tiếng anh chuyên ngành thực phẩm dinh dưỡng

diet dietetics nutrients metabolism organismsconsume province nutrition synthesis nourishment 1 Improvements in ……… have been mostly to do withpersuading people to eat less fatty food an

FOREIGN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY

FOOD AND NUTRITION 1

by which organisms make use of nutrients are collectively known asmetabolism

In terms of the energy needs of humans and other animals, food consists

of carbohydrate, fat, and protein, along with vitamins and minerals.Humans may consume a wide range of different food substances, aslong as they meet nutrition requirements Otherwise nutritional-deficiency diseases will develop

of wastes, as well as with all the syntheses that are essential formaintenance, growth, and reproduction These fundamental activities arecharacteristic of all living organisms – from the simplest to the mostcomplex plants and animals Nutrients are substances, either naturallyoccurring or synthesized, that are necessary for maintenance of thenormal function of organisms These include carbohydrates, lipids,proteins, vitamins and minerals, water, and some unknown substances.The nutritionist, a scientist working in the field of nutrition, differs fromthe dietitian, who translates the science of nutrition into the skill offurnishing optimal nourishment to people Dietetics is a professionconcerned with the science and art of human nutrition care, an essentialcomponent of the health sciences The treatment of disease bymodification of the diet lies within the province of the physician and thedietitian.

The foods consumed by humans must contain, in adequate amounts,about 45 to 50 highly important substances Water and oxygen areequally essential Starting only with these essential nutrients obtainedfrom food, the body makes literally thousands of substances necessaryfor life and physical fitness Most of these substances are far morecomplicated in structure than the original nutrients

Energy metabolism and requirements are customarily expressed in terms

of the calorie, a heat unit Adoption of the calorie by nutritionistsfollowed quite naturally from the original methods of measuring energymetabolism The magnitude of human energy metabolism, however,made it awkward to record the calorie measured, so the convention ofthe large calorie, or kilocalorie (kcal), was accepted Atwater factors,also called physiologic fuel factors, are based on the corrections forlosses of unabsorbed nutrients in the feces and for the calorie equivalent

of the nitrogenous products in the urine These factors are as follows: 1g

of pure protein will yield 4 calories, 1g of pure fat will yield 9 calories,and 1 g of pure carbohydrate will yield 4 calories

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.

1) What is food?

2) What are nutrient cycles?

3) What is metabolism?

4) How different are the nutritionist and the dietitian?

5) What are physiologic fuel factors?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.

_ The term food does not include the inorganic substances

that plants draw from air and water

FOOD AND NUTRITION 3

_ The intake of food, digestive processes, the liberation of

energy, and the elimination of wastes are the fundamentalactivities of all living organisms

_ Unless food substances humans consume meet nutrition

requirements, nutritional-deficiency diseases will develop. _ Water and oxygen are equally essential

_ The treatment of disease by modification of the diet lies

within the province of the physician and the nutritionist

VOCABULARY

Fill in these statements with the words in the box.

diet dietetics nutrients metabolism organismsconsume province nutrition synthesis nourishment

1) Improvements in ……… have been mostly to do withpersuading people to eat less fatty food and more raw vegetables.2) Exercise is supposed to speed up your ………

3) A young baby obtains all the ……… it needs from itsmother's milk

4) If you have a balanced ………, you are getting all thevitamins you need

5) ……… is the scientific study of diet and its effects onhealth

6) Humans may ……… a wide range of different foodsubstances

7) The treatment of disease by modification of the diet lies within the

……… of the physician and the dietitian

8) Plants draw minerals and other ……… from the soil.9) All living ……… require food for survival, growth, andreproduction

10) Plants need sunlight for the ……… of their food fromcarbon dioxide and water

WORD STUDY

A UN-, IM-, IN-, DIS-, AND

NON-The prefixes un-, im-, in-, dis-, and non- can be added to the beginning

of some words These prefixes mean “not.”

Look at this example:

un- + healthy = unhealthy

Smoking is not good for you It’s unhealthy

Here are other words with these negative prefixes.

un- unimportant, unpopular

im- impossible in- incomplete, inexpensive

dis- discontinue non- nonfat Exercise: Choose the best word to complete each sentence.

1) A person who is unfriendly is probably ………, too

C uncomfortable D unimportant2) The service at this restaurant is very slow It’s ……… to have aquick lunch here!

A impossible B important C immoral D immediate3) The airline will ……… service to that city It is not a popular place

Some nouns and verbs have the same form We can add a special

ending, or suffix, to other verbs to make noun forms.

Here are some examples:

order order govern government drive driverdrink drink agree agreement own owner

work worker

Exercise: Complete the sentences with verbs and nouns from the chart (If you

need to, make the nouns plural Also, make sure that each verb agrees with its subject.)

1) Susan is the fastest ……… She can ……… therace in less than three minutes

2) The bus ……… will not ……… an unsafe bus.3) I think the two companies will ……… to work together.They will both sign the ………

4) – Did Saul ……… a salad and some tea?

– Yes Now he’s waiting for his ……… 5) Joseph bought a lot of food and ……… for the get-together

He hopes that everyone will eat and ……… a lot

6) Even though they……… hard, most of the ………

FOOD AND NUTRITION 5

at fast-food restaurants do not make a lot of money

7) – My aunt is the ……… of that popular take-out restaurant

on Main Street

– Does she ……… the restaurant on Green Street, too?

Some nouns that end in th or ght are related to similar words that are

not nouns Read the following pairs of sentences and see how the words

in bold print are related.

1) Some cities grow quickly Their growth is fast.

2) The street is five kilometers long The length is five kilometers 3) The street is fifteen meters wide Its width is fifteen meters.

4) The lake is thirty meters deep Its depth is thirty meters.

5) Joanna is very strong She has a lot of strength.

6) How high is that building? What is its height?

7) Anna weighs 50 kilos Her weight is 50 kilos.

Exercise: Now choose the best word for each sentence Use each word only

once.

1) The flag is flying high above the ground The ………ofthat flagpole is about 20 meters

2) The ………of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco

is about 1,400 meters It is a very long bridge

3) What is the ………of the Pacific Ocean at its deepestpoint?

4) People who build houses must be very strong They must havegreat ………in their arms

5) Plants need a lot of water to grow Without it, their ………

(a) They measured the extension in the steel bar

(b) The extension in the steel bar was measured

If the doer of the action has some importance (though less than theobject), or is needed to complete the sense of the sentence, it is given,

e.g ‘A knowledge of statistics is required by every type of scientists.’

Passives can be formed in the following ways:

A tense of be + past participle

active: He cooked the food

passive: The food was cooked

Modal + be / have been + past participle

active: He may cook the food

passive: The food may be cooked

to be / to have been + past participle

active: He is to cook the food

passive: The food is to be cooked

being / having been + past participle

active: Cooking / Having cooked …

passive: Being / Having been cooked …

Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences in the passive :

1) People apply mathematics in many different activities

2) People use computers for many different purposes

3) People use the decimal system even in countries with decimalized systems of weights and measurements

non-4) Water covers most of the Earth’s surface

5) Somebody was cleaning the room when I arrived

6) Huge ocean waves swept houses into the sea

7) They have postponed the seminar

8) A mystery is something that we can explain

9) We are going to build a new zoo next year

10) The vegetables didn’t taste very good People had cooked them fortoo long

11) The situation is serious We must do something before it’s too late.12) When we got to the stadium, we found that they had cancelled thegame

13) They are building a new ring road round the city

14) I don’t like people telling me what to do

15) We gave the police the information

16) We will give you plenty of time to decide

17) They must first clean sewage in treatment plants

18) Has anybody told you about ecology?

19) In modern zoos, people can see animals in more natural habitats.20) He said that he wanted somebody to wake him up at 6.30 nextmorning

Proteins are widely distributed in nature, and no life-forms are knownwithout them They are made up of relatively simple organiccompounds, the amino acids, which contain nitrogen and sometimessulfur Humans and animals build the protein they need for growth andrepair of tissues by breaking down the proteins obtained in food intotheir component parts, the amino acids, and then building up thesecomponents into proteins of the type needed The protein-rich foodsfrom animal sources contain complete proteins, which supply all theamino acids in the proper proportions necessary in the human diet.Although it was formerly believed that plant proteins had to becombined at each meal, research shows that a balanced diet will providethe proper combinations

Vitamins and Minerals

as catalysts or help form catalysts in the body Minerals – such ascalcium, iodine, and iron – are an essential part of all cells and bodyfluids and enter into many functions.

Fats and Carbohydrates

Fats, which are widely distributed in nature, are a concentrated foodsource of energy Fats are glyceryl esters of fatty acids and yieldglycerol and many different fatty acids when broken down byhydrolysis Carbohydrates are the most abundant food sources ofenergy Important dietary carbohydrates are divided into two groups –starches and sugars The starches, which may be converted intoutilizable sugars in plants or in the human body, are in the grains, thepulses, the tubers, and some rhizomes and roots The sugars occur inmany plants and fruits, the most important being sucrose, obtained fromsugarcane or the sugar beet

Dietary Fiber

Dietary fiber, also known as bulk and roughage, is also an essentialelement in the diet even though it provides no nutrients It consists ofplant cellulose and other indigestible materials in foods, along withpectins and gums The chewing it requires stimulates saliva flow, andthe bulk it adds in the stomach and intestines during digestion providesmore time for absorption of nutrients Diets with sufficient fiber producesofter, bulkier stools and help to promote bowel regularity and avoidconstipation and other disorders, such as diverticulosis

Fruits, vegetables, whole-grain breads, and products made from nutsand legumes are all sources of dietary fiber A diet overly abundant indietary fiber, however, can cut down on the absorption of importanttrace minerals during digestion

Vegetables, fruits, grains, and legumes constitute a rich source of dietary fiber.

ESSENRIAL NUTRIENTS 9

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.

1) What are the essential nutrients in human diet?

2) Where may water be obtained?

3) What are proteins used for?

4) Why are vitamins essential for the normal metabolism of othernutrients?

5) What are the two groups of important dietary carbohydrates?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.

1) _ Water functions in temperature regulation, as a solvent, in

chemical reactions, and as a body lubricant

2) _ A few life-forms do not have proteins

3) _ Vitamins are inorganic food substances, needed only in

minute quantities

4) _ Carbohydrates are the most abundant food sources of

energy

5) _ A diet overly abundant in dietary fiber can help the

absorption of important trace minerals during digestion

VOCABULARY

Fill in these statements with the words in the box.

bowel beverages indigestible tuber catalystsdigestion absorption constipated starches balanced

1) You should eat more fiber and fruit if you are ……….2) Hot ……… include tea, coffee and hot chocolate

3) Many vitamins and minerals help form ……… in the body.4) Research shows that a ……… diet will provide the propercombinations

5) Eating plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables can reduce the risk ofcancer of the ………

6) A ……… the short thick round part of an underground stem

or root of some plants, such as potatoes, which stores food andfrom which new plants grow

7) Vegetables are usually cooked to aid ………

8) Vitamin D is necessary to aid the ……… of calcium fromfood

9) Beans can be rather ………

10) ……… may be converted into utilizable sugars in plants or inthe human body

WORD STUDY

A COMPOUND WORDS

A compound word is two smaller words put together The meaning of the compound word is related to the meanings of the two words

Here are some examples:

bird + house = birdhouse (a place for birds to live) car + wash = carwash (a place to wash your car) Exercise: First, make compound words by putting together these pairs of

words.

some + one = ………

stop + light = ………

bed + room = ………

birth + day = ………

under + line = ………

note + book = ………

Now use the compound words to complete the sentences. 1) In class, students write notes in a ………

2) I sleep in a bed in my ………

3) Cars must stop when the ………is red

4) Next week is my 20th ……… I am going to have

a party for all my friends I will be 20 years old

5) If the teacher says to put a line under the verb, then we must

……… the verb

6) ……… wants to talk to you on the telephone I don’t know who it is

B -AL, -ABLE, AND -FUL

The suffixes -al, -able, and -ful can be added to the end of some words.

These suffixes mean that something “is full of something” or “has something.”

Here are some examples:

Roses are beautiful flowers (full of beauty) Puerto Rico has many coastal cities (has a coast) That is a very comfortable chair (has comfort)

When you add these suffixes to a word, the new word becomes an adjective An adjective describes a noun or a pronoun It usually comes

before a noun or after the verb be.

ESSENRIAL NUTRIENTS 11

Exercise: Practice making adjectives by adding the suffixes -al, -able, and -ful

to the following words.

Spelling Note: Change y to i before -al and -ful.

noun (add –al) adjective verb (add -able) adjective

coast ……… notice ………

season ……… agree ………

industry ……… enjoy ………

nation ………

noun (add -ful) adjective beauty ………

help ………

wonder ………

Complete each sentence with an adjective from the lists. 1) Most people in Puerto Rico live in ……… cities 2) The influence of Spain is very ……… in San Juan 3) The people of Puerto Rico are usually ……… to tourists 4) San Juan is a modern, ……… city 5) Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S ……… elections 6) The beaches and mountains of Puerto Rico are ………

7) My cousins had a very ……… time visiting the old city of San Juan They bought some souvenirs and had a delicious lunch 8) In general, Puerto Rico is a ……… place to visit C -EN We can change some nouns and adjectives into verbs by adding the suffix -en For example, if you add -en to the adjective dark, you get the word darken Darken means “to make something dark.” Exercise: Look at these examples Complete the chart noun verb adjective verb strength length strengthen …………

weak …………

short weaken widen …………

STRUCTURE STUDY

THE PASSIVE (continued)

When we talk about what other people say, believe, etc we can usetwo possible passive forms Compare:

Active: People say that Mr Ross is a millionaire

Passive (1): It is said that Mr Ross is a millionaire

Passive (2): Mr Ross is said to be a millionaire

We often use these passive forms in a formal style and with verbs

such as: say, think, believe, consider, understand, know, report, expect, allege, claim, acknowledge, fear.

Exercise: Read each sentence Then make two new sentences in the passive.

1) People expect that taxes will be reduced soon

2) People say that the monument is over 2000 years old

3) People expect that the president will resign

4) People think the fire started at about 8 o’clock

5) Journalists reported that seven people had been injured in the fire.6) They expect that a new law will be introduced next year

7) People say that the concert was very good

8) People allege that the man drove through the town at 90 miles anhour

9) They report that many people are homeless after the floods

10) Those two houses belong to the same family People say that there

is a secret tunnel between them

11) They say that the company is losing a lot of money

12) People expect that the strike will end soon

13) They believed that the workers had stolen the money

14) They say that it was designed by Leonardo da Vinci

15) They say that there is plenty of oil off our coast

16) People know that there are thousands of different species ofbeetles

17) They suppose that George is an expert in financial matters

18) They say that thousands of new jobs will be created in thecomputer industry

19) They reported that all the passengers had died in the crash

20) They say that there are thousands of people waiting to renew theirpassports

Bread and Cereal

The bread-cereal group includes all breads and cereals that are grain, enriched, or restored The protein content is not high in cereals,but these products can be a significant source of protein when they areconsumed in large quantities All cereals are very high in starch, andthey are good, generally inexpensive sources of energy The fat content

whole-of cereal products generally is very low unless the germ is included.Whole-grain products contribute significant quantities of fiber and suchtrace vitamins and minerals as pantothenic acid, vitamin E, zinc, copper,manganese, and molybdenum

Vegetables

Most vegetables are important sources of minerals, vitamins, andcellulose Certain vegetables, such as potatoes, contribute appreciablequantities of starch Large amounts of the minerals calcium and iron are

in vegetables, particularly beans, peas, and broccoli Vegetables alsohelp meet the body's need for sodium, chloride, cobalt, copper,magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and potassium Carotenes (theprecursor of vitamin A) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are abundant inmany vegetables Vegetables are useful as sources of roughage

Fruits

The nutritional value of fruits varies Some fruits are composed largely

of water, but contain valuable vitamins The citrus fruits are a valuable

a high cellulose content.

Milk

The milk group includes milk and milk products, cheese, and ice cream.Milk is a complete protein food containing several protein complexes Italso contains important amounts of most nutrients, but it is very low iniron and ascorbic acid and low in niacin Calcium and phosphorus levels

in milk are very high Vitamin A levels are high in whole milk, but thisfat-soluble vitamin is removed in the production of skim milk.Riboflavin is present in significant quantities in milk unless the milk hasbeen exposed to light

Modern milking parlors enable few people to milk and inspect a large number of cows in a clean environment.

Meat and Meat Substitutes

The meat and meat substitutes group includes beef; veal; lamb; pork;organ meats such as liver, heart, and kidney; poultry and eggs; fish andshellfish; and dried peas, beans, and nuts The meat group containsmany valuable nutrients One of its main nutrients is protein, but meatalso contains cholesterol, which is believed to contribute to coronaryartery disease The minerals copper, iron, and phosphorus occur inmeats in significant amounts, particularly iron and copper in liver.Different meats vary in their vitamin content Liver usually contains auseful amount of vitamin A Thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin, all Bvitamins, occur in significant amounts in all meats

Other Foods

Butter, margarine, other fats, oils, sugars, or unenriched refined-grainproducts are included in the diet to round out meals and satisfy theappetite Fats, oils, and sugars are added to other foods duringpreparation of the meal or at the table These foods supply calories andcan add to total nutrients in meals

FOOD GROUPS 15

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.

1) What nutrients are provided most by breads and cereals?

2) What nutrients are provided by most vegetables?

3) What kinds of fruit contain vitamin C?

4) Why is milk a valuable food?

5) Why is meat believed to contribute to coronary artery disease?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.

1) _ Cereals provide a sufficient amount of protein for the

human body’s need

2) _ Vegetables contain a significant amount of sodium,

chloride, cobalt, copper, magnesium, manganese,phosphorus, and potassium

3) _ Vegetables have a high cellulose content, but fruits do not.4) _ Vitamin A levels are high in skim milk

5) _ Liver usually contains a useful amount of vitamin A

VOCABULARY

Fill in these statements with the words in the box.

contribute fat-soluble enriched appetite varynutritional cholesterol germ mineral roughage

1) The fat content of cereal products generally is very low unless the

………… is included2) Most breakfast cereals are ………… with vitamins

3) Certain vegetables, such as potatoes, ………… appreciablequantities of starch

4) Fruit and vegetables are important sources of …………

5) Chemical sweeteners, like preservatives and colorings, have novalue

6) Vitamin A is a ………… vitamin, so it can dissolve in fat only.7) Don't spoil your ………… by eating between meals

8) ………… is thought to be part of the cause of heart disease if there

is too much of it

9) Different meats ………… in their vitamin content

10) Many people drink ………… water because they do not want todrink tap water

WORD STUDY

A

RE-The prefix re- means “to do something again.”

Here is an example:

re- + read = reread (to read again)

If you don’t understand a story the first time you read it, then you

should reread it.

Exercise: Add the prefix re- to each word in the box Then choose the correct

word to complete each sentence.

1) José made many mistakes in his first composition Before he gives

it to his teacher tomorrow, he is going to ……… it.2) Dave and Susan Johnson got divorced 10 years ago Last yearSusan got ……… and moved to Canada with her newhusband

3) I think I should ……… the furniture in myapartment The way I have the tables and chairs now makes theroom look crowded

4) Children love to hear their grandparents tell stories! They often asktheir grandparents to ……… their favorite storiesmany times

5) The new waiter at the restaurant forgot our order for dinner, so wehad to ……… everything

6) If you don’t get a good score on the TOEFL exam this weekend,you can ……… it next month

B WORD FORMS: NOUNS

Sometimes verbs and nouns have the same form Sometimes we canchange adjectives and verbs to nouns by adding a suffix or changing theform of the word Look at the nouns below Notice how they are related

to other words

changecontroldivorce

changecontroldivorce

different form

electricablenationalnecessarypossible

electricityabilitynationalitynecessitypossibility

marrychoose

marriagechoice

FOOD GROUPS 17

Exercise: Practice using direct objects Choose the correct noun form of the

word in bold print to complete each sentence.

electric 1) Yesterday there was a big storm and we lost the

……… at school Everything wasdark!

national 2) Katarina was born in Spain Her first language

and her ……… are Spanish

of their child Now people usually marry theperson they love

control 4) After 1800 mothers usually stayed home and had

……… of the children and thehome

necessary 5) An education is very important for a good life

Parents must explain this ………

to their children

able 6) My cousin is able to learn languages very

quickly She uses this ……… inher job as a tour guide

choose 7) You must choose which movie to see tonight I

chose the movie last week Now it’s your

………

possible 8) Ali doesn’t know where to go on vacation He

might choose Mexico, but Puerto Rico is another

………

C WORD FORMS: NOUNS

Sometimes in English we can change an adjective to a noun by adding asuffix or changing the spelling

Look at the examples Complete the chart.

smoothhappyweak

smoothnesshappiness

………

importantdifferent

………

importance

………

silenceWhen we add a suffix to some verbs, we can make nouns Sometimes

a verb and a noun have the same form

Look at these examples.

verb noun verb noun verb noun

mixsignfurnish

mixturesignaturefurniture

exploredrywash

explorerdryerwasher

changeworkstart

changeworkstart

Exercise: Complete each sentence with the correct form of the word in bold

print.

change 1) The teacher explained the reason for the ………

in the class schedule

different 2) Modern and traditional clothes are different Do

you understand the ………?

explore 3) James Cook is the name of an ………

furnish 4) What kind of ……… do you have in your

apartment?

important 6) Social scientists do not understand the

……… of animal carvings in Eskimosociety

mix 7) To make lemonade, mix lemon juice and water

Then add sugar to the ………

sign 8) There is a place for your ……… at

the bottom of the application Please sign it

northern Canada It is very peaceful there

smooth 10) Handling the carvings makes them smoother, and

……… improves them

start 11) The students finished their homework in the

cafeteria only five minutes before the

……… of class

work 12) What kind of ……… did you do in

your native country?

We had Simon has just had You should have Are you going to have

a garage your hair our computer

a suit your eyes new carpets

built at the moment cut?

serviced last week made.

tested.

fitted in your flat?

Use

We use the structure have something done to talk about something

which we arrange for someone else to do for us

Compare:

m building a garage at the moment (I am building the garage

FOOD GROUPS 19

myself.)

m having a garage built at the moment (I arranged for someone

else to do this for me.”

We can also use have something done when we do not arrange for

someone else to do something for us

I had my leg broken in a football match.

We had our fence blown down in a storm last week.

We often use have something done un this way when something

unpleasant or unexpected happens to someone

Note that we can often use get something done instead of have something done especially in an informal style e.g I must get this jacket cleaned.

Exercise: Complete the sentences using the correct form of having something

8) Mr and Mrs Woods ……… in astorm (the roof of their house / damage)

9) Kate ……… from her bag while shewas out shopping (her wallet / steal)

10) My brother ……… in a footballmatch (his nose / break)

Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungiand other micro-organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fatswhich causes rancidity.

Common methods of preserving food include drying, freeze drying,freezing, vacuum-packing, canning, radiation treatment and addingpreservatives Other methods that not only help to preserve food, butalso add flavor, include pickling, salting, smoking and curing

The oldest method of food preservation is by drying, which reduceswater activity sufficient to delay or prevent bacterial growth Smoking issometimes done in conjunction with drying Although not sufficient byitself to permit long term storage of food, smoking adds chemicals thathelp inhibit the growth of micro-organisms

Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in anair-tight bag or bottle The vacuum environment strips bacteria ofoxygen needed for survival, hence preventing the food from spoiling.Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts

Curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis.Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two Nitratesand nitrites are also often used to cure meat

FOOD PRESERVATION 21

Method Effect on microbial growth or survival

Refrigeration or chilling Low temperature to retard growth Freezing Low temperature and reduction of water

activity to prevent growth Drying, curing and conserving Reduction in water activity sufficient to delay

or prevent growth Vacuum and oxygen free modified

atmosphere packaging

Low oxygen tension in inhibit strict aerobes and delay growth of facultive anaerobes Carbon dioxide enriched modified

atmosphere packaging

Specific inhibition of some micro-organisms

by carbon dioxide Addition of acids Reduction of pH value and sometimes

additional inhibition by the particular acid Lactic fermentation Reduction of pH value in situ by microbial

action and sometimes additional inhibition by the lactic and acetic acids formed and by other microbial products (e.g ethanol, bacteriocins) Emulsification Compartmentalisation and nutrient limitation

within the aqueous droplets in water-in-oil emulsion foods

Addition of preservatives Inhibition of specific groups of

micro-organisms Pasteurization and appertization Delivery of heat sufficient to inactivate target

micro-organisms to the desired extent food irradation (Radurization,

radicidation and radappertization)

Delivery of ionising radiation

Application of high hydrostatic pressure (Pascalization)

Pressure-inactivation of vegetative bacteria, yeasts and moulds

Main food preservation methods

Canning involves cooking fruits or vegetables, sealing them in sterilecans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remainingbacteria Various foods have varying degrees of natural protectionagainst spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a pressurecooker High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to canand only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoesrequire longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements Manyvegetables require pressure canning

A 1950s issue of Popular Mechanics details the impending arrival of

"food irradiation" However, at the present time, the implicationssurrounding the irradiation of food are still not fully understood, and thetechnology is therefore still not in widespread use However, irradiation

of potatoes, strawberries, and meat is common in many countries where

45

refrigerated facilities and trucks are not common In 2002, the FDApermitted irradiation of meat and poultry to reduce the spread of E coliand Salmonella In the US and most of Europe irradiation of spices iscommon, as the only alternative (treatment with gas) has been shown to

be potentially carcinogenic The process is incorrectly called

"pasteurization" to avoid the reduced sales that arise from the correctterm of "irradiation"

A tomato cannery in Modesto, California

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.

1) What is the definition of food preservation?

2) What are some common methods of preserving food?

3) Why can vacuum-packing prevent the food from spoiling?

4) What is pickling?

5) Why is food irradiation still not in widespread use?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.

1) _ Food preservation is aimed to stop or greatly slow down

spoilage to prevent foodborne illness

2) _ The oxidation of proteins causes rancidity

3) _ Pickling, salting, smoking and curing not only help to

preserve food, but also add flavor

4) _ Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection

against spoilage

5) _ Irradiation of spices can cause cancer

FOOD PRESERVATION 23

VOCABULARY

Fill in these statements with the words in the box.

osmosis carcinogenic spices preservatives pasteurizationpoultry bacteria preserved implications facilities

1) Olives are usually ………… in brine

2) ………… are chemicals used to keep especially food fromdecaying

3) Curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of ……….4) Irradiation of potatoes, strawberries, and meat is common in manycountries where refrigerated ………… and trucks are not common.5) Many people who give up eating meat and ………… carry oneating fish

6) The introduction of …………, which kills micro-organisms byheat, has been a major factor in making milk safer to drink

7) They are studying the ………… effects of some pesticides used onfruit

8) Illnesses caused by ………… can often be treated with antibiotics.9) Cinnamon, ginger and cloves are all …………

10) At the present time, the ………… surrounding the irradiation offood are still not fully understood

WORD STUDY

A WORD FORMS: NOUN ENDINGS

So far you have studied many common noun endings Look at the wordlist below and notice how the nouns are related to the other words

Exercise: Choose the correct word form to complete each sentence Some

nouns may need to be made plural Use a word from line 1 in sentence 1, and so on.

1) There are several major ……… between life in theUnited States and in Canada

2) Lots of people went to the movie theater last night There was a big

……… waiting outside to buy tickets

3) Keiko had no mistakes on her test yesterday The teacher wrote

“………!” on the top of her test Keiko was veryhappy

4) If you take a loan from the bank to buy a car, you must make a

……… every month until you pay all the money back.5) Tennis shoes and other sports ……… are usually veryexpensive

6) It’s hard to understand the ……… of video games.Many people play them, but I don’t like them

7) David is very good at speaking and reading English His major

……… is writing, so he practices all the time

8) I was so happy when I received a letter from my best friend athome It is such a ……… to get mail when you are faraway from family and friends

B - LESS

The suffix less means “without” or “not having something.”

Here is an example:

The number of English words to learn is endless (“without end”)

Exercise: Add the suffix -less to each word Then choose the best word for

3) You must take your time and be careful when you write If you try

to hurry, you will make ……… mistakes

4) Michael was sick last night so he could not sleep Today in class hewas very tired after such a ……… night

5) Helen said something that hurt my feelings I know she didn’t want

to hurt my feelings She just wasn’t thinking She made a

……… mistake

FOOD PRESERVATION 25

C WORD FORMS: NOUNS

Some common noun endings are -sion, -tion, -ation, and -t Look at this

list of verbs and nouns Notice how the nouns are related to the verbs

divideintroduceexploreeducateprevent

divisionintroductionexplorationeducationprevention

populatecomplicateinformproducefly

populationcomplicationinformationproductionflight

Exercise: Choose the best verb or noun from the chart to complete each

sentence Remember to use the correct verb tenses and singular or plural noun forms.

1) In the 19th century, parents realized that they had to take care oftheir children’s health and try to give them a good

……… Before that, most people did not go toschool

2) The ……… of the world is increasing every year

In the year 2005 there will be at least 7.2 billion people on theearth

3) When people in North America ……… themselves

to you for the first time, they usually say, “Nice to meet you” andshake your hand

4) Some scientists think that drinking green tea is good for yourhealth In fact, some people think it helps ……….diseases

5) The island of Puerto Rico ……… a lot ofsugarcane The sugar that comes from it is sold all over the world.6) After World War II, Germany was divided into two separatecountries However, this ……… did not last In

1990 the two Germanies united as one country again

7) Many centuries ago, people left their countries to search for newlands The ……… of the new world brought people frommany countries together in North America

8) If you have a question when you are in the library, go to the

……… desk and ask one of the librarians for help

STRUCTURE STUDY

THE RELATIVE CLAUSE

A noun can be modified by a clause A clause of this kind is begun by

a relative pronoun and called a relative clause It always follows thenoun which it modifies and which is known as its antecedent

Look at the following sentences:

(a) An engineer is a skilled person He designs, builds or maintains engines, machines, bridges, railways, etc.

(b) An engineer is a skilled person who designs, builds or maintains engines, machines, bridges, railways, etc.

The relative pronouns are:

Subject: who, which, that,

Object: who, whom, which, that, Ø Possessive Determiner: whose (+ a noun)

Adverbial: when, where, why (when and why can be

replaced by that or Ø)

Exercise 1: Join each pair of sentences, making the second sentence a relative

clause.

1) I can’t find the envelopes I bought it this morning

2) This is a picture of the place We’re going there for our holidays.3) Have you found the money? You lost it

4) His refusal to tell her the truth is the reason That’s why she is soangry with him

5) Are these all the letters? They came in this morning’s post

6) The factory is going to close down I work there

7) The car has now been found It was stolen

8) She’s the person She gives me a lift to work every day

9) The outdoor swimming pool has now been closed down We oftenwent there as children

10) The man was very nice He interviewed me

11) She’s the girl Her brother works in the post office

12) Is there a reason? You want to leave now for that reason

13) Is Technico the company? Sarah works for them

14) The house is over 100 years old Sue has bought it

15) I’m looking for the person I’ve just hit his car

16) Most of the books are still popular today I read them as a child.17) The woman is coming back to work soon I’m doing her job.18) Edinburgh is the city I’d most like to live there

19) His dishonesty is the reason That’s why I left him

20) The early morning is the time I work best then

FOOD PRESERVATION 27

Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences with an appropriate relative

pronoun.

1) They’re the people ……… house caught fire

2) This is the report ……… the president wanted

3) The girls ……… are in my class are all good students.4) Is that the hospital ……… you had your operation?5) Do you remember the time ……… your car broke down

9) They’re the people ……… children were injured in theaccident

10) Did they tell you the reason ……… they wanted you to

15) These are the kinds of exercises ……… help us learnEnglish

16) The lamp ……… you broke is my brother’s

17) She is one of the workers ……… went on strike

18) She was the pilot ……… flew our 747

19) It is the little things in life ……… count

20) I can remember a time ……… there was no television

EARLIEST TYPES OF COOKING

The origins of cooking are obscure Primitive humans may first havesavored roast meat by chance, when the flesh of a beast killed in a forestfire was found to be more palatable and easier to chew and digest thanthe customary raw meat They probably did not deliberately cook food,though, until long after they had learned to use fire for light and warmth

It has been speculated that Peking man roasted meats, but no clearevidence supports the theory From whenever it began, however,roasting spitted meats over fires remained virtually the sole culinarytechnique until the Paleolithic Period, when the Aurignacian people ofsouthern France began to steam their food over hot embers by wrapping

it in wet leaves Aside from such crude procedures as toasting wildgrains on flat rocks and using shells, skulls, or hollowed stones to heatliquids, no further culinary advances were made until the introduction ofpottery during the Neolithic Period

The earliest compound dish was a crude paste (the prototype of the

pulmentum of the Roman legions and the polenta of later Italians) made

by mixing water with the cracked kernels of wild grasses This paste,toasted to crustiness when dropped on a hot stone, made the first bread

ADVANCES IN COOKING TECHNIQUES

Culinary techniques improved with the introduction of earthenware(and, more or less concomitantly, the development of settledcommunities), as well as the domestication of livestock and thecultivation of edible plants A more dependable supply of foodstuffs,

these foods in new ways, and such dishes as bacalao à la vizcaina ("dried cod") and finnan haddie (smoked haddock) are still eaten.

The microwave oven cooks a 20 kilo turkey in less than 1/2 hour instead of the 4 to 5 hours it would take in a standard oven.

COOKING METHODS

Heat-activated cooking methods take five basic forms Food may beimmersed in liquids such as water, stock, or wine (boiling, poaching,stewing); immersed in fat or oil (frying); exposed to vapor (steamingand, to some extent, braising); exposed to dry heat (roasting, baking,broiling); and subjected to contact with hot fats (sautéing) With minormodifications, all five methods are applicable to any type of food noteaten raw, but certain treatments traditionally are rarely used toprepare particular foods Deep-fat frying, for example, is not generallythought the ideal method for preparing steaks or chops

Boiled foods usually are immersed in flavored or unflavored liquidsfor longer periods of time than poached foods, and the cooking liquidusually takes the form of a thickened sauce when foods are stewed.The chief difference between frying and sautéing is that fryingproduces a crisp surface, sealing natural moisture inside the food,whereas in the sauté process, natural juices usually mingle with thepan fat, coating the food with a light sauce As opposed to steaming,which does not place foods in direct contact with liquids, braising isaccomplished by first browning food in fat and then placing it in directcontact with a small amount of liquid within an airtight pan.Originally, roasted foods were exposed to the action of open fires or

live coals, but in contemporary cookery roasting is synonymous withbaking – that is, cooking by dry heat in a closed oven Broiling,whether in an oven or over an open fire or coals, exposes meats to thedirect action of more intense heat, which sears their surfaces quickly

to seal in their juices

Questions: Answer the questions about the reading.

1) How did primitive humans cook food until the Paleolithic Period?2) What helped to improve cooking techniques?

3) How may primitive humans have preserved meat and fish?

4) What are the basic cooking methods?

5) What is the main difference between frying and sautéing?

True-False: Write T if the sentence is true and F if it is false.

1) _ Primitive people cooked food long before they learned touse fire for light and warmth

2) _ Culinary advances were made only after the introduction ofpottery during the Neolithic Period

3) _ Deep-fat frying is the common method for preparing steaks

Fill in these statements with the words in the box.

palatable cookery savored embers picklingfoodstuffs sauté airtight immersed utensils

1) ……… the meat for a few minutes over a medium heat beforeadding the wine

2) It was the first chocolate he had tasted for over a year, so he

……… every mouthful

3) The shells should be ……… in boiling water for two minutes.4) The meal was barely ……… – in fact, I thought it wasdisgusting

5) They lack basic ………, such as bread and milk

6) In the drawer was a selection of kitchen ……… – spoons,spatulas, knives and whisks

7) ……… onions are small onions of a type which are preserved

in vinegar

8) A ……… book is a book containing recipes which tell youhow to prepare and cook particular dishes

OVER-The prefix over- means “too,” “too much,” or “too many.”

Look at the example:

Third World cities are already overcrowded (too crowded) Exercise: Add the prefix over- to each word Then choose the best word for

2) We were driving in the mountains on a very hot day, and our car

……… We had to stop and let it cool down.3) Toshi left the rice in the rice cooker too long Now the rice is

………

4) Martin has a class at 8:00 in the morning He usually wakes up at7:00 to get ready Today he was late for class because he didn’twake up until 8:15 He ………

5) If you ……… every day, you will soon be

……… Eating too much can make you fat, and it’snot good for your health

similar ………

1) Brian ……… told his friend that he didn’t like thecolor of her new car Then he was sorry for what he said He didn’tthink about it before he said it

2) Always read the directions ……… before you take atest so you don’t make any careless mistakes

3) Loud talking is not allowed in the library You must work

……… so other people can study, too

4) Julia ……… knocked her glass off the table, and itbroke She did not mean to do it

5) If you cook your meals at home and don’t go out too often, you canlive……… You don’t have to spend too much money

C WORD FORMS: OTHER WORDS WITH -LY

The meanings of a few common words with the suffix -ly are different

from what you might guess Look at these words and their meanings

likely = probably

The sky is full of gray clouds It is likely to rain soon.

greatly = very much

Family life has changed greatly in the last two centuries.

hardly = not much, only a little, almost none

There are so many cars in Bangkok that there is hardly any space

to park.

(Note: hardly is a negative word Don’t use no or not with it.) widely = in many places, over a large area

English is widely used as a second language Italian is not.

shortly = in a short time, very soon

I will finish my homework shortly Then I will play tennis with you.

nearly = almost

Today is November 20 It is nearly winter.

Exercise: Now choose the best -ly word from the above list to complete each

4) Jeff ……… ever eats in fast-food restaurants because

he is a vegetarian He usually cooks for himself at home

COOKING 33

5) Country music is ……… to be popular for a long time

It will probably still be popular in 20 years

6) Euphorbia is not a ……… known plant People inmost places have never heard of it

7) Deserts are growing all over the world This is ………because of humans and their animals

8) I used to go to movies a lot, but I haven’t been to one ………

STRUCTURE STUDY

DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

‘Defining’ relative clauses identify nouns: these clauses tell us whichperson, thing, etc the speaker means

I spoke to the woman who owns the hotel (who owns the hotel tells

Ken s mother, who is 69, has just passed her driving test (who is

69 does not tell us which woman; we already know that it is Ken s mother)

Sue s house, which is in the centre of town, is over 100 years old (which is in the centre of town does not tell us which house; we already know that it is Sue s house)

Non-defining clauses are more common in a formal style, especially inwriting

When we write these clauses, we put commas (,) at the beginning of theclause (and often at the end of the clause)

Last weekend I met Sue, who told me she was going on holiday soon.

Frank Morris, who is one of my best friends, has decided to go and live in France.

Note that in a non-defining clause we cannot use that or Ø.

She gave me the key, which I put in my pocket.

My uncle John, who lives in Manchester, is coming to visit me next week.

Exercise: Rewrite the sentences making the second sentence into a

non-defining relative clause and putting it into the correct place.

1) When I was in town, I met your sister She was shopping for someclothes

2) Their house needs a lot of work doing to it It is near the beach.3) Sandra’s just got a new job with Capital Insurers It’s a much bettercompany than the last one she worked for

4) The new manager seems to be a very capable woman I met her lastweek

5) This case is full of books I carried it all the way from the station.6) The Games International Company has just gone bankrupt Wehave done business with them for many years

7) The hospital has handed out redundancy notices to all its staff It isdue to close down next year

8) The prisoners are requesting more time out of their cells Theirfamilies are campaigning on their behalf

9) The new government is now facing major problems It came topower with a lot of public support

10) Her latest novel is really good I read it on holiday

11) The Home Affairs Minister is suspected of being involved in afinancial scandal The opposition have accused the minister oflying

12) The Education Department is changing its policy on single sexschools Mrs Parkinson is in charge of the department

13) The Lilley and Swan department store has made reductions onmost of its goods The store has a sale on at the moment

14) The principal actor could hardly speak last night due to a sorethroat He normally has a wonderful voice

15) The sales manager is planning a new advertising campaign Isupport her ideas

16) The oldest method of food preservation is by drying reduces wateractivity sufficient to delay or prevent bacterial growth

17) Dr Rowan has had to do all his own typing His secretary resignedtwo week ago

18) Meat contains cholesterol Cholesterol is believed to contribute tocoronary artery disease

19) My mother knew that they were in the building She had beentalking to them earlier

20) We went away in August The children were on holiday fromschool then

Because the human diet is typically diverse, human beings are classified

as omnivores rather than as herbivores (plant eaters) or carnivores (meateaters) Certain groups of people do derive most of their food fromanimal sources while other people practice vegetarianism By far themajority of humankind, however, eats a wide range of foods of bothanimal and vegetable origin Prehistoric humans were hunter-gathererswho fed on animals, insects, berries, roots, and leaves The range ofdietary choices was extended when humans learned how to use fire forcooking and when they developed weapons for hunting and trappinglarger game; most importantly, they eventually learned how to rearanimals for their own use and how to cultivate crops Today someisolated groups are still hunter-gatherers, but most human diets derivefrom agriculture and animal husbandry

Asian-style noodles

Throughout history, as long as the food supply was sufficient thetraditional diets of most cultures have provided all the essential nutrients.These are divided into macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins) andmicronutrients (vitamins and minerals) In general, humans obtain most

of their food energy from carbohydrates (perhaps 65% worldwide);lesser amounts come from fat (about 20%) and protein (about 15%),mainly from meat and fish

The major cause of undernutrition and nutritional-deficiency diseases hasseldom been traditional food habits The usual cause has been a lack ofadequate food due to poverty or consumption of too limited a variety offood Infectious diseases and lack of care contribute importantly tomalnutrition in children Protein-energy malnutrition is generally due toconsumption of too little food, and micronutrient deficiencies such asanemia, iodine deficiency disorders, and pellagra are due to dietsinadequate in specific minerals and vitamins

Advances in agriculture and food-processing techniques have affordedthe potential of increased food supply and a nutritionally enriched diet,but modernization and Westernization of food habits have also haddeleterious effects For example, at the turn of the 20th century new ricemilling techniques caused an outbreak of beriberi (a thiamine-deficiencydisease) in Asia, resulting in millions of deaths The substitution ofbottle-feeding for breast-feeding among poor families in developingcountries has been responsible for a great deal of malnutrition anddiarrhea, as well as infant deaths