeyer, F J 54–5, 67 n 14, 207–8, 313, 317–8 author index Nichols, J 323 Nida, E A 315 Noyer, R 342 O’Neil, E 131 n 30 Ouhalla, J 106, 140 Pagliuca, W 394 Partee, B 211 n Payne, J R 323 Perlmutter, D M 83 Perry, J 153, 269 n Peters, P S 79 Pfeiffer, R 15 n 3–5 Picallo, M.-C 126 Plato 17, 25, 204, 390 Pollard, C 11, 83, 152–3, 169–72, 178, 184, 186–7, 194, 198, 199 Pollock, J K 106, 120–4, 135, 137–8 Postal, P 67 n 14, 74 Priscianus 20–1 Prufer, O 34 n Pullum, G K 13, 150, 151, 184 n 15 Pustejovsky, J 149, 372 Quintilian 17 n Quirk, R 13 Radden, G 215 Radford, A 3, 13, 96, 97, 99, 101, 139 Ramat, P 144 Randall, J 312 n 22 Raposo, E 103 n 16 Rauh, G 74 n 20, 94 n 9, 95, 105, 118–9, 126–7, 144, 147, 262, 265 n 1–2, 269, 301, 302, 310–1, 394, 396 Remnius Palaemon 20 Reuland, E 98 n 14 Rieux, J 26, 27 Ritchie, R W 79 Ritter, E 105, 126 Rizzi, L 89, 106, 111, 124 Robins, R H 14 n 2, 24 n 15, 25 n 16 Rollin, B E 26, 27 Rosch, E 6, 204, 268, 312, 314–5, 396–9 Ross, J R 73–4, 82, 147, 207, 272, 315–8, 394 Rouveret, A 97, 130 n 29, 139 Sag, I A 11, 83, 151–3, 169–87, 189 n 19, 190, 194–5, 198 n 22, 199, 212 Sampson, G 33 n 2, 36 n 7, 54 427 Sapir, E 33, 35 n Sasse, H.-J 2, 4, 332, 339 Saussure, F de 31 n 1, 170 Schachter, P 325–31, 333 Schaeder, B 52, 210 Schmitter, P 25 n 16 Shieber, S 152 Skinner, B F 56 n Smith, H L 33, 37–8 Spencer, A 117 n 25, 144, 394 Sportiche, D 109, 111 Steinthal, H 24 n 15 Stowell, T A 96–7 Swadesh, M 327 Szabolcsi, A 104 Taylor, D J 17 n 7, 19 n 11, 24 n 15 Taylor, J R 6–7, 215, 216 n 8, 268, 313, 317–9 Tenny, C 149 Thompson, S A 5, 323, 330, 340 Thraı´nsson, H 140 Trager, G L 33, 37–40, 51, 210 Tsiapera, M 25 n 19 Uriagereka, J 130 n 29 van Gelderen, E 106, 140 van Hout, A 342 van Riemsdijk, H 97–8, 102, 107, 112, 117, 394 Van Valin, Jr., R D 12, 125 n 27, 207–8, 324, 262 n 2, 324, 358–84, 387–8, 395–6 Varro 17 n 7, 19 n 11, 22 n 14 Vendler, Z 369 Vergnaud, J R 97 Wasow, T 153 Wells, R S 33, 40 Wheeler, G 25 n 19 Wierzbicka, A 13, 328–9, 333 Williams, E 115, 211 n Wissowa, G 21 n 12 Wittgenstein, L 6, 204, 268, 313–5 Wouters, A 14 n Wunderlich, D 3, 339 n Zanuttini, R 111 Zimmermann, J 14, 98, 100–2 Zwarts, J 94 n 10, 105, 115 n 24, 116–7, 126, 149, 310, 357 Subject Index Abs rule 290–1 Actor-Undergoer Hierarchy 375 adequacy descriptive adequacy 59, 69, 346 explanatory adequacy 59 n 9, 69, 202 observational adequacy 59 n pragmatical adequacy 346 psychological adequacy 346 typological adequacy 359 Adv-Criterion 112 agreement Head-Complement Agreement 137 Head-Head Agreement 90, 129, 135, 137 object agreement 123, 140 Spec-Head Agreement 90, 111, 126, 129, 135, 137–9 strong/weak agreement 122 subject agreement 123 Alexandrians 15, 25 n 18 Ancient /classical Greek 15–6, 209, 389–90, 396 argument core argument 158, 361, 367, 371, 376 external argument 109–10, 115 n 24, 116, 133, 188, 189, 280 internal argument 87, 107–10, 118–9, 133, 183, 245 noncore argument 158 optional argument 364 referential argument 115–20, 144, 149, 204, 310–1, 386, 392–4 syntactic argument 144, 189, 375–6, 380, 388 argument position 88, 244, 341, 370–1, 375–6 Argument Realization Principle 177, 185 argument structure 108, 115–9, 127, 132–3, 141, 172, 175, 177, 183, 188–9, 193–4, 202, 204, 271, 302, 348, 393–4 a-structure, see levels of representation Aristotelian structure, see category structure Ars Grammaticae 20 articulatory-perceptual system 131, 215 atemporal relation(s) 224–6, 228, 240–4, 246–9, 252, 261–2 atomic syntactic primitives 336 attribute concatenation 172, 173 attribute-value pairs 159, 165, 169–70, 176, 191–3, 195, 202 autonomy autonomy of morphology/semantics/ syntax 29, 206, 215, 346, 359 conceptual autonomy 230 base component 64, 71–5, 78–9 and category reduction 73–4 billiard ball model 233 Binary Principle 130, 206, 230 binding theory 87, 90–1, 128, 130 Principle A, B, C 91 bounding theory 87, 89, 130 bounding nodes 89 canonical event model 233–4, 244, 254 canonical structural realization 87, 108 Case Grammar 74–5, 79, 82, 207–8, 214, 264–6, 279, 283, 285, 288, 291, 298, 303, 339, 394 case relation(s) 266, 283 deep (structure) cases 72 n 18, 74 n 20, 283 Localist Case Grammar 12, 263–7, 279–98, 299, 301, 393 Case Theory 87–8, 90, 92, 108, 130, 136, 182–3, 202, 265 Case assignment 88, 98, 108–10, 120, 127, 178, 245 Case constraint (English) 177–8 Case feature 108, 111, 132, 136, 139, 145, 177, 283, 285–8 Case-filter 88, 90, 92 Case-marking 110 Case position 245 categorial continuum 272, 316, 319 Categorial Grammar 337 category or categories classical categories 317–8, 320 cognitive categories 6, 213, 261, 268, 314, 397–9 subject index conceptual categories 212–3, 320, 343 deep or d-structure categories 77, 80, 92, 161 empty categories 89–90, 135, 168, 215–6, 241 functional categories 72, 103–7, 111 n 18, 111 n 19, 113–7, 120–8, 138, 145, 156 n 1, 189 n 19, 202, 301, 308, 310, 339 n 5, 344, 384 hierarchical order of 105, 113, 122, 124–5, 127, 145, 163, 386 in early Generative Grammar 72 in Lexical Functional Grammar 156 n 1, 163, 166, 169 in Localist Case Grammar 301, 308 in the Minimalist Program 135 n 32, 138, 202 in the Theory of Principles and Parameters 103–28, 189 n 19, 202 grammatical categories 213 n 5, 248, 250, 253, 256, 258–9, 317, 320, 335–6 basic grammatical categories 216–7, 224–5, 237, 250, 330 complex grammatical categories 257 non-basic grammatical categories 237, 250 intermediate categories 148, 272–4, 307, 338, 394 intermediate primary categories 271–4, 278, 319, 345 language particular/specific categories 52, 76, 80, 147, 161, 334, 335 lexical categories 2–3, 65–6, 94–6, 99, 103, 105, 107, 110, 114, 135 n 32, 138, 203, 302–3, 307, 323–4, 338–9, 343–4, 349, 393–4 in early Generative Grammar 65–6 in Lexical Functional Grammar 162–5, 166–9 in the Minimalist Program 135 n 32, 138, 202 in the Theory of Principles and Parameters 94–5, 105–7, 110, 114, 202, 302–3, 394 logico-semantic categories 73–6 linguistic categories 4–7, 204, 313, 315, 317, 323–5, 339 major categories 68, 70, 72, 161, 161 n 2, 334, 339, 391 n 429 minor categories 84, 98, 99, 101, 161, 161 n 2, 334, 339 n mixed categories 84, 147, 200, 394 morphological categories 3, 22, 28, 140, 329 non-lexical categories 68, 72, 103–5 ontological categories 211–2 predicate-logic categories 79 primary categories 269, 271–2, 274, 278, 289, 300–1, 303, 306–7, 319, 338, 345 prototypical categories 204, 268, 315–7, 370 proxy categories 139 secondary categories 273–6, 280, 282–3, 300–3, 306–7 semantic categories 24–5, 28, 72–3, 76, 79, 124, 148, 209–13, 223, 241, 248, 251–3, 257, 259 subordinate/superordinate categories 398 surface/s-structure categories 77–8, 80, 92, 161, 199 syntactic categories, definition syntactic-semantic categories 76, 78 terminal categories 66, 196 underlying categories 73, 75–6, 357 universal categories 30, 71, 73, 80–1, 147, 161, 209 Category adjustment convention 298 categorial squishes 147, 200, 272, 316, 319, 394 category structure Aristotelian/classical category structure 5–6, 94 n 9, 203, 313, 318, 320 network structure 320 passim prototypical category structure 6–7, 204, 268, 313–8, 330, 333–5, 340, 396–400 Checking Theory 132, 137, 145, 202 Chinese 124, 342, 385 n 7, 386 Chomskyan revolution 54–6 class, open/closed 101, 105, 277, 301, 307, 326, 328, 333 Cognitive Grammar 12, 13, 206, 208, 213–64, 310, 393 Cognitive Linguistics 215, 315, 317 coheads 158, 167–9 Coherence Condition 159–60, 166, 197 Completeness Condition 159, 166 Completeness Constraint 376 computational system 87, 106, 129, 131–3, 136–7, 141, 145–7 430 subject index concept, lexical/non-lexical 360, 368 conceptual archetype 233–5 conceptual-intentional system 131, 215 conceptualization 220–1, 230, 233–8, 241, 255 conceptual layering 240, 248, 254, 255 conceptual model 244 conceptual structure 212–3 condition of endocentricity 166, 168 connector 237, 242–3, 248–9, 261 constituency grammar 265, 279 constituency hierarchy 228–31, 251 constituent Constituent Ordering Principle 182, 353–4 constituent structure 154, 206, 248, 265, 298 immediate constituents 40, 45–6, 48, 62, 72, 265 construction(s) composite construction 225–6, 232 exocentric construction 232, 382 grammatical construction canonical grammatical construction 228–9 non-prototypical grammatical construction 231, 235–6 prototypical grammatical construction 228–30, 233, 251, 254, 256–7 Construction Grammar 336, 336 n Neo-Construction Grammar 336 n 4, 341–2, 386 Radical Construction Grammar 324 , 336 contentive 74, 338 content word 301, 344–5, 384–5 continuum, see categorial continuum control theory 87–91, 130 controller 375–6 core, see also argument 360, 364–8, 371–3, 376–8, 381 core grammar 86 core predication, see predication corpus 37, 40, 42, 46, 49 c-structure, see levels of representation D-command 298 deductive method or theory 56, 58, 299, 384 deictic expressions 117, 302, 334 dependence/dependency conceptual dependence 228–9 dependence relation 230 dependency relation 272, 276, 289 dependency rules 256, 266 dependency structure 265, 276, 290, 298 long-distance dependency 184 word internal dependency 276 dependency grammar 265, 279, 299 discourse function 5, 157, 329–30, 333 distribution(al) class 11, 31, 33, 38, 40–1, 46, 49, 52, 56, 64, 68, 77, 328, 390 Dyirbal 364, 376, 378 economy 129, 135–6, 168–9, 290 cognitive economy 1, 397, 399 elaboration, see schematic network Empty Category Principle (ECP) 86–7, 89, 109, 124, 136 encyclopedia 342, 344, 387 endocentricity 82–3, 102, 157–8, 166, 168 epistemic model 247 e-site 244, 246, 248–9, 252, 254 Eurocentrism 338 Experiencer subjecthood condition 298 Extended Coherence Condition 159–60, 166, 197 extended projection 105–7, 113–28, 138, 142–6, 189, 202–4, 302, 386, 392 Extended Projection Principle (EPP) 87, 128, 142, 183 Extended Standard Theory 83–4 extension, see schematic network family resemblance(s) 6, 8, 204, 208, 314–5, 330, 396–9 f-descriptions 156 feature(s), see also properties Case feature, see Case Theory categorial feature 87, 96, 127, 132, 135, 137, 141–2, 144, 146, 149, 162–6, 311–2, 392 contextual feature 87, 147, 197, 329, 393 c-selection feature 133, 137, 142, 147 distinctive feature 94, 315 f-feature 111–2 w-feature 111, 132 formal feature 132–4, 136, 139, 144–6, 312 frame feature 283 functional feature 109 functor feature 282–4, 287–8, 303–5, 309–12 subject index head feature 184 n 15, 190–2, 198 n 22, 199–200 inherent feature 394 inheritance feature 176, 190 interpretable/uninterpretable feature 131–3, 135–7, 139, 149, 204 intrinsic feature 132, 145 lexical feature 184, 296 localistic feature 260 morphosyntactic feature 127, 135–7, 141, 144–5, 203, 393 notional feature 264–77, 306 operator feature 141–2 optional feature 132, 137, 139, 145, 146 n 41 secondary feature 287, 305 strong/weak feature 122, 132, 135, 135 n 32, 137–8, 140, 140 n 34, 146 u-feature 141, 146 feature-based description/category representation 84, 96, 142, 147, 149, 169, 268 n 7, 312, 394 feature representations 83, 95, 99, 107, 134, 143–6, 162–5, 169, 299, 319, 338–9, 394–5 feature structures 152, 165–6, 169–81, 183–201, 204 formal approach 207–8, 216, 218, 359 formatives 68, 342 form class 1, 3, 39–40, 46–7, 51–2, 210–1 form-meaning iconicity 233, 240 French 28, 120–2, 124, 135, 137–8, 140, 140 n 34, 232 function(s) communicative function 359, 368 grammatical function 21, 71 n 17, 154, 157–9, 167–8, 173, 291, 383 pragmatic function 333, 335, 347, 350–4, 400 primary function 330 prototypical function 348 semantic function 117, 213, 240, 248–9, 253, 348, 352, 355–7, 368, 373 syntactic function 22, 84, 161, 163, 196–8, 246, 325–6, 244, 328–9, 333, 347, 349, 352, 355 functional approach 207–8, 213, 324, 346, 358 Functional Grammar 12–3, 83, 208, 213, 324, 345–58, 359, 383, 387 functional schemata 156–8 function words 46–9, 301, 334, 384–5, 390–3 431 functor 98, 208, 270–4, 277–80, 282–3, 285, 287–8, 290, 292, 300–1, 305, 307–9, 311–2, 312, 338 Fund 346–8, 353, 356–7 GAP Principle 184–5, 188 Generalized Phases Structure Grammar (GPSG) 83, 150–3 Generative Grammar 11, 13, 45–6, 55 n 4, 59–68, 71, 83, 96, 210, 235, 258, 324, 384, 390 early Generative Grammar 67–8, 141, 147–9, 210 Generative Semantics 74–6, 78–80, 82, 148, 207, 214 German 52, 97, 98, 100, 147, 160, 167 n 6, 168, 169, 255, 285, 305, 313 Government and Binding Theory (GB) or Theory of Principles and Parameters (PPT) 11, 82–120, 121, 123, 124, 127, 128–9, 130, 131, 132, 134, 137, 140, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 156 n 1, 157, 158, 161, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 178, 183, 184, 187, 188, 189, 190, 194, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202–4, 230, 235, 242, 244, 245, 251, 266, 267, 268, 276, 277, 288, 292 n 19, 296, 298, 299, 303, 306, 307, 339, 341, 386, 392, 393, 344, 400 grammar and philology 33–6 as model of linguistic competence 56–9, 69, 73, 79, 84, 201, 215, 217, 346, 385 formal grammar 60, 63, 217, 219, 267 internal(ized) grammar 58–9, 217, 222, 232, 236, 263 possible grammar 58–9, 84 prescriptive/descriptive grammar 34 reductive/non-reductive grammar 258 universal grammar, see universal grammar (UG) usage-based/nongenerative/ nonconstructive grammar 217, 231, 258 grammatical pattern 216–7, 256–7 grammaticalization 84, 147, 200, 267, 345, 387, 395 grounding 239–40, 247, 249, 253–4, 256, 312 432 subject index Head-Complement Rule 178, 181–3, 186–8, 198 Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) 11, 83–4, 149–53, 169–205, 207, 227, 229–30, 235, 245, 251 n 1, 266–7, 285, 288, 299, 339, 393 Head Feature Principle 178, 181–2, 187–8, 198 Head-Filler Rule 185–6, 188 Head-Modifier Rule 178, 182–3, 195 Head-Specifier Rule 178–9, 181–4, 187, 196 Hebrew, Medieval/Modern 54, 54 n 2, 55, 126, 342, 385 n iconicity 233, 249, 254–6 I-language 84, 346, 384 Immediate Dominance Principle 178 incorporation 117, 119–20 inductive method 56, 61, 299, 384 Inheritance Constraint 176 integration vs categorization 222–3, 225–8, 252–3, 259–60 interface 86, 126, 161, 165, 195, 206 Italian 21, 89, 123–4, 291, 292 n 19, 368 Japanese 166, 352, 361, 368, 379, 385 n 7, 386 juncture 367 Korean 124, 125 Kuryłowicz’s problem 305, 308–9 landmark 122, 221, 221 n 11, 225–49, 254 primary/secondary landmark 236, 244, 246 language acquisition 11, 56–8, 69, 71, 73, 77, 85, 337 language and literature 14–6, 34, 36 language and mind 70 language and philosophy 24–5, 28 language as expression of thought 24, 390 language change 55 language types agglutinating/fusional/isolating languages 123–4, 323 configurational/nonconfigurational languages 153–7, 165–9, 197 flexible/rigid languages 332, 336, 357–8 Latin 2, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28, 33, 305, 307, 309, 352 level(s) of representation a-structures 153, 155–6 c-structure 152, 154–61, 164–70, 196–8, 206 annotated c-structure configurations 156–8, 160, 196 deep structure 64–92, 134, 151, 161, 207, 264–5, 285, 391–2 D-structure 86–92, 107–8, 113, 128–9, 134, 140, 245, 296, 298 f-structure 152–61, 165–6, 169–70, 197, 206 LF (logical form) 86–8, 91, 108, 111, 129–33, 136, 140 LSC (layered structure of the clause) 360–5 PF (phonological form) 86, 88, 91–2, 129, 131–3, 136, 140 S-structure 86–92, 108–9, 112–3, 128–30, 134, 140, 183 surface structure 64–8, 72–3, 76–80, 83, 86, 130, 151–4, 161, 166–7, 183, 199–202, 206–7, 215, 219, 229, 264, 266, 290, 390–1 underlying clause structure 346–55, 360 underlying structure 64, 68, 72–9, 206, 215, 219, 235, 266, 349, 354, 390–2 lexemes base lexemes 189–90, 193 lexeme types 187, 190–2 and type hierarchy 175–8, 189, 190, 201 lexical entry or entries in early Generative Grammar 66, 391 in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar 175, 177, 188, 196 in Lexical Functional Grammar 154, 158–9, 164–5, 167, 169, 206 in Localist Case Grammar 267, 279, 283–4, 288 in Role and Reference Grammar 369, 371, 375, 379 in the Minimalist Program 133, 142, 144, 146 n 41 in the Theory of Principles and Parameters 87, 103, 113, 115, 127, 141, 143 Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) 11, 83–4, 149–70, 187, 196–8, 207, 229, 235, 245, 266, 268, 393 lexical insertion 78, 80, 92, 219, 392 Lexical Integrity Principle 166, 168 subject index lexical-interpretive model 151 lexicalist position or lexicalism 93 lexical sequence 175, 177 lexicon in Cognitive Grammar 215–6 in early Generative Grammar 64–7, 76–8, 391 in Functional Grammar 346, 356–7 in Lexical Functional Grammar 151, 159, 167 in Localist Case Grammar 264, 267, 278–81, 285, 290, 312, 338 in Neo-Construction Grammar 342, 345, 387, 395 in Role and Reference Grammar 359, 375, 379–82, 388, 395 in the Minimalist Program MP 131–3, 136–9, 145–6 in the Theory of Principles and Parameters 87–8, 94 n 9, 102, 107, 109, 129, 141, 143, 145 basic lexicon 175, 177, 192 functional lexicon 342, 344, 387 mental lexicon 337 syntactic lexicon 359, 365, 387 lexicon-driven derivation 267 lexocentricity 158 licensing 84, 87, 92, 93, 107, 108–20, 149, 189, 201, 204, 294 of adjuncts/modifiers 116–8, 194, 230, 302, 312 of arguments 82 of complements 93, 107–8, 110, 113–4, 138, 178, 194, 230, 245, 303 of functional heads 113–4 of lexical heads 113, 230 of extended projections 114, 125–8, 138, 204 of functional categories 115–6, 118, 120, 123, 127, 142, 144–6, 392 of operators 91 of specifiers 93, 106–7, 110–1, 136, 138, 178, 188, 192, 303, 311, 340–1, 385 of functional heads 110–2, 142 of lexical heads 108–10, 143, 149 General Licensing Criterion 111–2, 127 generalized licensing principle 126, 129, 135 licensing principle 89, 91, 126, 129, 142 linear order/arrangement 233, 251, 254, 256 linearization 290, 294–5, 361 Linear Precedence Constraint 182, 187 433 linguistic competence 56–9, 69, 73, 79, 84, 201, 215, 217, 346, 383 linguistic universals 70, 333, 335, 340 linguistics as a science 34–5 linking 359, 374–8, 387 Localist Case Grammar, see Case Grammar logical structure 75, 369–72, 375, 379–80, 387, 396 macrorole 371, 375 marker(s) case marker 301, 305, 308, 326, 376 discourse marker 326 grammatical marker 216–7, 384 inflectional marker 24 , 154 metagovernor 290, 293, 295 Minimalist Program (MP) 11, 13, 87 n 3, 113, 124, 129–49, 166–8, 183, 184, 187, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 230, 235, 251, 266, 267, 288, 292 n 19, 299, 343, 381, 382, 393 Minimal Link Constraint 130 Mirror Principle 123, 127, 129, 136, 145 modular theory 83–5, 86 n 2, 130, 215, 392 Montague Grammar 152, 211 n morpheme class(es) 39, 40–2, 44–5, 50, 55, 61, 63, 390 morpheme-sequence class(es) 39–41, 44, 48, 61, 390 as hierarchical constructions 40, 44–5 as syntactic categories 39, 41–8 Move a 83, 86, 89, 91, 128, 183 movement 31, 54, 89–91, 110, 112–4, 122–4, 126–8, 131, 135, 166–7, 183, 234, 266, 284, 298, 387 covert/overt movement 131, 133 head-head movement 126 head movement 123, 127–8, 167 obligatory movement 136 stylistic movement 91 V-to-I movement 90, 113, 121, 166, 167 wh-movement 90–2, 112, 128 natural class(es) 95, 96, 104 negation (English, French) 120–2 Neg-Criterion 111, 111 n 20 nexus relation 366 non-projectivity condition 294 Nootka 327, 381, 382 Norwegian 114 n 22, 126 notional approach 263, 313, 340 434 subject index nucleus 350, 360–4, 371, 381 numeration 131–3, 136, 139–40, 145–6, 260 Old English 23, 271 operator(s) 75, 91, 115–8, 120, 126, 362–3, 374–5, 380, 382, 394 auxiliary operator 355 illocutionary/predicate/predication/ term operator 349–54 modal operator 75 morphosyntatic operator 356 prepositional operator 357 wh-operator operator 111 n 20 operator projection 367–8, 373–4, 383 ordering of constituents 182–3 rule ordering 70 parameter(s) 85–6, 89, 182 parametrization 142, 182, 200 part(s) of speech and category structure 315–9 and criteria grammatical criteria 325 morphological criteria 18–9, 21–4 semantic criteria 18–9, 22, 25–6, 325–6 and language typology 324–6, 328–39, 383, 385 and Structuralism 4, 11 and Te´khne¯ grammatike¯ 16–20, 390 as cognitive categories 397–400 as form classes 46 as semantic categories 23 as syntactic categories 4, 10–1, 13–4, 399–401 criticism of 26–7, 32 hierarchy of 331, 332 in Ancient Greek 17–20, 29 in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar 172, 174–5 in Latin 20, 29 in a Localist Case Gramar 278 in Romance 20–1, 28 in English 23–4, 29 notional basis of 5, 209–10, 268–9 origin of 10–1, 14–8 periphery 360–8, 372, 376–7 phonological pole, see symbolic unit(s) pivot 375, 378 Port Royal Grammar 11, 25, 28–9, 69–70, 209, 390–1 pragmatic criterion 330 precore/postcore slot 362 predicate, basic/derived 346–7, 353 predicate frame 347 predicate logic 73–4, 76, 78–9, 148 as universal base 73, 79 predication, core/extended/nuclear 347, 349–50 principle of analogy 16, 21, 29 Principle of Centripetal Orientation 353 principle of cognitive economy 397, 399 Principle of Endocentricity 157, 158 Principle of Full Interpretation 92, 131 Principle of Functional Stability 353 Principle of Iconic Ordering 353 principle of maximum information 397, 398 Principle of Pragmatic Highlighting 354 profiling 21, 235 profile determinant 226–8, 230–2, 246 projection principle 87–9, 108, 128, 130, 134, 146, 178, 183, 294, 296 properties, see also features complement selection properties 286–7, 301, 303 derivational/inflectional properties 19–21, 23, 273, 323 distributional properties 95, 328 extrinsic/intrinsic properties 240, 249, 252–3, 257 inherent/contextual properties 159, 167, 191, 203, 248, 252, 278, 287, 301, 390 necessary and sufficient properties 313, 321, 330 notional properties 277, 300, 319, 321 prototypical properties 329 selectional properties 102, 132–3, 167, 273, 281–2 selective properties 327 subcategorization properties 66, 89, 159, 239, 279–82, 294, 305, 319 prototype theory see also category structure 6, 7, 317 qualia structure 372, 380, 382 realism vs mentalism 170 reanalysis 84, 147 redundancies 66, 279–80, 288, 303, 319 referential index 340–1, 385 region, bounded/unbounded 239, 243–4 Relational Grammar 83 subject index restrictor 349 retro-complement 278–82, 289, 303 Revised Extended Standard Theory 83, 84 root 43, 79, 123, 341–3 Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) 12, 208, 324, 358–80, 382, 387 rule(s) correspondence rules 213 expression rules 346–56 formal expression rules 351–6 order determining expression rules 351 placement rules 351, 353–6 prosodic rules 351 immediate dominance rule 360 lexical rules 66, 151, 154, 177–8, 181, 190, 193, 196 linear ordering rules 55 linking rule 382 morphophonemic rules 61, 63, 68 phrase-structure rules 55, 61–74, 77, 80, 82, 86, 92–3, 128, 147–8, 150, 153–8, 164–5, 167, 179, 196–8, 210, 219, 390 context free phrase-structure rules 155, 197 annotated phrase-structure rules 158 redundancy rules 269–71, 274, 276, 280–1, 285, 288, 290, 294, 372 and the lexicon 285, 289, 372 structure generating rules 266 subcategorization rules 65, 69 term-formation rules 349 transformational rules 60–70, 73, 77–80, 82, 86, 92, 147, 150, 154, 390–1 rule of copula support 356 satellite(s), illocutionary/predicate/ predication/proposition 349–53, 357 scanning 241, 261 schema(s) abstract schema 219, 224–5, 237–41, 248, 253, 259, 263, 320–1 constructional schema 219–20, 221–2, 228, 232, 250, 256–7, 274 general schema 216, 244 prototypical schema 224, 248 semantic schema 227 specific schema 244, 259 435 schematic network(s) 223–4, 248–60, 320–1 elaboration/extension of 223–7, 230, 235, 244–9, 252–3, 257, 274, 320 selection complement selection 95, 275, 277, 280, 282, 285–7, 289, 301, 303, 311 c-selection 87, 108–10, 113, 129, 132–3, 135 n 32, 137, 141–2, 142 n 31, 145 f-selection 113, 308 selection restrictions 349, 391 s-selection 87, 108–10, 113 Semantic Compositionality Principle 178 semantic domains 226, 227 Semantic Inheritance Principle 178 semantic pole, see symbolic units semantic relation(s) 91, 113, 189, 264, 282–3, 286, 292, 349, 376 Sophists 25 Space Grammar 214 Split-CP/IP analysis 106, 120, 122, 124, 142 n 36, 145, 148 Split-V analysis 133 stage model 233 Standard Theory 60, 64, 82–6, 92, 106, 128–9, 141, 148, 150–1, 159, 161, 165, 207, 239, 391 Stoics 25, 25 n 18 strict cycle condition 298 strong generative capacity 59–60 structural ambiguity 59 structural identity 172 Structuralism 4, 29, 57 n 8, 199, 206, 210, 383, 390 American 31–48, 54, 199, 206, 210, 324, 390 European 31 n structural patterns 39, 260 subcategorization, context-free/contextsensitive/strict 65–6, 69, 80, 88, 159, 178, 239, 279–82, 284, 286–90, 294, 303, 305, 319, 391 Subcategorization Principle 178 subject and agent 23, 235 external/internal subject 162–4 function of 173 subject concord rule 293 subject-formation 273, 273 n 13, 292–4 436 subject index subject (cont.) subject position 88, 90, 103, 109, 245, 354 subject rule 290 Subject-selection hierarchy 290–1 syntactic subject 291–4 symbolic structure 217–8, 222, 251 symbolic unit(s) phonological/semantic pole 216–8, 224–5, 227, 237–8, 243, 248, 250–4, 256 syntactic function, see function(s) syntactic inventory, see also syntactic lexicon 359, 365–7, 387 Syntactic Projection Principle 289, 294, 296 Syntactic Template Selection Principle 376 Te´khne¯ grammatike¯ 10, 15–7, 20–1, 24, 26–9, 34, 78, 209, 389 Tagalog 327, 329, 343–4, 378–9, 381–2, 385, 387, 399 tags 172–4, 179, 188 template(s) 217, 222, 353–4, 359–60, 365–7, 374, 376–9, 382, 386–7 constructional template 374, 377–8 syntactic template 365, 376, 378–9, 382, 387 terms, basic/derived 346, 349 Theory of Principles and Parameters (PPT), see Government and Binding Theory (GB) theta/u-theory 87–90, 132, 142, 145, 183, 202–3 modified u-theory 100 n 15, 114–6, 149, 183, 202, 204 u-binding 115, 142, 144, 149, 202 u-Criterion 88, 90, 108, 110–1, 115, 130, 135, 158 u-identification 116, 117, 149, 183, 230 u-marking 108, 115, 149, 230 u-roles 87–8, 90, 108, 113, 115, 132–3, 137 top-down analysis 46, 61, 63, 114, 197, 390, 392 traces 83, 89–90, 124, 128, 136 trajector 221, 221 n.11, 225–30, 232–3, 235–6, 241–2, 244–9, 252, 254, 259, 262 and subject 221 n 11, 225, 233, 236, 244–7, 254 tree admissibility conditions 157, 166–7, 197 type hierarchy 175–8, 189–90, 201 type specification 199–200 typological approach 208, 213, 324, 338 typology 12, 322–45, 383–5, 388, 396 universal grammar (UG) 58–9, 68–70, 85, 151, 215, 217–8, 384 universal(s) 70–2, 80, 323, 327, 333–5, 340, 384 , 391 Uniqueness Condition 159, 166, 197 usage-based model 217, 231, 258 v (little) 129, 133, 139 valency 284, 289, 307, 309, 348 Walpiri 151, 153–5, 376 Wh-criterion 111, 111 n 20 wild tree 289–90, 292, 296, 298 word class 1–7, 13, 13 n 1, 14, 25 n 16, 209, 269–82, 300, 306, 319, 325, 328, 339 and lexical category 2–3, 323–4, 339, 341, 393 basic word class 269–72, 278, 300–1, 303, 306–7, 338 vs lexical class 268 vs syntactic category 269, 317, 319, 323–4, 328, 339 word form(s) 172, 174, 177, 186, 188–95, 199–202, 204, 253 word order 58, 120, 132, 135, 140, 140 n 34, 254–5, 255 n.16, 322, 327, 331, 357–8, 387 word-order phenomena 109, 114, 124–5, 129–30, 140, 322–3 X-bar theory 82–8, 92–3, 114, 128, 130, 142, 149, 156–7, 161, 172, 182–3, 197, 202, 386 Y-model 86 zero-derivation 342 [...]... otherwise in each case The volumes will thus provide researchers and graduate students concerned with syntax, morphology, and related aspects of semantics with a vital source of information and reference In Syntactic Categories: Their Identification and Description in Linguistic Theories, Professor Gisa Rauh surveys a wide range of linguistic theories, investigating and discussing their identification and description. .. to be gained by their identiWcation and description 1.2 Subject matter, aims, and outline The subject matter of this book is syntactic categories and their identiWcation and description in linguistic theories Syntactic categories are part of the syntactic description of languages, and the syntactic description of languages is concerned with the structure of sentences Sentences are complex syntactic. .. Foley and Van Valin’s Role and Reference Grammar (Foley and Van Valin 1984; Van Valin 1993, 1995, 2005, 2008; Van Valin and LaPolla 1997), including a discussion of how this framework tries to distinguish between syntactic and lexical categories Chapter 10 will begin by taking up and summarizing developments in the description of syntactic categories as found in the approaches considered in this book,... seen in the following These observations are sufficient reason to start an investigation of syntactic categories in various grammatical theories with a consideration of how the traditional parts of speech were originally seen In doing this, it is important to examine them not in isolation but in their grammatical context in order to determine their original role Section 2.2 therefore starts by examining... it was necessary to identify and describe syllables, which in turn required an identification of the sounds of the language In order to understand and interpret the texts it was important to identify the words which constituted the texts and to determine their meaning And in order to determine the meaning of words it was often necessary to take into account their origin and their history, which led to... above all, forming categories and describing the relations between them, thereby providing a structure and thus yielding insights into the object of study When forming categories, it is necessary to establish the basis for their formation and also what purpose they serve, thus showing what generalizations follow from the formation of categories and how these generalizations yield insights into the object... others, including Lyons (1977: 423 f.) – who took great care to distinguish between parts of speech and form-classes, the latter comprising morphological categories on the one hand, and syntactic categories on the other This broad classiWcation is a result of the structuralists’ view that morphology and syntax form a continuum and that there is in principle no diVerence between these two domains In accordance... Preface Oxford Surveys in Syntax and Morphology provides overviews of the major approaches to subjects and questions at the centre of linguistic research in morphology and syntax The volumes are accessible, critical, and up to date Individually and collectively they aim to reveal the field’s intellectual history and theoretical diversity Each book published in the series will characteristically contain:... of their description actually fulWl the requirements of being a syntactic category, i.e such a categorial 10 syntactic categories description should determine the possible positions of the category members in sentence structures It is therefore necessary to investigate whether, and if so how, in a given model of grammar based on a particular theory, linguistic items are placed in those positions in. .. analysing and discussing how syntactic categories are identiWed and described within these frameworks The results of this analysis are then compared with those obtained from the discussions in earlier chapters Chapters 7 and 8 will focus on linguistic approaches which, unlike those previously considered, expressly advocate a notional basis for 12 syntactic categories syntactic or grammatical categories