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4. DISCUSSION Discussion Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 58 4. DISCUSSION PCV2 is a widespread virus that causes an array of diseases and syndromes in pigs (PCVAD) (Grau‐Roma et al., 2010). Currently, the only antiviral strategy is prevention by vaccination and no drug exists for controlling the disease by limiting viremia. Thus, there is an unmet need to develop antivirals that could effectively inhibit PCV2 replication and this study was aimed at addressing this issue through the establishment of a primary screening assay in an effort to facilitate drug discovery against PCV2 replication. The assay was developed by monitoring the expression of Rep protein through IFA to assess PCV2 replication. Screening assays in drug discovery are generally divided into cell‐based and cell‐free formats. In this study, a whole‐cell approach was chosen for development primarily because of availability of materials; cell lines and virus stocks were readily available and protocols were already established. Before commencing, materials had to be standardized by obtaining a uniform batch of (1) stable cell line highly permissive to infection and supports high titer growth of the virus, (2) large amounts of antibodies that effectively recognize the target, and (3) large volume of infectious, high titer virus. Two cell lines considered for the screening assay were PK15‐C1 and 3D4/31 because of their widespread use in producing PCV2 in cultures. Porcine kidney (PK15) cells are the most widely used for growing PCV2 according to literature survey. Moreover, a cell line derived from a subpopulation of PK15 cells that were shown highly permissive to PCV2 infection had been previously generated (Zhu et al., 2007) and was mainly used in this study. The porcine‐derived transformed monocytic cell line 3D4/31, is another cell line chosen because it had been previously utilized in studies of PCV2 infection biochemistry and dynamics (Misinzo et al., 2005; Misinzo et al., 2006), thus showing that the cells are permissive to PCV2 infection. Cell line optimized for use in the screening assay should be permissive to infection, support viral replication and exhibit high infection rates with the virus. 3D4/31 and PK15‐C1 cells were grown in monolayer and incubated with stock PCV2. Infected cells at early time points, i.e. 24 and 48 HPI, did not show signs of CPE, consistent with the literature (Allan et al., 1998). Significant cell death Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 59 4. DISCUSSION th was observed from 72 HPI onwards; on the 4 day following infection 50% of cells had died, and on the 8th day 90% had lifted off. To determine whether PCV2 infection caused these observations, medium obtained from both cell lines grown with the virus was subjected to either PCR or IFA. PCV2‐specific PCR of DNA extracted from virus‐containing media resulted to the amplification of a 250 bp portion of the virus ORF2 (Liu et al., 2005). Moreover, harvested media used to infect freshly seeded cells resulted to positive staining for Rep protein by IFA. These observations confirmed presence of PCV2 in the collected media from both cell lines but it was insufficient proof of virus replication within cells. To confirm PCV2 replication, infected cell lysates were probed for Rep protein by western blot and detected in situ by IFA. The two splice variants of Rep protein – Rep (37 kDa) and Rep’ (20 kDa), were detected by Western blot in PK15‐C1 but not in 3D4/31 lysates. When infected cells were processed for IFA, however, both cell lines stained positive for Rep expression, although infection rates were significantly less for 3D4/31 than PK15‐C1 cells. Furthermore, 3D4/31 cells exhibited less than 5% infection rate at the highest MOI tested (15, corresponding to infection with 105 TCID50), while PK15‐C1 exhibited at least 10% infection rate at the lowest MOI (0.17, corresponding to infection with 103 TCID50). These data confirm that both cells supported PCV2 replication, although PK15‐C1 was more permissive to PCV2 infection compared to 3D4/31. High infection rate was observed in PK15‐C1 cells infected at low MOI (0.17), while a low infection rate was observed in 3D4/31 infected at high MOI (15). As a result, PK15‐C1 cells were chosen for optimizing the screening platform. Before concluding that 3D4/31 cells are not permissive to PCV2 infection, however, caveat must be considered. One possible explanation for the observed disparity in infection rates between the two cell lines is differential virus adaptation. PCV2 used in the experiment had undergone more than 10 passaged and expanded in PK15‐C1, and was more adapted to it compared to 3D4/31 cells. Meanwhile, PCV2 had been passaged less than five times in the monocytic cells. Lower adaptation possibly resulted Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 60 4. DISCUSSION to less infection and consequently reduced levels of replication. This hypothesis is supported by previous studies (Yu et al., 2007) where tissues and cells collected from PCV2‐infected pigs were stained for presence of PCV2 antigens. The group concluded that monocytic cells were a main site of viral persistence but not for viral replication. Further adaptation of the virus would be needed to increase infection rates in 3D4/31 cells, but this is already beyond the scope of this study. Growth curve for PK15‐C1 was established to determine the time point at which DNA replication at S phase occurs. Whole genome content was extracted and the quantity was plotted against duration of incubation. It was observed that PK15‐C1 cells have DNA doubling time of 15.5 hours, and subsequent infections with PCV2 were performed less than 15.5. hours post‐seeding. Previous studies on PCV2 infection dynamics revealed that PCV2 replication is dependent on enzymes expressed at S phase and viral replication occurs normally after mitosis (Tischer et al., 1987). To expedite infection, cells have to be infected prior to mitosis, preferably before S phase. Alternatively, infected cells could be treated to glucosamine to circumvent the need to participate in cellular mitosis prior to onset of viral genome replication. The second prerequisite before commencing the screening assay is large volumes of antibody. The monoclonal antibody #4 was previously generated by conventional hybridoma technology and was shown to recognize both splice variants of the Rep protein (Meng et al., 2010). Medium collected from several rounds of hybridoma cell culture was pooled (1 liter) and frozen in small volumes. Aliquots were tested for Rep protein recognition by western blot and yielded positive results with strong staining. Antibodies were used only once for uniformity of results. FITC‐conjugated antibodies used in the study were also purchased in large volumes (10 ml) of the same batch and lot to reduce variability between experiments. Antibodies were tested and found capable of recognizing its target. Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 61 4. DISCUSSION The third pre‐condition that must be satisfied was production of large volume of infectious PCV2 with high titer. Initial attempts to produce high titer virus were unsuccessful and titer did not exceed 104 TCID50/ml. It was observed that virus production in roller bottles also did not improve titer. Superinfection of persistently infected PK15‐C1 cells was found to reduce viral titers, because treatment with trypsin was lethal to infected cells. This was in contrast to previously observed titer enhancement by superinfection, where a three‐fold increase in virus titer was obtained (Allan et al., 1998; O'Dea et al., 2008). This disparity in results from superinfection studies could be attributed to the difference in cell lines used in this study compared with those done by Allan et al. and O’Dea et al. These groups used the parental PK15 cells comprised of a heterogenous mixture of slow‐ and fast‐growing cells displaying a wide range of PCV2 infection permissivity, while this current study used the subclone PK15‐C1, which is mainly comprised of slow‐growing cells highly permissive to PCV2 infection (Zhu et al., 2007). Virus titer was significantly enhanced (100‐fold) only when pooled virus medium was concentrated by ultracentrifugation; titer reached 106 TCID50/ ml and infection rate in PK15‐C1 using the concentrated virus was greater than 50% when infected with 105 TCID50 (50 MOI). Passage of concentrated virus in PK15‐C1 cells did not significantly alter the titer, and pooled virus media was frozen in small aliquots (‐80o C) until further use. Once all the necessary materials had been obtained, development of the screening assay was performed. Detection of PCV2 infection and replication through IFA of Rep protein is a well‐established method abundantly found in the literature (Allan et al., 1998; Liu et al., 2005; Meng et al., 2010). Fluorescence detection system was adopted over colorimetric detection because of the inherent sensitivity of fluorescent dyes. The IFA had been shown to work in 96‐well plate format without difficulty, and scaling down to the 384‐well plate format was expected to be straightforward. Optimizing required tweaking three parameters: 1) cell seeding density, 2) MOI, and 3) duration of infection prior to fixation. Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 62 4. DISCUSSION For uniformity of results, it was necessary to have an even monolayer of cells per well and any unnecessary perturbation that might lead to disruption of the cell sheet must be avoided. It was previously observed that induction with glucosamine leads to enhancement of infection but with concomitant cytotoxicity (Tischer et al., 1987; Allan and Ellis, 2000). It was therefore prudent to test whether the benefits outweighed the risks of glucosamine treatment in 384‐well plates. Comparison of cells treated and untreated with glucosamine yielded strong evidence for cytotoxicity. The central portion of treated wells was devoid of cells in contrast to the more confluent cell sheets observed in untreated wells. Significant glucosamine‐induced cytotoxicity was observed at various MOI (1, 2, 3, and 4) and different incubation periods (48 and 60 hours). Similar results were obtained at other seeding densities. Although the cytotoxicity of glucosamine could be empirically reduced by shortening the durationof cell contact and thorough washing with PBS prior to replacement with fresh media, doing this was not an easy task. Due to the small area of the wells in 384‐well plates, however, glucosamine could not be completely removed without disrupting the cell sheet. Washing with buffer also resulted to mechanical disruption causing cells to lift off the wells. Most importantly, enhancement of infection was not observed in glucosamine‐induced cells. Infection rates in cells treated with glucosamine were not significantly higher in comparison to those observed in untreated cells. Thus, the benefits of glucosamine induction did not outweigh its inherent cytotoxicity and was considered inessential to the assay being developed. Further optimizations precluded the use of glucosamine. Aside from an even monolayer of cells, another important prerequisite for the assay was infection rate of at least 50%. It is necessary to achieve this minimum infection rate in untreated cells so that % inhibition of replication that results from the screening would yield unequivocal results. Achieving this requirement depended on the interplay of three factors: (1) seeding density, (2) MOI at the time of infection, and (3) duration of infection prior to fixation. Seeding at insufficient density would result to low cell confluence at the time of assay; doing so at excessive density would result to very high Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 63 4. DISCUSSION density of cells growing on top of each other. Infection at excessively high MOI would result to greater cell death and consequently larger regions devoid of cells on the well; conversely, infection with insufficient MOI would result to infection rates less than 50%. Balance also had to be achieved with duration of infection. Although higher infection rates could be achieved if cells were infected for a longer duration, incubation for too long would result to most of the infected cells lifting off and dying as a consequence of virus‐induced apoptosis (Liu et al., 2005). On the other hand, prolonging the duration of incubation of cells infected at low MOI would result to overgrowth and and formation of multiple layers. Initial tests performed at low MOI (50% infection rates in cultures also needs to be obtained. Without these, assay development in primary screening for PCV2 replication inhibitors would not yield satisfactory results. This is currently being done at the time of this manuscript revision. However due to time constraints, the results of this experiment could not be included in this document Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 72 5. 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Alexa Fluor Dyes Spanning the Visible and Infrared Spectrum. http://www.invitrogen.com/site/us/en/home/References/Molecular‐Probes‐The‐ Handbook/Fluorophores‐and‐Their‐Amine‐Reactive‐Derivatives/Alexa‐Fluor‐Dyes‐ Spanning‐the‐Visible‐and‐Infrared‐Spectrum.html Novartis (2010). Drug Discovery and Development Process. http://www.novartis.com/research/drug‐discovery.shtml Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 78 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY Schering‐Plough (2009). Circumvent PCV. http://www.intervetusa.com/products/products/productdetails_130_165082.aspx Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 79 6. APPENDICES Appendices Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 80 6. APPENDICES 6.1 Effect of glucosamine treatment on infection rates at various seeding densities (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I) (J) (K) (L) (M) (N) (O) (P) Figure 6.1 | Effect of Glucosamine Treatment on Infection Rates in Cells Seeded at 2000 per well. Cells were infected with PCV2 BJW at MOI 1 (A, B, I, J), 2 (C, D, K, L), 3 (E, F, M, N), and 4 (G, H, O, P) and fixed at 48 HPI (A‐H) and 60 HPI (I‐P). Infected cells were either untreated (A, C, E, G, I, K, M, O) or treated (B, D, F, H, J, L, N, P) with glucosamine. Images are representative of 3 independent trials. Green (FITC) – PCV2 Rep protein; Blue (DAPI) – cell nuclei Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 81 6. APPENDICES (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I) (J) (K) (L) (M) (N) (O) (P) Figure 6.2 | Effect of Glucosamine Treatment on Infection Rates in Cells Seeded at 3000 per well. Cells were infected with PCV2 BJW at MOI 1 (A, B, I, J), 2 (C, D, K, L), 3 (E, F, M, N), and 4 (G, H, O, P) and fixed at 48 HPI (A‐H) and 60 HPI (I‐P). Infected cells were either untreated (A, C, E, G, I, K, M, O) or treated (B, D, F, H, J, L, N, P) with glucosamine. Images are representative of 3 independent trials. Green (FITC) – PCV2 Rep protein; Blue (DAPI) – cell nuclei Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 82 6. APPENDICES (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I) (J) (K) (L) (M) (N) (O) (P) Figure 6.3 | Effect of Glucosamine Treatment on Infection Rates in Cells Seeded at 3500 per well. Cells were infected with PCV2 BJW at MOI 1 (A, B, I, J), 2 (C, D, K, L), 3 (E, F, M, N), and 4 (G, H, O, P) and fixed at 48 HPI (A‐H) and 60 HPI (I‐P). Infected cells were either untreated (A, C, E, G, I, K, M, O) or treated (B, D, F, H, J, L, N, P) with glucosamine. Images are representative of 3 independent trials. Green (FITC) – PCV2 Rep protein; Blue (DAPI) – cell nuclei Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 83 6. APPENDICES 6.2 Standard curves for FI and Absorbance with Alamar Blue (A) (A) (B) (E) (F) (D) (G) (H) (B) (L) (M) (N) (O) (P) Figure 6.4 | Standard Curve for Alamar Blue FI Against Various Seeding Densities. Log‐ transformed fluorescence intensities were determined at different time points with cells seeded at various densities and incubated with 3% (A) and 5% (B) alamar blue reagent. Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 84 6. APPENDICES (A) (B) (C) Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 85 6. APPENDICES Figure 6.5 | Standard Curve for Alamar Blue Absorbance at 570 nm Against Various Seeding Densities. Exp‐transformed absorbance values were determined at different time points with cells seeded at various densities and incubated with 3% (A), 5% (B) and 10% (C) alamar blue reagent. Cell‐Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) Replication Page | 86 ... required tweaking three parameters: 1)? ?cell? ?seeding density,? ?2) MOI, and 3) duration? ?of? ?infection prior to fixation. Cell? ? ?Based? ?Screening? ?Assay? ?for? ?Inhibitors? ?of? ?Porcine? ?Circovirus? ?Type? ?2? ?(PCV2)? ?Replication? ? Page | 62? ? 4. DISCUSSION For? ?uniformity? ?of? ?results, it was necessary to have an even monolayer? ?of? ?cells per well and any ... rates. U0 126 is a MEK 1 /2? ?inhibitor found to inhibit PCV2? ?replication? ?at EC50? ?of? ?less than 10 µM (Wei and Cell? ? ?Based? ?Screening? ?Assay? ?for? ?Inhibitors? ?of? ?Porcine? ?Circovirus? ?Type? ?2? ?(PCV2)? ?Replication? ? ... infection rates, but instead resulted to greater? ?cell? ?death. The number? ?of? ?cells attached to the bottom? ?of? ? the plate? ?24 hours post‐seeding was significantly less than the number? ?of? ?attached cells in plates seeded Cell? ? ?Based? ?Screening? ?Assay? ?for? ?Inhibitors? ?of? ?Porcine? ?Circovirus? ?Type? ?2? ?(PCV2)? ?Replication? ?