Preview Chemistry Chemical Reactivity, 10th Edition by John C Kotz Paul M. Treichel John Townsend David Treichel (2018)

Preview Chemistry Chemical Reactivity, 10th Edition by John C Kotz Paul M. Treichel John Townsend David Treichel (2018) Preview Chemistry Chemical Reactivity, 10th Edition by John C Kotz Paul M. Treichel John Townsend David Treichel (2018) Preview Chemistry Chemical Reactivity, 10th Edition by John C Kotz Paul M. Treichel John Townsend David Treichel (2018) Preview Chemistry Chemical Reactivity, 10th Edition by John C Kotz Paul M. Treichel John Townsend David Treichel (2018)

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Periodic Table of the Elements Hydrogen H MAIN GROUP METALS 1.0079 1A (1) 2A (2) Lithium Beryllium Li TRANSITION METALS Uranium 92 U METALLOIDS Be 6.941 9.0122 Sodium Magnesium 12 11 Na Mg 3B (3) 4B (4) 5B (5) 6B (6) 7B (7) 22.9898 24.3050 Potassium 19 Calcium 20 Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese 22 23 24 25 21 39.0983 40.078 44.9559 K Ca Rubidium Strontium 37 38 Rb Sr Sc Yttrium 39 Ti 47.867 V 50.9415 Cr 51.9961 Mn 54.9380 Y Zr Nb Hf Ta Tc W Re 132.9055 Francium 87 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium 105 107 88 104 106 89 Fr Ra 88.9059 91.224 92.9064 Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum 57 72 73 Mo 87.62 Barium 56 Ba La Ac (223.02) (226.0254) (227.0278) Note: Atomic masses are IUPAC values (up to four decimal places) Numbers in parentheses are atomic masses or mass numbers of the most stable isotope of an element Atomic weight 8B (8) (9) (10) Iron 26 Cobalt 27 Nickel 28 55.845 58.9332 58.6934 Fe Co Ni Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium 45 40 41 42 43 44 46 85.4678 Cesium 55 Cs Symbol 238.0289 NONMETALS Atomic number Rf (265) Lanthanides Actinides Db (268) 95.96 (97.907) Tungsten Rhenium 75 74 Sg (271) Bh (270) Ru 101.07 Osmium 76 Os Rh Pd Ir Pt 102.9055 106.42 Iridium Platinum 77 78 190.23 192.22 195.084 Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium 108 109 110 Hs (277) Mt (276) Ds (281) Cerium 58 Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium 59 60 61 63 62 140.116 140.9076 Ce Pr Nd 144.242 Pm (144.91) Sm 150.36 Eu 151.964 Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium 92 94 90 93 95 91 Th Pa U Np Pu Am 232.0381 231.0359 238.0289 (237.0482) (244.664) (243.061) For the latest information see: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AtWt/ Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 8A (18) Helium 4A (14) 5A (15) 6A (16) 7A (17) 4.0026 He hydrogen atoms Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon 10 oxygen atoms 10.811 Aluminum 13 12.011 Silicon 14 14.0067 15.9994 Phosphorus Sulfur 15 16 18.9984 Chlorine 17 20.1797 Argon 18 Al C Si N P O S F Cl Ne Ar 1B (11) 2B (12) 26.9815 28.0855 30.9738 32.066 35.4527 39.948 Copper 29 Zinc 30 Gallium 31 Germanium 32 Arsenic 33 Selenium 34 Bromine 35 Krypton 36 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.63 74.9216 78.96 79.904 83.798 Silver 47 Cadmium 48 Indium 49 Tin 50 Iodine 53 Xenon 54 107.8682 Gold 79 112.411 Mercury 80 114.818 Thallium 81 Zn Ag Au Cd Hg carbon atoms 3A (13) B Cu Standard Colors for Atoms in Molecular Models Ga In Tl Ge Sn 118.710 Lead 82 Pb As Se Antimony Tellurium 51 52 Sb 121.760 Bismuth 83 Bi Te Br I 127.60 126.9045 Polonium Astatine 85 84 Po At nitrogen atoms chlorine atoms Kr Xe 131.293 Radon 86 Rn 207.2 208.9804 (208.98) (209.99) (222.02) 196.9666 200.59 204.3833 Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Rg (280) Cn (285) Nh (286) Fl (289) Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium 66 67 65 64 Gd Tb Dy Ho Ts Og Erbium 68 Thulium 69 Ytterbium Lutetium 71 70 167.26 168.9342 173.045 174.9668 Er Tm (293) Yb (294) Lu 158.9254 Curium 96 Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium 97 100 98 99 101 102 103 Cm Bk Cf 164.9303 Lv (292) 157.25 (247.07) (247.07) 162.50 Mc (289) Es (251.08) (252.08) Fm Md (257.10) (258.10) No Lr (259.10) (262.11) Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 10th Edition Chemistry & Chemical Reactivit y John C Kotz State University of New York College at Oneonta Paul M Treichel University of Wisconsin–Madison John R Townsend West Chester University of Pennsylvania David A Treichel Nebraska Wesleyan University Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it This is an electronic version of the print textbook Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the eBook version Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, Tenth Edition John C Kotz, Paul M Treichel, John R Townsend, and David A Treichel Product Director: Dawn Giovanniello Product Manager: Lisa Lockwood Content Developer: Peter McGahey © 2019, 2015 Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher Product Assistant: Nellie Mitchell For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 Marketing Manager: Janet Del Mundo Content Project Manager: Teresa L Trego For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Digital Content Specialist: Alexandra Kaplan Art Director: Sarah B Cole Manufacturing Planner: Rebecca Cross Intellectual Property Analyst: Christine Myaskovsky Library of Congress Control Number: 2017945488 Intellectual Property Project Manager: Erika Mugavin Student Edition: ISBN: 978-1-337-39907-4 Production Service and Composition: Graphic World, Inc Loose-leaf Edition: ISBN: 978-1-337-39921-0 Text/Cover Designer: The Delgado Group Cover Image Credit: © Kevin Schafer/ Minden Pictures Cengage Learning 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01  Print Year: 2017 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Contents PART ONE THE BASIC TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY PART FIVE THE CHEMISTRY OF THE ELEMENTS Basic Concepts of Chemistry  xxviii 20 Environmental Chemistry—Earth’s Environment, Energy, and Sustainability  916 21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements  958 22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements  1020 23 Carbon: Not Just Another Element  1064 24 Biochemistry  1116 25 Nuclear Chemistry  1148 Let’s Review: The Tools of Quantitative Chemistry  28 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions  58 Chemical Reactions  122 Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about Chemical Reactions  172 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Energy and Chemical Reactions  228 PART TWO ATOMS AND MOLECULES The Structure of Atoms  276 The Structure of Atoms and Periodic Trends  310 Bonding and Molecular Structure  350 Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals  412 PART THREE STATES OF MATTER 10 Gases and Their Properties  450 11 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids  490 12 The Solid State  526 13 Solutions and Their Behavior  564 PART FOUR THE CONTROL OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 14 Chemical Kinetics: The Rates of Chemical Reactions 608 15 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Equilibria  670 16 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: The Chemistry of Acids and Bases  708 17 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Other Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria  760 18 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Entropy and Free Energy 814 19 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Electron Transfer Reactions 858 List of Appendices A Using Logarithms and Solving Quadratic Equations A-2 B Some Important Physical Concepts  A-6 C Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors  A-9 D Physical Constants  A-13 E A Brief Guide to Naming Organic Compounds A-15 F Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron Attachment Enthalpies of the Elements  A-18 G Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-19 H Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Acids at 25 °C A-20 I Ionization Constants for Aqueous Weak Bases at 25 °C A-22 J Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25 °C  A-23 K Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in Aqueous Solution at 25 °C  A-24 L Selected Thermodynamic Values  A-25 M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25 °C  A-32 N Answers to Study Questions, Check Your Understanding, and Applying Chemical Principles Questions A-36 Index and Glossary  I-1 iii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Contents Preface  xix L et’s Review: The Tools of Quantitative Chemistry  28 PART ONE THE BASIC TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY 1 Temperature Scales  29 Length, Volume, and Mass  31 Basic Concepts of Chemistry  xxviii 1.1 Chemistry and Its Methods  Energy Units  33 A Scientific Mystery: Ötzi the Iceman  Goals of Science  Standard Deviation  36 States of Matter and Kinetic-Molecular Theory  Matter at the Macroscopic and Particulate Levels  Significant Figures  38 Mixtures: Heterogeneous and Homogeneous  APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 2: Ties in Swimming and Significant Figures  48 1.4 Elements  1.5 Compounds  10 1.6 Physical Properties  12 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 49 KEY EQUATIONS 49 Extensive and Intensive Properties  14 Conservation of Energy  18 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 1.1: CO2 in the Oceans  19 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 20 Problem Solving by Dimensional Analysis  43 Graphs and Graphing  44 Problem Solving and Chemical Arithmetic  45 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 1: Out of Gas!  47 Pure Substances  1.7 Physical and Chemical Changes  15 1.8 Energy: Some Basic Principles  17 Mathematics of Chemistry  37 Exponential or Scientific Notation  37 Dilemmas and Integrity in Science  1.2 Sustainability and Green Chemistry  1.3 Classifying Matter  A Closer Look: Energy and Food  34 Making Measurements: Precision, Accuracy, Experimental Error, and Standard Deviation  34 Experimental Error  35 Chemistry and Change  Hypotheses, Laws, and Theories  Units of Measurement  29 STUDY QUESTIONS 50 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions  58 2.1 Atomic Structure, Atomic Number, and Atomic Mass  59 KEY EQUATION 21 Atomic Structure  59 STUDY QUESTIONS 21 Atomic Number  60 Relative Atomic Mass  60 Mass Number  60 iv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 2.2 Isotopes and Atomic Weight  62 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 2.3: Argon—An Amazing Discovery  103 Determining Atomic Mass and Isotope Abundance 62 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 104 Atomic Weight  63 2.3 Key Experiments: How Do We Know the Nature of the Atom and Its Components?  66 The Periodic Table  68 Features of the Periodic Table  68 A Brief Overview of the Periodic Table and the Chemical Elements  69 2.4 A Closer Look: Mendeleev and the Periodic Table 70 Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas  74 Formulas 75 Molecular Models  75 Naming Molecular Compounds  76 KEY EQUATIONS 106 STUDY QUESTIONS 106 3.1 Introduction to Chemical Equations  123 3.2 3.3 3.4 Ions 78 Formulas of Ionic Compounds  81 Names of Ions  83 Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water  133 3.5 Precipitation Reactions  135 Net Ionic Equations  137 3.6 Acids and Bases  139 Acids and Bases: The Arrhenius Definition  140 Properties of Ionic Compounds  84 2.6 A Closer Look: Naming Common Acids  141 A Closer Look: Hydrated Ionic Compounds  85 Atoms, Molecules, and the Mole  86 Acids and Bases: The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 142 A Closer Look: Amedeo Avogadro and His Number  87 Reactions of Acids and Bases  144 A Closer Look: Sulfuric Acid  145 Atoms and Molar Mass  87 Molecules, Compounds, and Molar Mass  89 2.7 A Closer Look: The Mole, a Counting Unit  90 Chemical Analysis: Determining Compound Formulas  93 Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals  146 3.7 Gas-Forming Reactions  147 3.8 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  149 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions and Electron Transfer 150 Percent Composition  93 Oxidation Numbers  151 Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Percent Composition 94 Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  153 Determining a Formula from Mass Data  97 2.8 Instrumental Analysis: Determining Compound Formulas  99 A Closer Look: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794 124 Balancing Chemical Equations  125 Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium  128 Aqueous Solutions  131 Ions and Molecules in Aqueous Solutions  131 2.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties  77 Chemical Reactions  122 3.9 A Closer Look: Are Oxidation Numbers “Real”? 153 Classifying Reactions in Aqueous Solution  155 Molar Mass and Isotopes in Mass Spectrometry  100 A Closer Look: Alternative Organizations of Reaction Types  156 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 2.1: Using Isotopes: Ötzi, the Iceman of the Alps  102 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 3.1: Superconductors 158 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 2.2: Arsenic, Medicine, and the Formula of Compound 606  103 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 3.2: Sequestering Carbon Dioxide  159 Determining a Formula by Mass Spectrometry  99 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 3.3: Black Smokers and Volcanoes  159 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 160 STUDY QUESTIONS 162 Contents v Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Stoichiometry: Quantitative Information about Chemical Reactions  172 4.1 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry  173 5.1 Energy: Some Basic Principles  229 Systems and Surroundings  230 4.2 Reactions in Which One Reactant Is Present in Directionality and Extent of Transfer of Heat: Thermal Equilibrium  230 Limited Supply  177 A Stoichiometry Calculation with a Limiting Reactant 177 5.2 Specific Heat Capacity: Heating and Cooling  231 4.3 Percent Yield  180 4.4 Chemical Equations and Chemical Analysis  183 A Closer Look: What is Heat?  233 Quantitative Aspects of Energy Transferred as Heat 234 Quantitative Analysis of a Mixture  183 Determining the Formula of a Compound by Combustion 185 4.5 Measuring Concentrations of Compounds in 5.3 Energy and Changes of State  236 5.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics  240 A Closer Look: P–V Work  242 Solution  188 Enthalpy 242 Solution Concentration: Molarity  188 Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration  191 4.6 4.7 4.8 A Closer Look: Serial Dilutions  193 pH, a Concentration Scale for Acids and Bases  194 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution—Fundamentals  196 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution—Titrations 198 Principles of Chemical Reactivity: Energy and Chemical Reactions  228 State Functions  244 5.5 Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions  245 5.6 Calorimetry 247 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry, Measuring ΔH 247 Constant-Volume Calorimetry, Measuring ΔU 249 5.7 Enthalpy Calculations  251 Hess’s Law  251 Energy Level Diagrams  252 Titration: A Method of Chemical Analysis  198 Standard Enthalpies of Formation  254 Standardizing an Acid or Base  200 Enthalpy Change for a Reaction  255 Determining Molar Mass by Titration  201 A Closer Look: Hess’s Law and Equation 5.6  256 Product- or Reactant-Favored Reactions and Thermodynamics  257 Titrations Using Oxidation–Reduction Reactions  202 4.9 Spectrophotometry 203 Transmittance, Absorbance, and the Beer– Lambert Law  204 5.8 Spectrophotometric Analysis  205 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 5.1: Gunpowder 258 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 4.1: Green Chemistry and Atom Economy  207 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 5.2: The Fuel Controversy—Alcohol and Gasoline  259 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 4.2: Forensic Chemistry—Food Tampering  208 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 260 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 4.3: How Much Salt is There in Seawater?  209 STUDY QUESTIONS 262 KEY EQUATIONS 261 APPLYING CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 4.4: The Martian  209 CHAPTER GOALS REVISITED 210 KEY EQUATIONS 211 STUDY QUESTIONS 212 vi Contents Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Atomic structure (a) The synthetic radioactive element technetium is used in many medical studies Give the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons in an atom of technetium-99 (b) Radioactive americium-241 is used in household smoke detectors and in bone mineral analysis Give the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons in an atom of americium-241 charged, which are negatively charged, and which have no charge? Of the two charged particles, which has the most mass? particles rays Photographic film or phosphor screen – Key Experiments Developing Atomic Structure (See pages 66–67.) From cathode ray experiments, J J Thomson estimated that the mass of an electron was “about a thousandth” of the mass of a proton How accurate is that estimate? Calculate the ratio of the mass of an electron to the mass of a proton 10 In 1886 Eugene Goldstein observed positively charged particles moving in the opposite direction to electrons in a cathode ray tube (illustrated below) From their mass, he concluded that these particles were formed from residual gas in the tube For example, if the cathode ray tube contained helium, the canal rays consisted of He+ ions Describe a process that could lead to these ions Cathode rays Anode + – – – Positive (canal) rays Cathode with holes (pierced disk) + + – + Electron Gas molecules To vacuum pump + Positive ion Canal rays.  In 1886, Eugene Goldstein detected a stream of particles traveling in the direction opposite to that of the negatively charged cathode rays (electrons) He called this stream of positive particles “canal rays.” 11 Marie Curie was born in Poland but studied and carried out her research in Paris In 1903, she shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with H Becquerel and her husband Pierre for their discovery of radioactivity (In 1911 she received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of two new chemical elements, radium and polonium, the latter named for her homeland, Poland.) They and others observed that a radioactive substance could emit three types of radiation: alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) If the radiation from a radioactive source is passed between electrically charged plates, some particles are attached to the positive plate, some to the negative plate, and others feel no attraction Which particles are positively + Lead block shield particles, attracted to + plate Slit particles particles, attracted to – plate Charged plates Radioactive element Radioactivity.  Alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) rays from a radioactive element are separated by passing them between electrically charged plates 12 Early in the 1800s John Dalton proposed that an atom was a “solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, moveable particle.” Critique this description How does this description misrepresent atomic structure? Isotopes 13 The mass of an 16O atom is 15.995 u What is its mass relative to the mass of an atom of 12C? 14 What is the mass of one 16O atom, in grams? (The mass of an 16O atom is 15.995 u.) 15 Cobalt has three radioactive isotopes used in medical studies Atoms of these isotopes have 30, 31, and 33 neutrons, respectively Give the complete symbol for each of these isotopes 16 Naturally occurring silver exists as two isotopes having mass numbers 107 and 109 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in each of these isotopes? 17 Name and describe the composition of the three hydrogen isotopes 18 Which of the following are isotopes of element X, the atomic number for which is 9: 199X, 209X, 189X, and 219X? Isotope Abundance and Atomic Weight (See Examples 2.2 and 2.3.) 19 Thallium has two stable isotopes, 203Tl and 205Tl Knowing that the atomic weight of thallium is 204.4, which isotope is the more abundant of the two? 20 Strontium has four stable isotopes Strontium-84 has a very low natural abundance, but 86Sr, 87Sr, and 88Sr are all reasonably abundant Knowing that the atomic weight of strontium is 87.62, which of the more abundant isotopes predominates? Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 107 21 Verify that the atomic weight of lithium is 6.94, given the following information: Li, mass = 6.015121 u; percent abundance = 7.50% Li, mass = 7.016003 u; percent abundance = 92.50% 22 Verify that the atomic weight of magnesium is 24.31, given the following information: Mg, mass = 23.985042 u; percent abundance = 78.99% Mg, mass = 24.985837 u; percent abundance = 10.00% 26 Mg, mass = 25.982593 u; percent abundance = 11.01% 24 25 23 Gallium has two naturally occurring isotopes, 69 Ga and 71Ga, with masses of 68.9257 u and 70.9249 u, respectively Calculate the percent abundances of these isotopes of gallium 24 Europium has two stable isotopes, 151Eu and 153 Eu, with masses of 150.9197 u and 152.9212 u, respectively Calculate the percent abundances of these isotopes of europium The Periodic Table 30 Give the name and chemical symbol for the following (a) a nonmetal in the second period (b) an alkali metal in the fifth period (c) the third-period halogen (d) an element that is a gas at 20°C and atmosphere pressure 31 Classify the following elements as metals, metalloids, or nonmetals: N, Na, Ni, Ne, and Np 32 Here are symbols for five of the seven elements whose names begin with the letter B: B, Ba, Bk, Bi, and Br Match each symbol with one of the descriptions below (a) a radioactive element (b) a liquid at room temperature (c) a metalloid (d) an alkaline earth element (e) a group 5A element Molecular Formulas and Models (See Section 2.3.) 25 Titanium and thallium have symbols that are easily confused with each other Give the symbol, atomic number, atomic weight, and group and period number of each element Are they metals, metalloids, or nonmetals? 26 In Groups 4A–6A, there are several elements whose symbols begin with S Name these elements, and for each one give its symbol, atomic number, group number, and period Describe each as a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal 33 A model of nitric acid is illustrated here Write the molecular formula for nitric acid, and draw the structural formula Describe the structure of the molecule Is it flat? That is, are all the atoms in the plane of the paper? (Color code: nitrogen atoms are blue; oxygen atoms are red; and hydrogen atoms are white.) 27 How many periods of the periodic table have 8 elements, how many have 18 elements, and how many have 32 elements? 28 How many elements occur in the seventh period? What is the name given to the majority of these elements, and what well-known property characterizes them? 29 Select answers to the questions listed below from the following list of elements whose symbols start with the letter C: C, Ca, Cr, Co, Cd, Cl, Cs, Ce, Cm, Cu, and Cf (You should expect to use some symbols more than once.) (a) Which are nonmetals? (b) Which are main group elements? (c) Which are lanthanides? (d) Which are transition elements? (e) Which are actinides? (f) Which are gases? 108 Nitric acid 34 A model of the amino acid asparagine is illustrated here Write the molecular formula for the compound, and draw its structural formula Asparagine, an amino acid CHAPTER / Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Ions and Ion Charges (See Figure 2.18 and Table 2.4.) 35 What is the charge on the common monatomic ions of the following elements? (a) magnesium (c) nickel (b) zinc (d) gallium 36 What is the charge on the common monatomic ions of the following elements? (a) selenium (c) iron (b) fluorine (d) nitrogen 37 Give the symbol, including the correct charge, for each of the following ions: (a) barium ion (b) titanium(IV) ion (c) phosphate ion (d) hydrogen carbonate ion (e) sulfide ion (f) perchlorate ion (g) cobalt(II) ion (h) sulfate ion 38 Give the symbol, including the correct charge, for each of the following ions: (a) permanganate ion (b) nitrite ion (c) dihydrogen phosphate ion (d) ammonium ion (e) phosphate ion (f) sulfite ion 39 When a potassium atom becomes a monatomic ion, how many electrons does it lose or gain? What noble gas atom has the same number of electrons as a potassium ion? 40 When oxygen and sulfur atoms become monatomic ions, how many electrons does each lose or gain? Which noble gas atom has the same number of electrons as an oxide ion? Which noble gas atom has the same number of electrons as a sulfide ion? Ionic Compounds (See Examples 2.4 and 2.5.) 41 What are the charges on the ions in an ionic compound containing the elements barium and bromine? Write the formula for the compound 42 What are the charges of the ions in an ionic compound containing cobalt(III) and fluoride ions? Write the formula for the compound 43 Give the formula and the number of each ion that makes up each of the following compounds: (a) K2S (d) (NH4)3PO4 (b) CoSO4 (e) Ca(ClO)2 (c) KMnO4 (f) NaCH3CO2 44 Give the formula and the number of each ion that makes up each of the following compounds: (a) Mg(CH3CO2)2 (d) Ti(SO4)2 (b) Al(OH)3 (e) KH2PO4 (c) CuCO3 (f) CaHPO4 45 Cobalt forms Co2+ and Co3+ ions Write the formulas for the two cobalt oxides formed by these transition metal ions 46 Platinum is a transition element and forms Pt2+ and Pt4+ ions Write the formulas for the compounds of each of these ions with (a) chloride ions and (b) sulfide ions 47 Which of the following are correct formulas for ionic compounds? For those that are not, give the correct formula (a) AlCl2 (c) Ga2O3 (b) KF2 (d) MgS 48 Which of the following are correct formulas for ionic compounds? For those that are not, give the correct formula (a) Ca2O (c) Fe2O5 (b) SrBr2 (d) Li2O Naming Ionic Compounds 49 Name each of the following ionic compounds: (a) K2S (c) (NH4)3PO4 (b) CoSO4 (d) Ca(ClO)2 50 Name each of the following ionic compounds: (a) Ca(CH3CO2)2 (c) Al(OH)3 (b) Ni3(PO4)2 (d) KH2PO4 51 Give the formula for each of the following ionic compounds: (a) ammonium carbonate (b) calcium iodide (c) copper(II) bromide (d) aluminum phosphate (e) silver(I) acetate 52 Give the formula for each of the following ionic compounds: (a) calcium hydrogen carbonate (b) potassium permanganate (c) magnesium perchlorate (d) potassium hydrogen phosphate (e) sodium sulfite 53 Write the formulas for the four ionic compounds that can be made by combining each of the cations Na+ and Ba2+ with the anions CO32− and I− Name each of the compounds Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 109 54 Write the formulas for the four ionic compounds that can be made by combining the cations Mg2+ and Fe3+ with the anions PO43− and NO3− Name each compound formed Coulomb’s Law (See Equation 2.3 and Figure 2.22.) 62 Calculate the mass, in grams, of each the following: (a) 4.24 mol of gold (b) 15.6 mol of He (c) 0.063 mol of platinum (d) 3.63 × 10−4 mol of Pu 55 Sodium ions, Na+, form ionic compounds with fluoride ions, F−, and iodide ions, I− The radii of these ions are as follows: Na+ = 116 pm; F− = 119 pm; and I− = 206 pm In which ionic compound, NaF or NaI, are the forces of attraction between cation and anion stronger? Explain your answer 63 Calculate the amount (moles) represented by each of the following: (a) 127.08 g of Cu (b) 0.012 g of lithium (c) 5.0 mg of americium (d) 6.75 g of Al 56 Consider the two ionic compounds NaCl and CaO In which compound are the cation–anion attractive forces stronger? Explain your answer 64 Calculate the amount (moles) represented by each of the following: (a) 16.0 g of Na (c) 0.0034 g of platinum (b) 0.876 g of tin (d) 0.983 g of Xe Naming Binary, Molecular Compounds 57 Name each of the following binary, nonionic compounds: (a) NF3 (c) BI3 (b) HI (d) PF5 58 Name each of the following binary, nonionic compounds: (a) N2O5 (c) OF2 (b) P4S3 (d) XeF4 59 Give the formula for each of the following compounds: (a) sulfur dichloride (b) dinitrogen pentaoxide (c) silicon tetrachloride (d) diboron trioxide (commonly called boric oxide) 60 Give the formula for each of the following compounds: (a) bromine trifluoride (b) xenon difluoride (c) hydrazine (d) diphosphorus tetrafluoride (e) butane Atoms and the Mole (See Example 2.6.) 61 Calculate the mass, in grams, of each the following: (a) 2.5 mol of aluminum (b) 1.25 × 10−3 mol of iron (c) 0.015 mol of calcium (d) 653 mol of neon 110 65 You are given 1.0-g samples of He, Fe, Li, Si, and C Which sample contains the largest number of atoms? Which contains the smallest? 66 You are given 0.10-g samples of K, Mo, Cr, and Al List the samples in order of the amount (moles), from smallest to largest 67 Analysis of a 10.0-g sample of apatite (a major component of tooth enamel) showed that it was made up of 3.99 g Ca, 1.85 g P, 4.14 g O, and 0.020 g H List these elements based on relative amounts (moles), from smallest to largest 68 A semiconducting material is composed of 52 g of Ga, 9.5 g of Al, and 112 g of As Which element has the largest number of atoms in this material? Molecules, Compounds, and the Mole (See Example 2.7.) 69 Calculate the molar mass of each of the following compounds: (a) Fe2O3, iron(III) oxide (b) BCl3, boron trichloride (c) C6H8O6, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) 70 Calculate the molar mass of each of the following compounds: (a) Fe(C6H11O7)2, iron(II) gluconate, a dietary supplement (b) CH3CH2CH2CH2SH, butanethiol, has a skunklike odor (c) C20H24N2O2, quinine, used as an antimalarial drug CHAPTER / Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 71 Calculate the molar mass of each hydrated compound Note that the water of hydration is included in the molar mass (See page 85.) (a) Ni(NO3)2 ∙ H2O (b) CuSO4 ∙ H2O 72 Calculate the molar mass of each hydrated compound Note that the water of hydration is included in the molar mass (See page 85.) (a) H2C2O4 ∙ H2O (b) MgSO4 ∙ H2O, Epsom salt 76 How many ammonium ions and how many sulfate ions are present in a 0.20 mol sample of (NH4)2SO4? How many atoms of N, H, S and O are contained in this sample? 77 Acetaminophen, whose structure is drawn below, is the active ingredient in some nonprescription pain killers The recommended dose for an adult is two 500‑mg caplets How many molecules make up one dose of this drug? 73 What mass is represented by 0.0255 mol of each of the following compounds? (a) C3H7OH, 2-propanol, rubbing alcohol (b) C11H16O2, an antioxidant in foods, also known as BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) (c) C9H8O4, aspirin (d) (CH3)2CO, acetone, an important industrial solvent 74 Assume you have 0.123 mol of each of the following compounds What mass of each is present? (a) C14H10O4, benzoyl peroxide, used in acne medications (b) Dimethylglyoxime, used in the laboratory to test for nickel(II) ions CH3 C N OH C N OH (See Example 2.8.) (c) The compound below, responsible for the “skunky” taste in poorly made beer CH3 H H C C CH3 S H H (d) DEET, a mosquito repellent HC HC H C C C CH O CH2 C N CH2 CH3 CH3 CH3 75 Sulfur trioxide, SO3, is made industrially in enormous quantities by combining oxygen and sulfur dioxide, SO2 What amount (moles) of SO3 is represented by 1.00 kg of sulfur trioxide? How many molecules? How many sulfur atoms? How many oxygen atoms? 78 An Alka-Seltzer tablet contains 324 mg of aspirin (C9H8O4), 1904 mg of NaHCO3, and 1000 mg of citric acid (H3C6H5O7) (The last two compounds react with each other to provide the “fizz,” bubbles of CO2, when the tablet is put into water.) (a) Calculate the amount (moles) of each substance in the tablet (b) If you take one tablet, how many molecules of aspirin are you consuming? Percent Composition CH3 C Acetaminophen 79 Calculate the mass percent of each element in the following compounds: (a) PbS, lead(II) sulfide, galena (b) C3H8, propane (c) C10H14O, carvone, found in caraway seed oil 80 Calculate the mass percent of each element in the following compounds: (a) C8H10N2O2, caffeine (b) C10H20O, menthol (c) CoCl2 ∙ H2O 81 Calculate the mass percent of copper in CuS, copper(II) sulfide If you wish to obtain 10.0 g of copper metal from copper(II) sulfide, what mass of CuS (in grams) must you use? 82 Calculate the mass percent of titanium in the mineral ilmenite, FeTiO3 What mass of ilmenite (in grams) is required if you wish to obtain 750 g of titanium? Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 111 Empirical and Molecular Formulas Determining Formulas from Mass Data (See Example 2.9.) (See Examples 2.10 and 2.11.) 84 An organic compound has the empirical formula C2H4NO If its molar mass is 116.1 g/mol, what is the molecular formula of the compound? 85 Complete the following table: Empirical Formula Molar Mass (g/mol) (a) CH  26.0 (b) CHO 116.1 (c) Molecular Formula C8H16 86 Complete the following table: Empirical Formula Molar Mass (g/mol) (a) C2H3O3 150.0 (b) C3H8  44.1 (c) Molecular Formula B4H10 87 Acetylene is a colorless gas used as a fuel in welding torches, among other things It is 92.26% C and 7.74% H Its molar mass is 26.02 g/mol What are the empirical and molecular formulas of acetylene? 88 A large family of boron-hydrogen compounds has the general formula BxHy  One member of this family contains 88.5% B; the remainder is hydrogen What is its empirical formula? 89 Cumene, a hydrocarbon, is a compound composed only of C and H It is 89.94% carbon, and its molar mass is 120.2 g/mol What are the empirical and molecular formulas of cumene? 90 In 2006, a Russian team discovered an interesting molecule they called “sulflower” because of its shape and because it was based on sulfur It is composed of 57.17% S and 42.83% C and has a molar mass of 448.70 g/mol Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of “sulflower.” 91 Mandelic acid is an organic acid composed of carbon (63.15%), hydrogen (5.30%), and oxygen (31.55%) Its molar mass is 152.14 g/mol Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of the acid 93 A compound containing xenon and fluorine was prepared by shining sunlight on a mixture of Xe (0.526 g) and excess F2 gas If you isolate 0.678 g of the new compound, what is its empirical formula? 94 Elemental sulfur (1.256 g) is combined with fluorine, F2, to give a compound with the formula SFx , a very stable, colorless gas If you have isolated 5.722 g of SFx , what is the value of x? 95 Epsom salt is used in tanning leather and in medicine It is hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgSO4 ∙ H2O The water of hydration is lost on heating, with the number lost depending on the temperature Suppose you heat a 1.394-g sample at 100 °C and obtain 0.885 g of a partially hydrated sample, MgSO4 ∙ x H2O What is the value of x? 96 You combine 1.25 g of germanium, Ge, with excess chlorine, Cl2 The mass of product, GexCly, is 3.69 g What is the formula of the product, GexCly? Mass Spectrometry (See Section 2.8.) 97 The mass spectrum of nitrogen dioxide is illustrated here (a) Identify the cations present for each of the four peaks in the mass spectrum (b) Does the mass spectrum provide evidence that the two oxygen atoms are attached to a central nitrogen atom (ONO), or that an oxygen atom is at the center (NOO)? Explain 100 Relative abundance of ions 83 Succinic acid occurs in fungi and lichens Its empirical formula is C2H3O2, and its molar mass is 118.1 g/mol What is its molecular formula? 30 80 60 46 40 20 16 14 10 20 30 40 Mass-to-charge ratio (m/Z) 50 92 Nicotine, a poisonous compound found in tobacco leaves, is 74.0% C, 8.65% H, and 17.35% N Its molar mass is 162 g/mol What are the empirical and molecular formulas of nicotine? 112 CHAPTER / Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 98 The mass spectrum of phosphoryl chloride, POF3, is illustrated here (a) Identify the cation fragment at a m/Z ratio of 85 (b) Identify the cation fragment at a m/Z ratio of 69 (c) Which two peaks in the mass spectrum provide evidence that the oxygen atom is connected to the phosphorus atom and is not connected to any of the three fluorine atoms? 100 104 General Questions Relative abundance of ions 85 80 These questions are not designated as to type or location in the chapter They may combine several concepts 60 101 Fill in the blanks in the table (one column per element) 20 69 47 50 50 70 90 Mass-to-charge ratio (m/Z) Ni S Number of protons 10 Number of neutrons 10 110 30 25 Name of element 102 Potassium has three naturally occurring isotopes (39K, 40K, and 41K), but 40K has a very low natural abundance Which of the other two isotopes is more abundant? Briefly explain your answer 103 Crossword Puzzle: In the 2 × box shown here, each answer must be correct four ways: horizontally, vertically, diagonally, and by itself Instead of words, use symbols of elements When the puzzle is complete, the four spaces will contain the overlapping symbols of 10 elements There is only one correct solution 100 80 60 Horizontal 1–2: two-letter symbol for a metal used in ancient times 3–4: two-letter symbol for a metal that burns in air and is found in Group 5A 40 20 10 33 Number of electrons    in the neutral atom 88 66 99 The mass spectrum of CH3Cl is illustrated here You know that carbon has two stable isotopes, 12 C and 13C with relative abundances of 98.9% and 1.1%, respectively, and chlorine has two isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl with abundances of 75.77% and 24.23%, respectively (a) What molecular species gives rise to the lines at m/Z of 50 and 52? Why is the line at 52 about 1/3 the height of the line at 50? (b) What species might be responsible for the line at m/Z = 51? Relative Abundance 58 Symbol 40 30 20 30 40 (m/Z) 100 The highest mass peaks in the mass spectrum of Br2 occur at m/Z 158, 160, and 162 The ratio of intensities of these peaks is approximately 1:2:1 Bromine has two stable isotopes, 79Br (50.7% abundance) and 81Br (49.3% abundance) (a) What molecular species gives rise to each of these peaks? (b) Explain the relative intensities of these peaks (Hint: Consider the probabilities of each atom combination.) 50 60 Vertical 1–3: two-letter symbol for a metalloid 2–4: two-letter symbol for a metal used in U.S coins Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 113 Single squares: All one-letter symbols 1: a colorful nonmetal 2: colorless, gaseous nonmetal 3: an element that makes fireworks green 4: an element that has medicinal uses Diagonal 1–4: two-letter symbol for an element used in electronics 2–3: two-letter symbol for a metal used with Zr to make wires for superconducting magnets This puzzle first appeared in Chemical & Engineering News, p 86, December 14, 1987 (submitted by S J Cyvin) and in Chem Matters, October 1988 104 The following chart shows a general decline in abundance with increasing mass among the first 30 elements The decline continues beyond zinc Notice that the scale on the vertical axis is logarithmic, that is, it progresses in powers of 10 The abundance of nitrogen, for example, is 1/10,000 (1/104) of the abundance of hydrogen All abundances are plotted as the number of atoms per 1012 atoms of H (The fact that the abundances of Li, Be, and B, as well as those of the elements near Fe, not follow the general decline is a consequence of the way that elements are synthesized in stars.) 1014 1012 Relative abundance 1010 108 106 104 H He Li Be B C N O F NeNaMg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr MnFe Co Ni Cu Zn Element The abundance of the elements in the solar system from H to Zn (a) What is the most abundant main group metal? (b) What is the most abundant nonmetal? (c) What is the most abundant metalloid? (d) Which of the transition elements is most abundant? (e) Which halogens are included on this plot, and which is the most abundant? 114 106 Which of the following is impossible? (a) silver foil that is 1.2 × 10−4 m thick (b) a sample of potassium that contains 1.784 × 1024 atoms (c) a gold coin of mass 1.23 × 10−3 kg (d) 3.43 × 10−27 mol of S8 molecules 107 Reviewing the periodic table (a) Name the element in Group 2A and the fifth period (b) Name the element in the fifth period and Group 4B (c) Which element is in the second period in Group 4A? (d) Which element is in the fourth period in Group 5A? (e) Which halogen is in the fifth period? (f) Which alkaline earth element is in the third period? (g) Which noble gas element is in the fourth period? (h) Name the nonmetal in Group 6A and the third period (i) Name a metalloid in the fourth period 108 Identify two nonmetallic elements that have allotropes and describe the allotropes of each 102 105 Copper atoms (a) What is the average mass of one copper atom? (b) Students in a college computer science class once sued the college because they were asked to calculate the cost of one atom and could not it But you are in a chemistry course, and you can this (See E Felsenthal, Wall Street Journal, May 9, 1995.) If the cost of 2.0-mm diameter copper wire (99.999% pure) is currently $41.70 for 7.0 g, what is the cost of one copper atom? 109 In each case, decide which represents more mass: (a) 0.5 mol of Na, 0.5 mol of Si, or 0.25 mol of U (b) 9.0 g of Na, 0.50 mol of Na, or 1.2 × 1022 atoms of Na (c) 10 atoms of Fe or 10 atoms of K 110 The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of iron for women 19–30 years old is 18 mg How many moles is this? How many atoms? CHAPTER / Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 111 Put the following elements in order from smallest to largest mass: (a) 3.79 × 1024 (d) 7.4 mol Si atoms Fe (e) 9.221 mol Na (b) 19.921 mol H2 (f) 4.07 × 1024 atoms Al (c) 8.576 mol C (g) 9.2 mol Cl2 112 ▲ When a sample of phosphorus burns in air, the compound P4O10 forms One experiment showed that 0.744 g of phosphorus formed 1.704 g of P4O10 Use this information to determine the ratio of the atomic weights of phosphorus and oxygen (mass P/mass O) If the atomic weight of oxygen is assumed to be 16.000, calculate the atomic weight of phosphorus 113 ▲ Although carbon-12 is now used as the standard for atomic weights, this has not always been the case Early attempts at classification used hydrogen as the standard, with the weight of hydrogen being set equal to 1.0000 Later attempts defined atomic weights using oxygen (with a weight of 16.0000) In each instance, the atomic weights of the other elements were defined relative to these masses (To answer this question, you need more precise data on current atomic weights: H, 1.00794; O, 15.9994.) (a) If H = 1.0000 u was used as a standard for atomic weights, what would the atomic weight of oxygen be? What would be the value of Avogadro’s number under these circumstances? (b) Assuming the standard is O = 16.0000, determine the value for the atomic weight of hydrogen and the value of Avogadro’s number 114 A reagent occasionally used in chemical synthesis is sodium–potassium alloy (Alloys are mixtures of metals, and Na-K has the interesting property that it is a liquid.) One formulation of the alloy (the one that melts at the lowest temperature) contains 68 atom percent K; that is, out of every 100 atoms, 68 are K and 32 are Na What is the mass percent of potassium in sodium–potassium alloy? 115 Write formulas for all of the compounds that can be made by combining the cations NH4+ and Ni2+ with the anions CO32− and SO42− 116 How many electrons are in a strontium atom (Sr)? Does an atom of Sr gain or lose electrons when forming an ion? How many electrons are gained or lost by the atom? When Sr forms an ion, the ion has the same number of electrons as which one of the noble gases? 117 Which of the following compounds has the highest mass percent of chlorine? (a) BCl3 (d) AlCl3 (b) AsCl3 (e) PCl3 (c) GaCl3 118 Which of the following samples has the largest number of ions? (a) 1.0 g of BeCl2 (d) 1.0 g of SrCO3 (b) 1.0 g of MgCl2 (e) 1.0 g of BaSO4 (c) 1.0 g of CaS 119 The structure of one of the bases in DNA, adenine, is shown here Which represents the greater mass: 40.0 g of adenine or 3.0 × 1023 molecules of the compound? Adenine 120 Ionic and molecular compounds of the halogens (a) What are the names of BaF2, SiCl4, and NiBr2? (b) Which of the compounds in part (a) are ionic, and which are molecular? (c) Which has the largest mass, 0.50 mol of BaF2, 0.50 mol of SiCl4, or 1.0 mol of NiBr2? 121 A drop of water has a volume of about 0.050 mL How many molecules of water are in a drop of water? (Assume water has a density of 1.00 g/cm3.) 122 Capsaicin, the compound that gives the hot taste to chili peppers, has the formula C18H27NO3 (a) Calculate its molar mass (b) If you eat 55 mg of capsaicin, what amount (moles) have you consumed? (c) Calculate the mass percent of each element in the compound (d) What mass of carbon (in milligrams) is there in 55 mg of capsaicin? 123 Calculate the molar mass and the mass percent of each element in the blue solid compound Cu(NH3)4SO4 ∙ H2O What is the mass of copper and the mass of water in 10.5 g of the compound? Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 115 124 Write the molecular formula and calculate the molar mass for each of the molecules shown here Which has the largest mass percent of carbon? Of oxygen? (a) ethylene glycol (used in antifreeze) H H H O C C O H H H Ethylene glycol (b) dihydroxyacetone (used in artificial tanning lotions) H O H O H C C C H O H H 128 Ma huang, an extract from the ephedra species of plants, contains ephedrine The Chinese have used this herb for more than 5000 years to treat asthma More recently, ephedrine has been used in diet pills that can be purchased over the counter in herbal medicine shops However, very serious concerns have been raised regarding these pills following reports that their use led to serious heart problems (a) A molecular model of ephedrine is drawn below From this determine the molecular formula for ephedrine and calculate its molar mass (b) What is the weight percent of carbon in ephedrine? (c) Calculate the amount (moles) of ephedrine in a 0.125 g sample (d) How many molecules of ephedrine are there in 0.125 g? How many C atoms? Dihydroxyacetone (c) ascorbic acid, commonly known as vitamin C HO H H H C C C H OH O C OH C O C OH Ascorbic acid, vitamin C 125 Malic acid, an organic acid found in apples, contains C, H, and O in the following ratios: C1H1.50O1.25 What is the empirical formula of malic acid? 126 Your doctor has diagnosed you as being anemic— that is, as having too little iron in your blood At the drugstore, you find two iron-containing dietary supplements: one with iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4, and the other with iron(II) gluconate, Fe(C6H11O7)2 If you take 100 mg of each compound, which will deliver more atoms of iron? 127 A compound composed of iron and carbon monoxide, Fex(CO)y , is 30.70% iron What is the empirical formula for the compound? Ephedrine 129 Saccharin, a molecular model of which is shown below, is more than 300 times sweeter than sugar It was first made in 1897, when it was common practice for chemists to record the taste of any new substances they synthesized (a) Write the molecular formula for the compound, and draw its structural formula (S atoms are yellow.) (b) If you ingest 125 mg of saccharin, what amount (moles) of saccharin have you ingested? (c) What mass of sulfur is contained in 125 mg of saccharin? Saccharin 116 CHAPTER / Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 130 Name each of the following compounds and indicate which ones are best described as ionic: (a) ClF3 (f) OF2 (b) NCl3 (g) KI (c) SrSO4 (h) Al2S3 (d) Ca(NO3)2 (i) PCl3 (e) XeF4 (j) K3PO4 131 Write the formula for each of the following compounds and indicate which ones are best described as ionic: (a) sodium hypochlorite (b) boron triiodide (c) aluminum perchlorate (d) calcium acetate (e) potassium permanganate (f) ammonium sulfite (g) potassium dihydrogen phosphate (h) disulfur dichloride (i) chlorine trifluoride (j) phosphorus trifluoride 132 Complete the table by placing symbols, formulas, and names in the blanks Cation Anion Name Formula ammonium bromide Ba2+ BaS Cl− iron(II) chloride F− Al3+ PbF2 CO32− iron(III) oxide 133 Empirical and molecular formulas (a) Fluorocarbonyl hypofluorite is composed of 14.6% C, 39.0% O, and 46.3% F The molar mass of the compound is 82 g/mol Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of the compound (b) Azulene, a beautiful blue hydrocarbon, is 93.71% C and has a molar mass of 128.16 g/ mol What are the empirical and molecular formulas of azulene? 134 Cacodyl, a compound containing arsenic, was reported in 1842 by the German chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen It has an almost intolerable garlic-like odor Its molar mass is 210 g/mol, and it is 22.88% C, 5.76% H, and 71.36% As Determine its empirical and molecular formulas 135 The action of bacteria on meat and fish produces a compound called cadaverine As its name and origin imply, it stinks! (It is also present in bad breath and adds to the odor of urine.) It is 58.77% C, 13.81% H, and 27.40% N Its molar mass is 102.2 g/mol Determine the molecular formula of cadaverine 136 ▲ In the laboratory you combine 0.125 g of nickel with CO and isolate 0.364 g of Ni(CO)x  What is the value of x? 137 ▲ A compound called MMT was once used to boost the octane rating of gasoline What is the empirical formula of MMT if it is 49.5% C, 3.2% H, 22.0% O, and 25.2% Mn? 138 ▲ Elemental phosphorus is made by heating calcium phosphate with carbon and sand in an electric furnace What is the mass percent of phosphorus in calcium phosphate? Use this value to calculate the mass of calcium phosphate (in kilograms) that must be used to produce 15.0 kg of phosphorus 139 ▲ Chromium is obtained by heating chromium(III) oxide with carbon Calculate the mass percent of chromium in the oxide, and then use this value to calculate the quantity of Cr2O3 required to produce 850 kg of chromium metal 140 ▲ Stibnite, Sb2S3, is a dark gray mineral from which antimony metal is obtained What is the mass percent of antimony in the sulfide? If you have 1.00 kg of an ore that contains 10.6% antimony, what mass of Sb2S3 (in grams) is in the ore? 141 ▲ Direct reaction of iodine (I2) and chlorine (Cl2) produces an iodine chloride, Ix Cly , a bright yellow solid If you completely consume 0.678 g of I2 in a reaction with excess Cl2 and produce 1.246 g of Ix Cly , what is the empirical formula of the compound? A later experiment showed that the molar mass of Ix Cly was 467 g/mol What is the molecular formula of the compound? Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 117 142 ▲ In a reaction, 2.04 g of vanadium combined with 1.93 g of sulfur to give a pure compound What is the empirical formula of the product? 143 ▲ Iron pyrite, often called “fool’s gold,” has the formula FeS2 If you could convert 15.8 kg of iron pyrite to iron metal, what mass of the metal would you obtain? 144 Which of the following statements about 57.1 g of octane, C8H18, is (are) not true? (a) 57.1 g is 0.500 mol of octane (b) The compound is 84.1% C by weight (c) The empirical formula of the compound is C4H9 (d) 57.1 g of octane contains 28.0 g of hydrogen atoms 145 The formula of barium molybdate is BaMoO4 Which of the following is the formula of sodium molybdate? (a) Na4MoO (d) Na2MoO4 (b) NaMoO (e) Na4MoO4 (c) Na2MoO3 146 ▲ A metal M forms a compound with the formula MCl4 If the compound is 74.75% chlorine, what is the identity of M? 147 Pepto-Bismol, which can help provide relief for an upset stomach, contains 300 mg of bismuth subsalicylate, C21H15Bi3O12, per tablet If you take two tablets for your stomach distress, what amount (in moles) of the “active ingredient” are you taking? What mass of Bi are you consuming in two tablets? 148 ▲ The weight percent of oxygen in an oxide that has the formula MO2 is 15.2% What is the molar mass of this compound? What element or elements are possible for M? 149 The mass of 2.50 mol of a compound with the formula ECl4, in which E is a nonmetallic element, is 385 g What is the molar mass of ECl4? What is the identity of E? 118 150 ▲ The elements A and Z combine to produce two different compounds: A2Z3 and AZ2 If 0.15 mol of A2Z3 has a mass of 15.9 g and 0.15 mol of AZ2 has a mass of 9.3 g, what are the atomic weights of A and Z? 151 ▲ Polystyrene can be prepared by heating styrene with tribromobenzoyl peroxide in the absence of air A sample prepared by this method has the empirical formula Br3C6H3(C8H8)n, where the value of n can vary from sample to sample If one sample has 0.105% Br, what is the value of n? 152 A sample of hemoglobin is found to be 0.335% iron What is the molar mass of hemoglobin if there are four iron atoms per molecule? 153 ▲ Consider an atom of 64Zn (a) Calculate the density of the nucleus in grams per cubic centimeter, knowing that the nuclear radius is 4.8 × 10−6 nm and the mass of the 64 Zn atom is 1.06 × 10−22 g (Recall that the volume of a sphere is [4/3]πr3.) (b) Calculate the density of the space occupied by the electrons in the zinc atom, given that the atomic radius is 0.125 nm and the electron mass is 9.11 × 10−28 g (c) Having calculated these densities, what statement can you make about the relative densities of the parts of the atom? 154 ▲ Estimating the radius of a lead atom (a) You are given a cube of lead that is 1.000 cm on each side The density of lead is 11.35 g/ cm3 How many atoms of lead are in the sample? (b) Atoms are spherical; therefore, the lead atoms in this sample cannot fill all the available space As an approximation, assume that 60% of the space of the cube is filled with spherical lead atoms Calculate the volume of one lead atom from this information From the calculated volume (V) and the formula (4/3)πr3 for the volume of a sphere, estimate the radius (r) of a lead atom CHAPTER / Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 155 A piece of nickel foil, 0.550 mm thick and 1.25 cm square, is allowed to react with fluorine, F2, to give a nickel fluoride (a) How many moles of nickel foil were used? (The density of nickel is 8.902 g/cm3.) (b) If you isolate 1.261 g of the nickel fluoride, what is its formula? (c) What is its complete name? 156 ▲ Uranium is used as a fuel, primarily in the form of uranium(IV) oxide, in nuclear power plants This question considers some uranium chemistry (a) A small sample of uranium metal (0.169 g) is heated to between 800 and 900 °C in air to give 0.199 g of a dark green oxide, Ux Oy How many moles of uranium metal were used? What is the empirical formula of the oxide, Ux Oy? What is the name of the oxide? How many moles of Ux Oy must have been obtained? (b) The naturally occurring isotopes of uranium are 234U, 235U, and 238U Knowing that uranium’s atomic weight is 238.02 g/mol, which isotope must be the most abundant? (c) If the hydrated compound UO2(NO3)2 ∙ z H2O is heated gently, the water of hydration is lost If you have 0.865 g of the hydrated compound and obtain 0.679 g of UO2(NO3)2 on heating, how many waters of hydration are in each formula unit of the original compound? (The oxide Ux Oy is obtained if the hydrate is heated to temperatures over 800°C in the air.) 157 In an experiment, you need 0.125 mol of sodium metal Sodium can be cut easily with a knife (Figure 2.5), so if you cut out a block of sodium, what should the volume of the block be in cubic centimeters? If you cut a perfect cube, what is the length of the edge of the cube? (The density of sodium is 0.97 g/cm3.) 158 Mass spectrometric analysis showed that there are four isotopes of an unknown element having the following masses and abundances: Isotope Mass Number Isotope Mass Abundance (%) 136 135.9090  0.193 138 137.9057  0.250 140 139.9053 88.48 142 141.9090 11.07 Three elements in the periodic table that have atomic weights near these values are lanthanum (La), atomic number 57, atomic weight 138.9055; cerium (Ce), atomic number 58, atomic weight 140.115; and praseodymium (Pr), atomic number 59, atomic weight 140.9076 Using the data above, calculate the atomic weight, and identify the element if possible In the Laboratory 159 If Epsom salt, MgSO4 ∙ x H2O, is heated to 250 °C, all the water of hydration is lost On heating a 1.687-g sample of the hydrate, 0.824 g of MgSO4 remains How many molecules of water occur per formula unit of MgSO4? 160 The “alum” used in cooking is potassium aluminum sulfate hydrate, KAl(SO4)2 ∙ x H2O To find the value of x, you can heat a sample of the compound to drive off all of the water and leave only KAl(SO4)2 Assume you heat 4.74 g of the hydrated compound and that the sample loses 2.16 g of water What is the value of x? 161 Tin metal (Sn) and purple iodine (I2) combine to form orange, solid tin iodide with an unknown formula Sn metal + solid I2  →  solid SnxIy Weighed quantities of Sn and I2 are combined, where the quantity of Sn is more than is needed to react with all of the iodine After SnxIy has been formed, it is isolated by filtration The mass of excess tin is also determined The following data were collected: Mass of tin (Sn) in the original mixture 1.056 g Mass of iodine (I2) in the original mixture 1.947 g Mass of tin (Sn) recovered after reaction 0.601 g What is the empirical formula of the tin iodide obtained? Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 119 162 ▲ When analyzed, an unknown compound gave these experimental results: C, 54.0%; H, 6.00%; and O, 40.0% Four different students used these values to calculate the empirical formulas shown here Which answer is correct? Why did some students not get the correct answer? (a) C4H5O2 (c) C7H10O4 (b) C5H7O3 (d) C9H12O5 163 ▲ Two general chemistry students working together in the lab weigh out 0.832 g of CaCl2 ∙ 2 H2O into a crucible After heating the sample for a short time and allowing the crucible to cool, the students determine that the sample has a mass of 0.739 g They then a quick calculation On the basis of this calculation, what should they next? (a) Congratulate themselves on a job well done (b) Assume the bottle of CaCl2 ∙ H2O was mislabeled; it actually contained something different (c) Heat the crucible again, and then reweigh it 164 To find the empirical formula of tin oxide, you first react tin metal with nitric acid in a porcelain crucible The metal is converted to tin nitrate, but, on heating the nitrate strongly, brown nitrogen dioxide gas is evolved and tin oxide is formed In the laboratory you collect the following data: Mass of crucible 13.457 g Mass of crucible plus tin 14.710 g 1.00 cm3 of iron Outline the procedure used in this calculation (a) the structure of solid iron (b) the molar mass of iron (c) Avogadro’s number (d) the density of iron (e) the temperature (f) iron’s atomic number (g) the number of iron isotopes 166 Consider the plot of relative element abundances on page 114 Is there a relationship between abundance and atomic number? Is there any difference between the relative abundance of an element of even atomic number and the relative abundance of an element of odd atomic number? 167 The photo here depicts what happens when a coil of magnesium ribbon and a few calcium chips are placed in water (a) Based on these observations, what might you expect to see when barium, another Group 2A element, is placed in water? (b) Give the period in which each element (Mg, Ca, and Ba) is found What correlation you think you might find between the reactivity of these elements and their positions in the periodic table? What is the empirical formula of tin oxide? Summary and Conceptual Questions The following questions may use concepts from this and the previous chapter 165 ▲ Identify, from the list below, the information needed to calculate the number of atoms in 120 © Cengage Learning/Charles D Winters Mass of crucible after heating 15.048 g Magnesium (left) and calcium (right) in water CHAPTER / Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it © Cengage Learning/Charles D Winters 168 A jar contains some number of jelly beans To find out precisely how many are in the jar, you could dump them out and count them How could you estimate their number without counting each one? (Chemists need to just this kind of “bean counting” when they work with atoms and molecules Atoms and molecules are too small to count one by one, so chemists have worked out other methods to determine the number of atoms in a sample.) How many jelly beans are in the jar? Study Questions Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 121 ... additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, Tenth Edition John C Kotz, Paul M Treichel, John R Townsend, and David A Treichel Product... FOUR THE CONTROL OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS Kinetics: The Rates 14 Chemical of Chemical Reactions  608 14.1 Rates of Chemical Reactions  609 Calculating a Rate  610 Relative Rates and Stoichiometry ... courses in general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organometallic chemistry, and scientific ethics Professor Treichel? ??s research in organometallic and metal cluster chemistry and in mass spectrometry,