Criticism in American and Vietnamese e-newspapers

Language and culture are interdependent and interactional

1 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale

Language and culture are interdependent and interactional Culture affects the waylanguage is used and language may reflect many factors of culture in turn In addition,what is right in one culture may not be accepted in another culture As people move fromone country to another, cultural differences become apparent to them For instance,American society values simple and direct communication Being open and direct inexpressing desires, preferences, and feelings or in discussing issues is highly appreciated inthe United States Americans are likely to be, to various degrees, honest in deliveringnegative evaluations However, in Vietnamese culture, where positive face saving isimportant, directness may be perceived as being blunt, rude and impolite, especially whencomplaining and criticizing someone or something (face-damaging acts) Therefore, mostVietnamese are at first shocked at the American direct way of communicating in generaland criticizing in particular

In addition, with the popularity of Internet and online magazines in English language,people have more chances to interact and know more about other countries As a reporter

of a Vietnamese e-newspaper, the thesis author would like to find out the differences inarticle-writing style among countries and how culture affects it

For the limitation of time and resources, she only focuses on expressions of criticizing inAmerican and Vietnamese e-newspapers in the light of Directness/Indirectness to see ifthey cause culture shock Such is her hope that this paper will have some contributions tothe study of cross-cultural communication between America and Vietnam

1.2 Aims of the study

The aims of this paper are:

+ To study cultural aspects which affect criticism in American and Vietnamese onlinenewspapers

+ To compare the use of directness and indirectness in criticism between American andVietnamese online newspapers

+ To study ways to express criticism in American and Vietnamese online newspapers

1.3 Scope of the study

This research only analyzes the degree of directness and indirectness in criticism of someselected American and Vietnamese newspapers

1.4 Methods of the study

The analysis uses inductive and deductive methods with the following techniques:

+ Selecting some online newspapers with great readership and popularity

+ Collecting and analyzing articles with criticism

+ Consulting reference books

+ Discussing with teachers and friends

+ Conducting surveying

1.5 Designs of the study

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 3: Criticism in American and Vietnamese e-newspapers

Chapter 4: Data analysis

Chapter 5: Conclusion

2 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Culture

2.1.1 Definition of culture

Culture is one of the most complicated concepts to define This is partly because of its

long historical development, but mainly because it now has been used in importantbackground for a lot of distinct intellectual systems

The word “culture” comes from the Latin root - “colere” which means “to inhabit,cultivate, or honor” In other words, it refers to human activities

In 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn compiled a list of over 200 different definitions of culture

in their book “Culture: A critical review of Concepts and Definitions” One of these is:

“Culture consists of pattern, explicit and implicit, of and for, behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the other hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand as conditioning elements of further actions” (1952:181)

Because the thesis focuses on the communication aspect of culture, the definition byLevine and Adelman (cited in Nguyen Quang, 1998) is believed to be the most relevant:

“Culture is a shared background (for example, national, ethnic, religious) resulting from a common language and communication style, customs, beliefs, attitudes and values Culture refers to the informal and often hidden interactions, expressions and viewpoints that people in one culture share The hidden nature of culture has been compared to an iceberg, most of which is hidden under water Like the iceberg, much of the influence of culture on an individual cannot be seen The part of culture that is exposed is not always that which creates cross-cultural difficulties: the hidden aspects of culture have significant effects on behaviors and on interactions with other.”

2.1.2 Culture shock

Culture shock can be described as the physical and emotional discomfort one suffers whencoming to another country or a place different from the place of origin Often, the way thatone lived before is not accepted or considered as normal in the new place Everything isdifferent, for example, not speaking the language, not knowing how to use somemechanical systems and so forth

The symptoms of culture shock can appear at different times Although one can experiencereal pain from culture shock, it is also an opportunity for redefining one’s life objectives It

is a great opportunity for learning to acquire new perspectives

In these days, due to the development of technology, people can update informationthrough media system such as television, newspapers, internet, etc Another expression ofculture shock occurs when one cannot explain what he/she is viewing In this case, “cultureshock” may be equivalent to the term “confusion” For instance, when a foreigner readsthis sentence in a Vietnamese newspaper:

He is considered a Chi in the Vietnamese Literature.

(Ông được coi là anh Chí của nền văn học Việt Nam)

The foreigner is sure to be confused if he does not know Chi and his personality

In general, culture shock can be described as below:

“A mismatch between the neuro - perceptual - cognitive map and the physical and cultural environments can cause considerable uncertainty, confusion, insecurity and anxiety The complex of thought, emotion and behavior caused by this mismatch is called culture shock.”

socio-(freedictionary.com/encycopedia/culture-shock)

2.2 Criticism

2.2.1 Definition of criticism

First the definition of critic should be taken into account A critic (derived from the

ancient Greek word krites meaning a judge) is a person who offers a value judgment or an

interpretation

The term is used in particular for a professional who regularly judges or interpretsperformances or other work of other people and publishes these judgments orinterpretations in a periodical (often a newspaper, a magazine, or an academic journal).Critics often specialize in one field and are usually well educated in that field

According to Wikipedia online dictionary, “Criticism is the activity of judgment or

informed interpretation and, in many cases, can be synonymous with “analysis” There are constructive and destructive criticisms Constructive criticism is the process of offering valid and well-reasoned opinions about someone or something, usually involving both positive and negative comments, in a friendly manner rather than an opposite one In collaborative work, this kind of criticism is often a valuable tool in raising and maintaining performance standards Destructive criticism is intended to harm someone, derogate and destroy someone’s creation, prestige, reputation and self-esteem”.

Although there can be both positive and negative aspects to criticism, one sense of the termemphasizes negative comments A phrase such as "critics of Einstein argue that "generally refers to people who are skeptical of the value of Einstein's position In a

different context, though, the use of critics in a similar phrase like "critics of Romantic

poetry argue that " simply means the neutral activity of interpretation

Written criticism is called a critique - an article or essay that gives a critical evaluation,serious examination and judgment of something

Criticism helps to clarify and define the theoretical basis of public address It alsocontributes to setting up a standard of society In particular, criticism interprets thefunction of communication and indicates the limits of present knowledge in society

2.2.2 Types of criticism

2.2.2.1 Practice of analyzing and evaluating literary or other artistic works

This type of criticism is based on the rules and principles that regulate the practice of thecritic, the art of judging with knowledge and propriety of the beauties and faults of aliterature performance, or of a production in the fine art

As Brande & C (1913) says the elements of criticism depend on the two principles ofBeauty and Truth, one of which is the final end or object of study it pursuits: Beauty - inletters and the arts; Truth – in history and sciences.

2.2.2.2 Unfavorable judgment of other social aspects

Unfavorable judgment is called fault - finding or disposal expressed by pointing out faults

or shortcomings Anyone who does not follow the standard way of doing will be criticized.This type of criticism covers all aspects of life ranging from politics, economy to socialbehaviors

E.g The senator received severe criticism from his opponent

Most people attach a negative connotation to the word criticism because it brings to mind

of something uncomfortable However, criticism comes into two flavors: constructive anddestructive Destructive criticism aims to hurt an individual’s self-esteem by causingpsychological damage In contrast, constructive one is handled with positive attitude thatwill receive improved results and give feeling of satisfaction

Literature criticism requires a certain ability of evaluating literary or artistic works Also, ithas limited and selected number of readers Hence, literature criticism is not popularamong people In contrast, the second type of criticism reflects all the aspects of life andhas direct impact on readers Thus, the second is the type of criticism the author will focus

on in the next parts

2.3 Directness vs Indirectness

2.3.1 An overview of Directness vs Indirectness

Directness and Indirectness is one of the major categorical dimensions of cross-culturalcommunication This dimension has been seriously studied by many pragmatists, socio-linguist, etc

G Yule (1996) states “whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act; whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have an indirect speech act.”

This statement shows that in direct speech, the speaker/writer says what he means while inindirect speech, he means more than what he says In other words, it is easy and clear to

understand a direct speech; in contrast, there remain some hints in indirect speech and onehas to know the rules to interpret the meaning.

Americans generally consider themselves to be frank, open and direct in dealing with eachother They often exhibit strong emotional response to something

However, according to Althen (2003:18), Americans are often less direct than they realize.Latins and Arabs are generally inclined to display their emotions more openly thanAmericans do and to view Americans as unemotional and cold Meanwhile, it is believedthat Americans are much more direct than Asians, particularly Vietnamese As a result,Vietnamese who appreciate and consider indirectness as politeness will see Americansinsensitive, rude, forceful and sometimes aggressive

2.3.2 Directness and Indirectness in criticism

A good example of direct criticism would be if the boss told his employee something like:

“How could you make such a stupid mistake? What are you thinking? I don’t know why I hire you in the first place.”

An American boss tends to criticize this way because it may motivate his employee towork harder and smarter This is because being open and direct in expressing opinions,desires, preferences, and feelings, or in discussing issues, events, and most ideas isconsidered proper in the United States

However, to a Vietnamese worker, it will make him resent and want to quit It is moreacceptable to say something like:

“Thank you for the report I can see you put a lot of effort into it However, I was hoping you could touch it up a little by summarizing it more carefully and adding some graphs This content is solid, but if you could make those small changes, I would really appreciate it.”

The Vietnamese often use hedges before informing bad news or criticizing Giving somecompliments before showing weak points of others is preferable among them

2.4 Newspapers

2.4.1 Definition of newspapers

According to Oxford English Dictionary (1990):

A newspaper is a sheet of paper printed and distributed, at stated intervals for conveying intelligence of passing events, advocating opinions, etc.; a public print that circulates news, advertisements, proceeding of legislative bodies, public announcements, etc.

Another definition that the Levi E Coe Library presented in their website should be takeninto consideration:

A newspaper is a lightweight and disposable periodical usually printed on low-cost paper

called newsprint containing a journal of current news in a variety of topics These topics can include political events, crime, sports, opinion, and weather.

Newspapers are also developed around very narrow topic areas, such as news formerchants in a specific industry, fans of particular sports, fans of the arts or of specificartists, and participants in the same sorts of activities or lifestyles

Most nations have at least one newspaper that circulates throughout the whole country, but

in the United States there are few truly national newspapers, with the exception of USA

Today and The Wall Street Journal; large metropolitan newspapers with expanded distribution networks such as The New York Times.

Nowadays, newspapers are not only printed on sheets of paper With the development ofInternet, another kind of newspaper that, in recent years, has been popular to everyone has

appeared: e-newspaper (newspaper in Internet).

2.4.2 E-newspapers

Of all the changes of newspapers, the most significant recent development is obviously theemergence of the Internet as a second national and global stage for news and entertainmentthat can challenge the dominant television Among other things, it is giving us a growingindustry of journalism and a new tradition of media criticism This change is taking placebecause Internet is the television for print, in the sense that it is allowing writing frommany sources to appear together in the same virtual “space” That means all the journalismand media criticism that print makes possible is now available to anyone who can access a

computer, vastly expanding choice and creating all kinds of opportunities, for rolemodeling, competition, dialogue, and mutual critique of writers Now, when there issomething wrong, many of the severe stories and the subsequent critiques are immediatelyavailable to millions of readers, and not merely to a limited audience

Reading e-newspapers obviously has many advantages First, it is becoming easier andeasier to approach because Internet is so popular today Second, information is updatedeveryday, even every hour For example, process of football matches is uploaded eachminute in Internet In addition, people have more chances to choose any kind ofnewspapers to read due to their interest and their needs Furthermore, with the appliance ofWorld Wide Web (www), people have great opportunities to know and read foreignnewspapers Therefore, the number of e-newspaper readers has been increasing with highspeed

2.4.3 Language of newspapers

2.4.3.1Accuracy

Accuracy is required in any written style of language However, it is particularly importantand significant to newspaper language because newspaper has the function of directingpublic opinion Just a trivial mistake of using wrong words or expressions can make it hardfor readers to understand; and misunderstanding may cause unpredictable seriousconsequences

2.4.3.2 Specification

Another typical feature of newspaper language is specification Newspapers’ articlesprovide specific, concrete details to make readers feel as if they were the insiders,witnessing the event As a matter of fact, each event must be fixed at certain time, incertain place, relating to certain people This is the basic persuasion because it helpsreaders check the information easily

2.4.3.3 Publicity

Newspaper is a kind of mass media Every one, regardless of education level, is objectivelyserved by newspapers where they can both get the information and express their opinion.Therefore newspapers should use the general standard language to meet the needs of

various readers, so that a scientist with wide knowledge does not feel bored, and a childwith low qualification can easily understand.

2.4.3.4 Conciseness

Language in newspapers should be short and brief Long expression can make theinformation dilute, which causes bad effect on the reception of information Moreover, itwastes time for both the writers and readers because in this era of information explosion, it

is better to get as much information as possible in the shortest time

3 Chapter 3: CRITICISM IN AMERICAN AND VIETNAMESE NEWSPAPERS

3.1 Major factors affecting direct/indirect criticism

3.1.1 Communication styles

It has been proved that American society values simple, direct verbal and writtencommunication while the Vietnamese consider directness as lack of subtlety andsophistication

Gary M Wederspahn, a leader in the field of intercultural relations and communications,has characterized the American style of communication as strongly oriented towardscontent (facts, numbers, dates, and precise, explicit meanings) Their speech reflects thehigh value they place on words and the need for clarity Wederspahn (2000) states:

“Americans focus may be compared to a spotlight intensively illuminating a narrow band

of the communication spectrum In contrast, the communication style in Asia is more like a floodlight that takes in the context in which the communications occur.” This means the

situation and the relationship of the people involved plus the time and place all carry alarge part of the meaning in the conversation of the Vietnamese The actual words tend to

be less important and need to be understood in terms of the contextual factors

However, such cultures with high power distance as Vietnam frequently take Americanindividualism and egalitarianism as an unwillingness to show proper deference and respect

to those who deserve it The Vietnamese always consider themselves as a member of

community They think that people not only live with nature but also live with each other

to establish a society They are sunk in the relationship with family, morals, laws, politics,etc While the American appreciate role of individuals, the Vietnamese value role ofcommunity The Vietnamese are observed treating people around as kin, as those whocome from the same source, the same origin This, for thousand years, has been animmutable principle - individuals are dissolved in community, they are nothing whenisolated

This explains why the Vietnamese pay much attention to the “how” of theircommunication so that they do not leave any mistake which damages the relationshipbetween them and others Indirectness, especially in criticism, is an effective way to avoidmaking others feel unpleasant

Generally, collectivism vs individualism leads to two ways of communication While theAmericans find it comfortable to express their ideas, feelings freely, the Vietnamese have

to take notice of others’ reaction before speaking and writing

3.1.3 Attitudes towards criticism

According to Wederspahn (2000), the American consider criticism itself a neutral thingwhen one starts to use it in order to create a certain experience and feeling And no oneneeds defense against something that is neutral Additionally, they tend to think ofthemselves before taking notice of others’ reactions because of their individualism For thisreason, the American are not resistant to express their critical opinions

For the Vietnamese, regardless of how 'true' the criticism is, it seems, for a moment, there

is something wrong with those who are criticized, and seen from the perspective of one’spersonality this is never a pleasant experience What is not pleasant should be avoided,diverted, hidden or otherwise be experienced as little as possible Hence, many of theactivities aim at prevention from being criticized

3.2 Criticism in American newspapers

As discussed in Chapter 2, the American are generally open and straightforward incommunication They often speak or write directly about things they dislike They are not

taught that they should mask their emotional responses They do not think it improper todisplay their feelings

Hence, in American media in general and in American e-newspapers in particular, voice ofcriticism is usually strong, straight and direct Some critical articles even sound aggressive,severe and sharp

Most articles of criticism in the US e-newspapers have a very clear style They give themain points and state the criticism at the top in the headline and the lead paragraph(s) Thebody of the articles then adds details, statements, and comments from people involved inthe articles, plus any background the writer feels necessary to support the criticism morestrongly This means one gets at least three chances to understand the main points of thearticle It is said “at least” because many articles have accompanying picture and captions(text explaining the pictures) as well which produce much stronger impact on readers.The content of the next part is collected and classified through an investigation into three

most popular American online newspapers: USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com), The New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com), and The Washington Post

(http://www.washingtonpost.com)

3.3 Criticism in Vietnamese newspapers

As regards culture, “Indirectness” is believed to be common in Vietnamesecommunication It is hard for somebody to find a conversation without indirectness orhedges For instance:

“Tớ biết là cậu rất bận, nhưng khi cậu đi ra ngoài, cậu có thể tiện thể gửi lá thư này cho mình được không?”

(I know you are busy, but when you go out, will you send this letter for me by the way?)

The phrases as “Tôi đoán là ” (I guess), “Tôi không biết nói ra điều này có phải không, nhưng ” (I’m not sure if this is right, but ), “Những gì tôi sắp nói có thể sẽ xúc phạm cậu ” (What I am going to say may offend you ) are examples of hedges and

indirectness

Newspapers reflect the daily life, and are influenced by it In the essay “Cultural elements

in newspapers” published in “Sai Gon Giai phong” newspaper (The Saigon Liberation) on

February 20, 1999, it is indicated that each article contains many cultural factors such asways of thinking, observing, evaluating and writing, which is different from culture toculture Therefore, indirectness in Vietnamese newspapers is a matter of course, and thefrequency of indirectness is much higher in case of criticizing

It is well-known that the first and foremost function of newspapers is providinginformation However, if in newspapers, writers only use stereotypes of words and ways ofexpressing to report events, or to give out problems, the articles will be so much dull

In addition, critical articles mention sensitive aspects that may cause unforeseeablereactions from readers In daily communication, the Vietnamese tend to avoid straighttalks, so do they in written communication Therefore, we do not often see direct criticism

in Vietnamese newspapers

In the most popular websites of e-newspapers such as VnExpress (http://vnexpress.net),Vietnamnet (http://vietnamnet.vn), Dân Trí Online (http://dantri.com.vn), etc., criticalarticles occupy an important position However, criticism, in comparison with Americannewspapers, is still general, light, indirect and not strict, but it is acceptable to Vietnamesereaders

4 Chapter 4: RESEARCH AND DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Methodology

4.1.1 Research questions

This research aims at answering the following questions:

- What are the ways that American and Vietnamese online newspapers use to expresscriticism?

- How different are the degrees of directness and indirectness of criticizing betweenAmerican and Vietnamese online newspapers?

4.1.2 Sources of linguistic input

- 3 of most popular American online newspapers: USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com),The New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com), and The Washington Post(http://www.washingtonpost.com)

- 3 of most popular Vietnamese online newspapers: VnExpress (http://vnexpress.net),Vietnamnet (http://vietnamnet.vn), Dân Trí Online (http://dantri.com.vn)

4.1.3 Data collection procedure

- Investigation of “Nation” column in American e-newspapers and “Xã hội” column inVietnamese e-newspapers from November 26th to December 2nd 2008 to find out thenumber of critical articles and compare the percentages of direct/indirect criticism betweenAmerican and Vietnamese online newspapers through the layout and illustrations ofarticles as well as the language used

4.2 Data analysis and findings

4.2.1 Structure of the articles

Each of the three main part of an article (the headline, the lead and the body) has its owndistinctive style and content

4.2.1.1 The headline

The headline is the extra large opening statement used as the title of an article or pressrelease With the large, bold words, headline is the most eye-catching part of an article.Besides giving the main idea of the article, it has the function of drawing readers’attention Headlines are incredibly important as they make the scanning process easier

0 5 10 15 20

Direct Indirect

Figure 1: Comparison of Directness and Indirectness in the Headlines.

Of all 33 critical articles collected from November 26th to December 2nd in threeVietnamese online newspapers, there are 17 articles using indirect titles as the following:

Xăng giảm giá, xe ôm Hà thành vẫn “chém đẹp” (Vietnamnet)

(Hired motor-bike keeps fee high despite of gas’s lower price)

9x, 10x “khoe mình” trên mạng (Vietnamnet)

(Teens post nude photos on blogs)

Việt Nam thu nhận nhiều ngành công nghiệp 'bẩn' (VnExpress)

(Many polluted industries shipped into Vietnam)

The titles above makes foreign readers confused for not understanding the phrase “chém

đẹp” means “unreasonably raising the price” while 9x, 10x “khoe mình” points out the

trend of teenagers self-posting unclothing photos on their personal websites (blogs)

Whereas, the quotation mark in the third headlines reduces the negative impression of theword “bẩn” (dirty).

In contrast, more than 75% (19/25) of headlines in the American e-newspapers are direct tothe point:

Mr Bush and the pardon power (The New York Times)

Forgotten lessons from 9/11 (The Washington Post)

Stop asking for money, Obama (The Washington Post)

As can be seen from the three examples above, the titles concentrate on the main point (the

‘what’) and the language is simple, specific and clear Headlines of critical articles inAmerican online newspapers from November 26th to December 2nd have no slang withquotation mark (which is so popular in Vietnamese newspapers), although they aresometimes troublesome For example, the writers try to catch the readers’ attention andsome of the methods used like humor, question mark, word plays, or idioms can bedifficult for non-native readers to figure out:

Expert or Shill? (The New York Times)

Black Friday: Is your cashier cranky? (USA Today)

Nevertheless, this way of writing headline is so rare (2 in all 25 headlines in the US newspapers) because Americans prefer direct titles so that they will immediately knowwhat the article is going to mention to save their time

e-4.2.1.2 The lead

The lead refers to the first (and occasionally the second) paragraph of an article It isusually one information-packed sentence which expands on the story’s main point asintroduced in the headline The lead gives enough information to allow readers to make animportant decision whether they want to read the story or to skip it and move on to anothermore interesting story:

“We have "only one President at a time," Obama said in his debut press conference as President-elect By mid-November, with the financial crisis growing worse by the day, it

had become obvious that one President was no longer enough (at least not the President

we had)”.

Just reading the lead of the article “Bush's Last Days: The Lamest Duck”, readers can

immediately know that the article is about to look down the role of US President GeorgeBush in helping America overcome the current economic depression through some strong

words and phrases as “obvious”, “no longer enough”, “not the President we had” In

addition, the writer hopes the president-elect Obama take action even though he will notmove to the White House until next spring

In the American e-newspapers, readers can generally find out what happened and one ortwo prominent details through the headline and the lead Their critical opinions are shown

in each sentence with strong comments and recommendation like:

With the Bush administration drawing to a close, it is presidential pardon season.

Presidents have become increasingly shameless about issuing pardons to insulate

political cronies from prosecution, even to protect themselves We hope President Bush

will not abuse the pardon power by putting his appointees, political supporters or friends

above the law (The New York Times)

Congress must remove unjustified subsidies to inefficient private health insurance plans that have added to the cost and complexity of the Medicare program (The New York

Times)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

US Vietnam

Direct Indirect

Figure 2: Comparison of Directness and Indirectness in the Leads.