Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver

Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver

Tutorials Active Figures Additional Resources Matter and Measurement • Screen 1.5: Mixtures and Pure Substances • Screen 1.12: Chemical Changes • • • • • 1.1: Classifying Matter • 1.2: States of Matter–Solid, Liquid, and Gas • 1.3: Levels of Matter • 1.15: Comparison of Farenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin Scales • Screen 1.6: Separation of Mixtures • Screen 1.7: Elements and Atoms • Screen 1.13: Chemical Change on the Molecular Scale Atoms and Elements • Screen 2.6: Electrons • Screen 2.8: Protons • Screen 2.10: The Nucleus of the Atom • Screen 2.16: The Periodic Table • Screen 2.11: Summary of Atomic Composition • Screen 2.14: The Mole • Screen 2.15: Moles and Molar Mass of the Elements • 2.3: Measuring the Electron’s Charge to Mass Ratio • 2.6: Rutherford’s Experiment to Determine the Structure of the Atom • 2.8: Mass Spectrometer • 2.10: Some of the 113 Known Elements • • • • • 3.1: Reaction of the Elements Aluminum and Bromine • 3.4: Ways of Depicting the Methane (CH4) Molecule • 3.6: Ions • 3.8: Common Ionic Compounds Based on Polyatomic Ions • 3.10: Coulomb’s Law and Electrostatic Forces • 3.17: Dehydrating Hydrating Cobalt(II) Chloride, CoCl2 · 6H2O • Screen 3.13: Alkanes Molecules, • Screen 3.19: Hydrated Ions, and Their Compounds Compounds • • • • • • Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry Screen 1.10: Density Screen 1.15: Temperature Screen 1.16: The Metric System Screen 1.17: Using Numerical Information Screen 3.5: Ions Screen 3.6: Polyatomic Ions Screen 3.10: Naming Ionic Compounds Screen 3.12: Binary Compounds of the Nonmetals Screen 3.14: Compounds, Molecules, and the Mole Screen 3.15: Using Molar Mass Screen 3.16: Percent Composition Screen 3.17: Determining Empirical Formulas Screen 3.18: Determining Molecular Formulas Screen 3.19: Hydrated Compounds • Screen 4.3: The Law of • Screen 4.4: Balancing Chemical Conservation of Mass Equations • Screen 4.5: Weight • Screen 4.6: Calculations in Relations in Chemical Stoichiometry Reactions • Screen 4.9: Percent Yield • Screen 4.8: Limiting Reactants • Screen 3.8: Ionic Compounds • Screen 3.13: Alkanes • Screen 3.14: Compounds, Molecules, and the Mole • 4.2: The Reaction of Iron and Chlorine • Screen 4.5 Weight Relations in Chemical Reactions • 4.4: Oxidation of Ammonia • 4.8: Analysis for the Sulfate Content of a • Screen 4.7: Reactions Controlled by the Supply of Sample One Reactant • 4.9: Combustion Analysis of a • Screen 4.8: Limiting Reactants Hydrocarbon http://chemistry.brookscole.com/kotz6e Exercises The Media Integration Guide on the next several pages provides you with a grid that links each chapter to the wealth of interactive media resources you will find at General ChemistryNow, a unique web-based, assessmentcentered personalized learning system for chemistry students i Media Integration Guide Chapter ii Media Integration Guide Chapter Exercises Tutorials Active Figures Additional Resources Reactions in Aqueous Solution • Screen 5.13: Oxidation Numbers • Screen 5.14: Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions • Screen 5.16: Preparing Solutions of Known Concentrations • Screen 5.18: Stoichiometry of Reactions in Solution • Screen 5.4: Solubility of Ionic Compounds • Screen 5.7: Net Ionic Equations • Screen 5.11: Gas Forming Reactions • Screen 5.13: Oxidation Numbers • Screen 5.15: Solution Concentrations • Screen 5.16: Preparing Solutions of Known Concentrations • Screen 5.17: The pH Scale • Screen 5.19: Titration • 5.2: Classifying Solutions by Their Ability to Conduct Electricity • 5.3: Guidelines to Predict the Solubility of Ionic Compounds • 5.8: An Acid–Base Reaction, HCl and NaOH • 5.14: The Reaction of Copper with Nitric Acid • 5.18: Making a Solution • 5.20: pH Values of Some Common Substances • 5.23: Titration of an Acid in Aqueous Solution with a Base • Screen 5.2: Solutions • Screen 5.3: Compounds in Aqueous Solution • Screen 5.4: Solubility of Ionic Compounds • Screen 5.5: Types of Aqueous Solutions • Screen 5.8: Acids • Screen 5.9: Bases • Screen 5.11: Gas Forming Reactions Principles of Reactivity: Energy and Chemical Reactions • Screen 6.3: Forms of Energy • Screen 6.7: Heat Capacity of Pure Substances • Screen 6.10: Calculating Heat Transfer • Screen 6.15: Hess’s Law • Screen 6.17: ProductFavored Systems • Screen 6.5: Energy Units • Screen 6.10: Calculating Heat Transfer • Screen 6.13: Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions • Screen 6.14: Measuring Heats of Reactions • Screen 6.16: Standard Enthalpy of Formation • 6.3: Energy and its Conversion • 6.8: Exothermic and Endothermic Processes • 6.10: Heat Transfer • 6.11: Heat Transfer and the Temperature Change for Water • 6.12: Changes of State • 6.13: Energy Changes in a Physical Process • 6.15: The Exothermic Combustion of Hydrogen in Air • 6.17: Constant Volume Calorimeter • 6.18: Energy Level Diagrams • Screen 6.4: Directionality of Heat Transfer • Screen 6.7: Heat Capacity of Pure Substances • Screen 6.10: Calculating Heat Transfer • Screen 6.11: The First Law of Thermodynamics • Screen 6.14: Measuring Heats of Reactions • Screen 6.15: Hess’s Law Atomic Structure • Screen 7.5: Planck’s Equation • Screen 7.6: Atomic Line Spectrum • Screen 7.13: Shapes of Atomic Orbitals • Screen 7.3: Electromagnetic Radiation • Screen 7.6: Atomic Line Spectrum • Screen 7.8: Wave Properties of the Electron • Screen 7.12: Quantum Numbers and Orbitals • 7.1: Electromagnetic Radiation • 7.3: The Electromagnetic Spectrum • 7.8: The Line Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen • 7.10: H Atom in the Bohr Model • 7.11: Absorption of Energy • 7.12: Electronic Transitions That Can Occur in an Excited H Atom • 7.13: Magnesium Oxide • 7.14: Different Views of a 1s (n = and  = 0) Orbital • 7.15: Atomic Orbitals • • • • Screen 7.4: Electromagnetic Spectrum Screen 7.5: Planck’s Equation Screen 7.6: Atomic Line Spectrum Screen 7.9: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle iii Media Integration Guide Chapter Exercises Tutorials Active Figures Additional Resources Atomic Electron Configurations and Chemical Periodicity • Screen 8.6: Effective Nuclear Charge, Z* • Screen 8.7: Atomic Electron Configurations • Screen 8.8: Electron Configuration in Ions • 8.2: Observing and Measuring Paramagnetism • 8.4: Experimentally Determined Order of Subshell Energies • 8.7: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table • 8.9: Examples of the Periodicity of Group 1A and Group 7A Elements • 8.11: Atomic Radii in Picometers for Main Group Elements • 8.13: First Ionization Energies of the Main Group Elements of the First Four Periods • 8.14: Electron Affinity • 8.15: Relative Sizes of Some Common Ions • Screen 8.3: Spinning Electrons and Magnetism • Screen 8.6: Effective Nuclear Charge, Z* • Screen 8.7: Atomic Electron Configurations • Screen 8.8: Electron Configuration in Ions • Screen 8.9: Atomic Properties and Periodic Trends • Screen 8.10: Atomic Sizes • Screen 8.11: Ionization Energy • Screen 8.12: Electron Affinity • Screen 8.14: Ion Size • Screen 8.15: Chemical Reactions and Periodic Properties Bonding and Molecular Structure: Fundamental Concepts • Screen 9.8: Drawing Lewis Structures • Screen 9.14: Determining Molecular Shape • • • • • • 9.3: Lattice Energy • 9.8: Various Geometries Predicted by VSEPR • 9.14: Electronegativity Values for the Elements According to Pauling • 9.16: Polarity of Triatomic Molecules, AB2 • 9.17: Polar and Nonpolar Molecules of the Type AB3 • Screen 9.2: Valence Electrons • Screen 9.4: Lattice Energy • Screen 9.5: Chemical Reactions and Periodic Properties • Screen 9.6: Chemical Bond Formation— Covalent Bonding • Screen 9.13: Ideal Electron Repulsion Shapes • Screen 9.16: Formal Charge • Screen 9.17: Bond Polarity and Electronegativity • Screen 9.18: Molecular Polarity • Screen 9.19: Bond Properties • Screen 9.20: Bond Energy and 䉭Hrxn 10 Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals • Screen 10.8: Molecular Fluxionality • Screen 10.9: Molecular Orbital Theory • Screen 10.11: Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules • 10.1: Potential Energy Change During • Screen 10.5: Sigma Bonding HơH Bond Formation ã Screen 10.6: Determining Hybrid Orbitals • Screen 10.7: Multiple Bonding • 10.5: Hybrid Orbitals for Two to Six Electron Pairs • 10.6: Bonding in the Methane (CH4) Molecule • 10.10: The Valence Bond Model of Bonding in Ethylene, C2H4 • 10.13: Rotation Around Bonds • 10.22: Molecular Orbital Energy Level Diagram Screen 9.7: Lewis Electron Dot Structures Screen 9.8: Drawing Lewis Structures Screen 9.9: Resonance Structures Screen 9.10: Exceptions to the Octet Rule Screen 9.13: Ideal Electron Repulsion Shapes • Screen 9.14: Determining Molecular Shape • Screen 10.3: Valence Bond Theory • Screen 10.4: Hybrid Orbitals • Screen 10.10: Molecular Orbital Configurations Chapter Exercises Tutorials Active Figures Additional Resources • Screen 11.3: Hydrocarbons • Screen 11.4: Hydrocarbons and Addition Reactions • Screen 11.6: Functional Groups • Screens 11.9, 11.10: Synthetic Organic Polymers • Screen 11.6: Functional Groups (1): Reactions of Alcohols • Screen 11.4: Hydrocarbons and Addition Reactions • Screen 11.6: Functional Groups • • • • • 12 Gases & Their Properties • Screen 12.5: Gas Density • Screen 12.12: Application of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory: Diffusion • Screen 12.6: Using Gas Laws: Determining Molar Mass • Screen 12.7: Gas Laws and Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry • Screen 12.8: Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures • 12.4: An Experiment to Demonstrate Boyle’s Law • 12.6: Charles’s Law • 12.18: Gaseous Diffusion • • • • 13 • Screen 13.5: Intermolecular Intermolecular Forces (3) Forces, • Screen 13.17: Phase Changes Liquids, and Solids • Screen 13.5: Intermolecular Forces (3) • Screen 13.9: Properties of Liquids • 13.2: Ion–Dipole Interactions • 13.8: The Boiling Points of Some Simple Hydrogen Compounds • 13.11: The Temperature Dependence of the Densities of Ice and Water • 13.17: Vapor Pressure • 13.18: Vapor Pressure Curves for Diethyl Ether [(C2H5)2O], Ethanol (C2H5OH), and Water • 13.39: Phase Diagram for Water • Screen 13.2: Phases of Matter • Screens 13.3, 13.4, 13.5: Intermolecular Forces • Screen 13.6: Hydrogen Bonding • Screen 13.7: The Weird Properties of Water • Screens 13.8, 13.9, 13.10, 13.11: Properties of Liquids • Screens 13.12, 13.13, 13.14, 13.15: Solid Structures • Screens 13.17: Phase Changes 14 • Screen 14.2: Solubility • Screens 14.5, 14.6: Factors Affecting Solutions and • Screen 14.5: Factors Solubility Their Behavior Affecting Solubility (1)— • Screens 14.7, 14.8, 14.9: Colligative Henry’s Law and Gas Pressure Properties • Screens 14.7, 14.8: Colligative Properties • 14.6: Solubility of Nonpolar Iodine in Polar Water and Nonpolar Carbon Tetrachloride • 14.9: Dissolving an Ionic Solid in Water • Screen 14.3: The Solution Process: Intermolecular Forces • Screen 14.4: Energetics of Solution Formation—Dissolving Ionic Compounds • Screen 14.9: Colligative Properties 15 Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Kinetics • 15.2: A Plot of Reactant Concentration Versus Time for the Decomposition of N2O5 • 15.7: The Decomposition of H2O2 • 15.9: Half-Life of a First-Order Reaction • 15.13: Activation Energy • 15.14: Arrhenius Plot 11.2: Optical Isomers 11.4: Alkanes 11.7: Bacon Fat and Addition Reactions 11.13: Polyethylene 11.18: Nylon-6,6 iv Media Integration Guide 11 Carbon: More Than Just Another Element • Screen: 15.4 Concentration Dependence • Screen: 15.5 Determination of the Rate Equation (1) • Screen 15.12: Reaction Mechanisms • Screen 15.13: Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Equations • Screen 15.14: Catalysis and Reaction Rate • Screen 15.4: Concentration Dependence • Screen 15.5: Determination of the Rate Equation (1) • Screen 15.6: Concentration–Time Relationships • Screen 15.7: Determination of Rate Equation (2) • Screen 15.8: Half-Life • Screen 15.10: Control of Reaction Rates (3) Screen 12.3: Gas Laws Screen 12.4: The Ideal Gas Law Screen 12.5: Gas Density Screen 12.9: The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases: Gases on the Molecular Scale • Screen 12.10: Gas Laws and KineticMolecular Theory • Screen 12.11: Distribution of Molecular Speeds: Maxwell-Boltzmann Curves • Screen 12.12: Application of the KineticMolecular Theory: Diffusion • Screen 15.2: Rates of Chemical Reactions • Screens 15.3, 15.4, 15.10: Control of Reaction Rates • Screen 15.4: Concentration Dependence • Screen 15.5: Determination of the Rate Equation (1) • Screens 15.9, 15.10: Microscopic View of Reactions • Screen 15.14: Catalysis and Reaction Rate Chapter Exercises Active Figures Additional Resources • • • • Screen 16.6: Writing Equilibrium Expressions Screen 16.8: Determining an Equilibrium Constant Screen 16.9: Systems at Equilibrium Screen 16.10: Estimating Equilibrium Concentrations • Screens 16.12, 16.13: Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium • 16.3: The Reaction of H2 and I2 Reaches Equilibrium • 16.9: Changing Concentrations • • • • • • • Screen 16.2: The Principle of Microscopic Reversibility Screen 16.3: Equilibrium State Screen 16.4: Equilibrium Constant Screen 16.5: The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant Screen 16.6: Writing Equilibrium Expressions Screen 16.9: Systems at Equilibrium Screens 16.11, 16.13, 16.14: Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium • • • • • Screen 17.2: BrØnsted Acids and Bases Screen 17.4: The pH Scale Screen 17.5: Strong Acids and Bases Screen 17.8: Determining K a and Kb Values Screen 17.9: Estimating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions • Screen 17.11: Estimating the pH Following an Acid-Base Reaction • Screen 17.13: Lewis Acids and Bases • Screen 17.15: Neutral Lewis Acids • 17.2: pH and pOH • • • • • • • Screen 17.3: The Acid–Base Properties of Water Screen 17.4: The pH Scale Screen 17.6: Weak Acids and Bases Screen 17.7: Acid–Base Reactions Screen 17.12: Acid–Base Properties of Salts Screen 17.14: Cationic Lewis Acids Screen 17.16: Molecular Interpretation of Acid–Base Behavior 18 Principles of Reactivity: Other Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria • • • • • • • • • • • • Screen 18.3: Buffer Solutions Screen 18.4: pH of Buffer Solutions Screen 18.5: Preparing Buffer Solutions Screen 18.6: Adding Reagents to a Buffer Solution Screen 18.7: Titration Curves Screen 18.12: Solubility Product Constant Screen 18.13: Determining Ksp, Experimentally Screen 18.14: Estimating Salt Solubility: Using Ksp Screen 18.15: Common Ion Effect Screen 18.16: Solubility and pH Screen 18.17: Can a Precipitation Reaction Occur? Screen 18.19: Complex Ion Formation and Solubility • 18.2: Buffer Solutions • 18.5: The Change in pH During the Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Screen 18.2: Common Ion Effect Screen 18.3: Buffer Solutions Screen 18.4: pH of Buffer Solutions Screen 18.5: Preparing Buffer Solutions Screen 18.7: Titration Curves Screen 18.8: Titration of a Weak Polyprotic Acid Screen 18.9: Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid Screen 18.10: Acid-Base Indicators Screen 18.11: Precipitation Reactions Screen 18.12: Solubility Product Constant Screen 18.15: Common Ion Effect Screen 18.16: Solubility and pH Screen 18.17: Can a Precipitation Reaction Occur? Screen 18.18: Simultaneous Equilibria Screen 18.20: Using Solubility 19 Principles of Reactivity: Entropy and Free Energy • Screen 19.5: Calculating 䉭S for a Chemical Reaction • Screen 19.6: The Second Law of Thermodynamics • Screen 19.7: Gibbs Free Energy • Screen 19.8: Free Energy and Temperature • Screen 19.9: Thermodynamics and the Equilibrium Constant • 19.12: Spontaneity 䉭G º with Temperature • 19.13: Free Energy Changes as a Reaction Approaches Equilibrium • • • • • • Screen 19.2: Reaction Spontaneity Screen 19.3: Directionality of Reactions Screen 19.4: Entropy: Matter Dispersal and Disorder Screen 19.6: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Screen 19.8: Free Energy and Temperature Screen 19.9: Thermodynamics and the Equilibrium Constant 16 Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Equilibria 17 Principles of Reactivity: The Chemistry of Acids and Bases v Media Integration Guide Tutorials • Screen 17.2: BrØnsted Acids and Bases Chapter Exercises Tutorials • Screen 20.6: Standard Potentials • Screen 20.8: Cells at Nonstandard Conditions • Screen 20.12: Coulometry: Counting Electrons 20 Principles of Reactivity: Electron Transfer Reactions Media Integration Guide vi 21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements • Screen 21.4: Boron Hydrides Structures • Screen 21.5: Aluminum Compounds • Screen 21.6: Silicon-Oxygen Compounds: Formulas and Structures • Screen 21.8: Sulfur Allotropes • Screen 21.9: Structures of Sulfur Compounds 22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements • Screen 22.2: Formulas and Oxidation Numbers in Transition Metal Complexes • Screen 22.5: Geometry of Coordination Compounds • Screen 22.6: Geometric Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 23 Nuclear Chemistry • Screen 23.5: Kinetics of Nuclear Decay • Screen 21.2: Formation of Ionic Compounds by Main Group Elements Active Figures • 20.13: A Voltaic Cell Using Zn Zn (aq, 1.0 M) and H2 0H+(aq, 1.0 M) Half-Cells • Screen 20.2: Redox Reactions: Electron Transfer • Screen 20.3: Balancing Equations for Redox Reactions • Screen 20.4: Electrochemical Cells • Screen 20.5: Batteries • Screen 20.5: Electrochemical Cells and Potentials • Screen 20.6: Standard Potentials • Screen 20.11: Electrolysis: Chemical Change from Electrical Energy • 21.15: Industrial Production of Aluminum • 21.22: Compounds and Oxidation Numbers for Nitrogen • 21.32: A Membrane Cell for the Production of NaOH and Cl2 Gas from a Saturated, Aqueous Solution of NaCl (Brine) • 22.8: A Blast Furnace • Screen 23.2: Radioactive Decay • Screen 23.3: Balancing Nuclear Reaction Equations • Screen 23.4: Stability of Atomic Nuclei • Screen 23.5: Kinetics of Nuclear Decay Additional Resources 2+ • Screen 21.7: Electronic Structure in Transition Metal Complexes • Screen 21.8: Spectroscopy of Transition Metal Complexes • Screen 22.3: Periodic Trends for Transition Elements • Screen 23.4: Stability of Atomic Nuclei • Screen 23.6: Nuclear Fission Chemistry & CHEMICAL REACTIVITY SIXTH EDITION John C Kotz SUNY Distinguished Teaching Professor State University of New York College at Oneonta Paul M Treichel Professor of Chemistry University of Wisconsin–Madison Gabriela C Weaver Associate Professor of Chemistry Purdue University Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Publisher/Executive Editor: David Harris Development Editor: Peter McGahey Assistant Editor: Annie Mac Editorial Assistant: Candace Lum Technology Project Manager: Donna Kelley Executive Marketing Manager: Julie Conover Senior Marketing Manager: Amee Mosley Marketing Communications Manager: Nathaniel Bergson-Michelson Project Manager, Editorial Production: Lisa Weber Creative Director: Rob Hugel Print Buyers: Rebecca Cross and Judy Inouye Permissions Editor: Kiely Sexton Production Service: Thompson Steele, Inc Text Designers: Rob Hugel and John Walker Design Photo Researcher: Jane Sanders Miller Copy Editor: Thompson Steele, Inc Developmental Artist: Patrick A Harman Illustrators: Rolin Graphics and Thompson Steele, Inc Cover Designer: John Walker Design Cover Images: Motohiko Murakami Cover Printer: Transcontinental Printing/Interglobe Compositor: Thompson Steele, Inc Printer: Transcontinental Printing/Interglobe COPYRIGHT © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc Thomson LearningTM is a trademark used herein under license Thomson Brooks/Cole 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems— without the written permission of the publisher Printed in Canada 08 07 06 05 04 For more information about our products, contact us at: Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center 1-800-423-0563 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit a request online at: http://www.thomsonrights.com Any additional questions about permissions can be submitted by email to: thomsonrights@thomson.com COPYRIGHT © 2006 Thomson Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved Thomson Learning WebTutorTM is a trademark of Thomson Learning, Inc Library of Congress Control Number: 2004109955 Student Edition: ISBN 0-534-99766-X Volume 1: ISBN 0-495-01013-8 Volume 2: ISBN 0-495-01014-6 Two-volume set: ISBN 0-534-40800-1 Instructor’s Edition: ISBN 0-534-99848-8 International Student Edition: ISBN 0-495-01035-9 (Not for sale in the United States) Asia Thomson Learning Shenton Way #01-01 UIC Building Singapore 068808 Canada Nelson 1120 Birchmount Road Toronto, Ontario M1K 5G4 Canada Australia/New Zealand Thomson Learning 102 Dodds Street Southbank, Victoria 3006 Australia Europe/Middle East/Africa Thomson Learning High Holborn House 50/51 Bedford Row London WC1R 4LR United Kingdom About the Cover What lies beneath the Earth’s surface? The mantle of the Earth consists largely of silicon-oxygen based minerals But about 2900 km below the surface the solid silicate rock of the mantle gives way to the liquid iron alloy core of the planet To explore the nature of the rocks at the core-mantle boundary, scientists in Japan examined magnesium silicate (MgSiO3) at a high pressure (125 gigapascals) and high temperature (2500 K) The cover image is what they saw The solid consists of SiO6 octahedra (blue) and magnesium ions (Mg2+; yellow spheres) Each SiO6 octahedron shares the four O atoms in opposite edges with two neighboring octahedra, thus forming a chain of octahedra These chains are interlinked by sharing the O atoms at the “top” and “bottom” of SiO6 octahedra in neighboring chains The magnesium ions lie between the layers of interlinked SiO6 chains For more information see M Murakami, K Hirose, K Kawamura, N Sata, and Y Ohishi, Science, Volume 304, page 855, May 7, 2004 ix Chapter Matter and Measurement ix Preface Brief Contents Part 18 Principles of Reactivity: Other Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 848 The Basic Tools of Chemistry Matter and Measurement 10 19 Principles of Reactivity: Entropy and Free Energy Atoms and Elements 20 Principles of Reactivity: Electron Transfer Reactions 58 INTERCHAPTER: The Chemistry of the Environment Molecules, Ions, and Their Compounds 96 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry 140 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 902 942 998 Part 174 The Chemistry of the Elements Principles of Reactivity: Energy and Chemical Reactions 232 21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements INTERCHAPTER: The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy Sources 282 22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements Part Appendices 23 Nuclear Chemistry The Structure of Atoms and Molecules 1012 1068 1108 A Using Logarithms and the Quadratic Equation A-2 294 B Some Important Physical Concepts A-7 Atomic Electron Configurations and Chemical Periodicity 332 C Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors A-10 D Physical Constants A-14 E Naming Organic Compounds A-16 10 Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals 436 F Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron Affinities of the Elements A-19 11 Carbon: More than Just Another Element G Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-20 H Ionization Constants for Weak Acids at 25 °C A-21 I Ionization Constants for Weak Bases at 25 °C A-23 J Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25 °C A-24 K Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in Aqueous Solution A-26 L Selected Thermodynamic Values A-27 M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25 °C A-33 N Answers to Exercises A-36 O Answers to Selected Study Questions A-56 P Answers to Selected Interchapter Study Questions A-107 Atomic Structure Bonding and Molecular Structure: Fundamental Concepts 372 474 INTERCHAPTER: The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry 530 Part States of Matter 12 Gases and Their Properties 546 13 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids 588 INTERCHAPTER: The Chemistry of Modern Materials 14 Solutions and Their Behavior 656 642 Part The Control of Chemical Reactions 15 Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Kinetics 16 Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Equilibria 17 Principles of Reactivity: Chemistry of Acids and Bases 796 698 756 ix