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NON- FINITE & VERBLESS CLAUSES
NON-FINITE CLAUSES
None – finite clauses are clauses whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase, i.e consists of non-finite elements such as an –ING participle (a), an –ED participle
(b), or an infinitive (c and d) Non- finite clauses can be constructed with or without a subject
Without a subject: Feeling rather tired, I telephoned and said I couldn’t come
With a subject: All the money having been spent, we started looking for work
Without a subject: Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room
With a subject: The job finished, we went home straight away
Without a subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody
With a subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody
(The subject of an infinitive clause is often introduced by FOR.)
Without a subject: All I did was tell her the truth
With a subject: Rather than John do it, I’d prefer to do the job myself.
VERBLESS CLAUSES
Verbless clauses are unique grammatical structures that lack a verb and often a subject Despite this, they function similarly to both finite and non-finite clauses, allowing them to be analyzed through various clause elements Typically, it can be inferred that a form of the verb "BE" has been omitted from these clauses.
Dozens of tourists were stranded, many of them children
(= many of tourists were children)
A sleeping bag under each arm, Mr Johnson tramped off on his vacation
(= There was a sleeping bag under each of his arms)
The subject, when omitted, can usually be understood as equivalent to the subject of the main clause:
The oranges, when ripe, are picked and sorted (= when they are ripe)
Whether right or wrong, Michael always comes off worst in an argument
(= Whether he is right or wrong…)
An adjective (or adjective phrase) can function as a verbless clause:
By then nervous, the man opened the letter
The man, by then nervous, opened the letter
Long and untidy, his hair waved in the breeze
An adverb may sometimes replace an adjective functioning as a verbless clause with little difference in meaning:
Nervously/ Nervous, the man opened the letter.
OMISSION IN NON – FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES
Non- finite and verbless clauses are mostly used in formal or written styles of English because they are more economical and avoid repetition in comparison with finite subclauses
*TO- infinitive clauses: I hope to be present (= I hope that I shall be present.)
*-ING clauses: Living in the country, we had few social visits
(= Since we lived in the country …)
*-ED clauses: The man injured by the bullet was taken to the hospital
(= The man who was injured by the bullet …) Though defeated, he remained a popular leader
(= Though he had been defeated …)
A man of few words, Uncle George declined to express an opinion
(= As he was a man of few words …)
NON- FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES
I/ Underline and classify the function of the non- finite and verbless clauses in the following sentences:
1 My favourite thing to do is collecting actors’ photographs
2 You must learn to work hard and to deal with difficulties
3 She sang when allowed to do so
4 The long journey over, we relaxed in the warm sunshine
5 He was a delightful companion, always cheerful and considerate
6 Having been invited to speak, and then being told to keep silent, I shall never come here again as long as I live
7 Since I have been especially invited to speak, for you now to tell me I can not do so is quite unpardonable
8 Standing here all day, I see many strange faces
9 Standing here all day is extremely tiring
10 My greatest pleasure is to listen to chamber music
11 To listen to chamber music is my greatest pleasure
12 To speak in public for the first time can be a terrifying experience
13 His greatest pleasure, climbing mountains, had to be abandoned
14 While in the army, he learnt a great deal about electricity
15 I expect everyone to be punctual this evening
16 Not feeling very well, I decided to stay at home
17 They pump waste into the water, killing all the fish
18 Taken daily, vitamin pills can improve your health
19 To turn down the invitation seems rude
20 The important thing is not to panic
21 Not very happy with the result, he said nothing to his girlfriend
22 His ambition, to be a straight actor, was never fulfilled
23 Whether busy or not, you have to come to our party next Sunday
24 Although a very pretty girl, she agreed to marry an ugly man
25 Walking quickly is difficult for her now
26 The child crying over there always helps me with my housework
27 The concert given by the Philharmonic Orchestra was a great success
28 I will never let you use my bicycle again
29 In the next berth, she could hear her stepmother breathing heavily
30 This duty completed, he had three months’ leave
II/ The non- finite clauses in the sentences below are open to more than one interpretation Illustrate this by expanding each dependent clause in two different ways:
1 I ran over a dog crossing the square
2 To see her alone would be very indiscreet
3 Though shouting as loudly as possible, the rescuers could not hear us
4 Dressed in white robes, we thought the visitors looked like priests in some strange ceremony
5 I regret speaking to you so bluntly
6 Walking fast after breakfast could be fatal
7 He was so ill as to be obliged to give up work altogether
8 It will take several hours to finish this
9 Whether here or not, his application will have to be considered
10 Always afraid of snakes, we shut every door and window at night
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES
• A simple sentence is one that has only one finite verb Every sentence can be divided in two main parts: the subject and the predicate
- SUBJECT: the part of the sentence which names what we speak about
The chief part of the subject may be a noun or a noun equivalent
- PREDICATE: the part of the sentence which makes a statement about the subject The chief part of the predicate is a finite verb including its complementation or not
Ex: These roses smell sweet
Walking can help improve your health
• Seven sentence patterns of the simple sentence:
3 S – V – A We / were dancing / at Queen discotheque
5 S – V – O – C The director / made / us / disappointed
6 S – V – O – A Please put / this box / under the cupboard
7 S – V – O – O My sister / showed / me / her boyfriend’s photo.
ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES
A compound sentence is made up of two (or more) co-ordinate clauses joining by conjunction(s) These clauses are of equal importance
Ex: Bring your book here and open it at page 4; but don’t begin reading
In compound sentences the subject or the auxiliary verb, or both, may be omitted in the second sentence if they are the same as those in the first sentence
Ex: You must come tomorrow and (you must) bring your book with you
- Number of clauses: 2 * you must come tomorrow
(Both are main clauses) * (you must) bring your book with you
ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES
- A complex sentence normally has one independent clause (principle clause) and one or more dependent clauses (subordinate clauses)
E.g.: Although she was tired, she walked up to the third floor because she wanted the exercise
- To analyse a complex sentence is:
1) To find out the number of clauses
2) To identity the principal clause and all the subordinate clause(s), then indicate their functions in the sentence
3) To make remarks on the connecting words in order to determine the nature of clauses
1- The boy, who was crying as if his heart would break, when I spoke to him, said that he was hungry because he had had nothing to eat for two days
The boy, who was crying as if his heart would break, said that he was hungry and wanted to eat.
To- Postmodifies ‘nothing’ infinitive Branch diagram: Principle clause
Noun cl Adverb cl Adjective cl
2- She knew, as she conversed in superstitious whispers with Mrs Rose, who has taught her all she knew that she had made the mistake of her life in coming to this nightmare of a country with her unborn child
Clause Kind of clause Function Connecting words
1 She knew Principle Makes a statement
2 as she conversed …Rose Adv cl of time Modifies ‘knew’ as
3 who …her all Adj clause Qualifies ‘Mrs Rose’ who
4 she knew Adj clause Qualifies ‘all’
5 that she had made … child Noun clause Object of ‘knew’ that
Or: all … she knew Noun clause Object of ‘knew’
1 An observant person who sees the carcass of a small animal lying on the ground will probably find, if he returns to the spot the next day, that the object has disappeared
2 Anxious to finish all the typing that had accumulated, the secretary told the manager, when he was going to leave the office, that she decided to work overtime until she completed the work without having lunch and he, a very kind man, agreed and asked if she had anything to eat
3 She couldn’t remember how many times she had sat her window and said to herself that although busy Bob would come to meet her
4 When she used the leather trap, she displayed a strength that even the biggest, most loutish boy dreaded for not only did she fail his hands until they swelled to red, aching paws, but she tongue-lashed him with a virtuosity that threw her classes into an ecstasy of silent delight
5 Richard, though he had not previously answered any questions when the teacher asked him, now said that he knew the answer to this one because it was in the lesson that he had just read
6 When the teacher asked what part of speech a word was, John said, “I can tell you the answer, if you will give me a sentence in which the word is used.”
7 James controlled himself, for he did not want to betray his surprise, and his whole future depended on success at this interview
8 As dawn approached, the sky grew red, the crowds became quieter, the cold was making itself felt somewhat less acutely, and an atmosphere of steady calm replaced the extremes of indifference on one hand and uncontrolled abandon on the other
9 I explained to everyone when being asked for help that I was not a healer and that I did not know if my roots might help but that if they wished me to try to heal Bob I would do so
10 The general idea is that a home is at the right temperature if, while indoors, you can wear clothes which are the exact opposite of those appropriate for the season
MULTI–WORD VERBS
PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERB PARTICLES
My car started rolling down the hill
I can dive off the top board
My car’s just broken down
We’ll have to put the party off
In English, "down" and "off" can function as prepositions when used with objects, such as "down the hill" and "off the top board." However, in certain contexts, these words act as adverbial particles, modifying the verb's meaning without having an object For example, in "broken down," it implies "stopped," while "put off" means "postpone." Understanding the dual roles of "down" and "off" is essential for mastering their usage in sentences.
Many words can function as both prepositions and adverb particles, such as up, down, on, off, through, and past However, certain words are exclusive to one category; for instance, at, for, from, into, of, and with do not serve as adverb particles, while away, back, and out are not used as prepositions The most frequently used adverbial particles that combine with phrasal verbs include up, down, in, out, on, off, away, and back.
PHRASAL VERBS
A phrasal verb is formed when a verb combines with an adverb particle, resulting in a meaning that often differs significantly from the individual words English contains a vast number of these constructions, and understanding their meanings may require consulting a dictionary Phrasal verbs can be classified as intransitive, which do not take a direct object, or transitive, which are followed by a direct object.
(intransitive) break down get up sit down turn up (=arrive, appear)
(transitive) bring something up (= mention it) kick somebody out (= expel him) put something off (= postpone it) put somebody up (= accommodate him) throw something away turn something down (= refuse it)
When a phrasal verb has a direct object, the two parts of the verb can usually be separated: the adverb particle can be put before or after the object
We’ll have to put off the party / put the party off
Why don’t you throw away that stupid hat / throw that stupid hat away ?
Could you put up my sister / put my sister up for three nights ?
However, when the object is a pronoun (e.g her, us, this), the adverb particle can only go after the object
We’ll have to put it off (Not: ………… *put off it.)
Could you put her up ? (Not: ……… *put up her.)
One common type of multi-word verb is the intransitive phrasal verb consisting of a verb plus a particle, as exemplified in
The children were sitting down He is playing around
Drink up quickly Get up at once
The plane has now taken off Did he catch on ?
The prisoner finally broke down He turned up unexpectedly
When will they give in ? The tank blew up
Particles primarily serve as adjuncts and typically cannot be separated from their verbs, as seen in the incorrect phrase "Drink quickly up." However, particles that act as intensifiers, perfectives, or indicate direction can be modified by intensifiers, exemplified by "Go right on."
A subtype of intransitive phrasal verb has a prepositional verb as its particle, the particle behaving as a preposition with some generalized ellipsis of its complement:
He walked past (the object/place)
In some instances, the particles form the first element in a complex preposition:
Come along (with us/me)
They moved out (of the house)
Phrasal verbs differ in how much they retain the original meanings of their individual components For example, in phrases like "give in" (meaning 'surrender'), "catch on" (meaning 'understand'), and "turn up" (meaning 'appear'), the overall meaning cannot be deduced from the separate meanings of the verb and particle.
Many phrasal verbs can take a direct object:
A new unit is being established, and the entire family will be relocating It's essential to confirm their arrival Additionally, she is responsible for raising her brother's children Make sure to finish your milk promptly, as they have decided to cancel the strike.
They turned on the light I can’t make out what he means
They gave in their resignation He looked up his former friends
He can’t live down his part
Certain intransitive phrasal verbs, such as "drink up" and "give in," can function as both transitive and intransitive, sometimes without altering their meaning This flexibility in usage highlights the versatility of these verb combinations in the English language.
With most transitive phrasal verbs, the particle can either precede or follow the direct object:
In English, the correct phrasing is "They turned on the light" or "They turned the light on," but it's important to note that this structure cannot be used before personal pronouns, as in "They turned it on," rather than "*They turned on it," which is generally incorrect except in rare cases with contrastive stress Additionally, when the object is lengthy or when the focus is meant to be on the object, the particle "on" typically comes before the object.
Many transitive phrasal verbs have prepositional adverbs:
They dragged the case along (the road)
They moved the furniture out (of the house)
In these examples the particles have literal meanings We can contrast
She took in the box (‘brought inside’)
She took in her parents (‘deceived’)
Transitive phrasal verbs exhibit varying degrees of idiomatic combinations For instance, in "put out the cat," the verb and particle maintain their distinct meanings and can be paired with various alternatives like "put down," "put outside," or "put away." In contrast, "turn out the light" has limited combinations, such as "turn on" or "turn off." Additionally, the phrase "put off," meaning 'postpone,' represents a fused idiomatic expression where the individual meanings of the verb and particle cannot be separated.
With put N out we can compare put N straight and other complex transitive constructions
In prepositional verbs, the preposition must come before its complement, as seen in the distinction between "call on" (meaning 'visit') and "call up" (meaning 'summon') For example, one might say, "They called on the man" to indicate a visit, whereas "They called up the man" refers to summoning him.
They called on him *They called up him
*They called the man on They called the man up
*They called him on They called him up
On the other hand, the prepositional verb allows an inserted adverb after the verb and a relative pronoun after the preposition:
They called early on the man *They called early up the man
The man on whom they called * The man up whom they called
Prepositional verbs like "call on" and "look at" differ from single-word verbs with prepositional phrases, such as "They called at the hotel" and "They called after lunch." Unlike the latter, prepositional verbs permit pronominal questions using "who(m)" for personal noun phrases and "what" for non-personal noun phrases, but they do not allow adverbial questions for the entire prepositional phrase.
They called on the man ~ Who(m) did they call on ?
They looked at the picture ~ What did they look at ?
They called at the hotel (or after lunch) ~ *What did they call at (or after)? ~ Where (or when) did they call ?
Many prepositional verbs allow the noun phrases to become the subject of a passive transformation of the sentence:
They called on the man ~ The man was called on
They looked at the picture ~ The picture was looked at
Other prepositional verbs do not occur in the passive freely, but will do so under certain conditions, such as the presence of a particular modal:
Visitors didn’t walk over the lawn
~The lawn wasn’t walked over (by visitors)
Visitors can’t walk over the lawn
~The lawn can’t be walked over (by visitors)
Other examples of prepositional verbs: ask for, believe in, care for, deal with, live on, long for, object to, part with, refer to, write about
Like phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs vary in their idiomaticity Highly idiomatic combinations include go into (a problem), ‘investigate’, come by (the book), ‘obtain’
Some multi-word verbs consist of a verb followed by two particles:
He puts up with a lot of teasing (‘tolerates’)
Prepositional verbs can be analyzed as transitive verbs, where the following noun phrase serves as the direct object They permit pronominal questions and can be used in the passive voice under specific conditions.
He can’t put up with bad temper ~ What can’t he put up with ?
~ Bad temper can’t be put up with for long
As with single-word transitives and prepositional verbs, we cannot insert an adverb immediately before the object:
*He puts up with willingly that secretary of his though it is possible to do so between the particles:
He puts up willingly with that secretary of his
We look forward eagerly to your next party
In relative clauses and questions, the particles are positioned after the verb:
The party we were looking forward to so eagerly
Who(m) does he put up with willingly ? or (less commonly) the final particle can be brought into initial position:
The party to which we were looking forward so eagerly
With whom does he put up willingly ?
Multi-word verbs, including phrasal and prepositional verbs, exhibit varying degrees of idiomaticity Some phrases, such as "stay away from" (meaning "avoid"), are easily interpreted from their individual components, while others, like "put up with" (meaning "tolerate"), present challenges in understanding due to their fused nature Additionally, certain combinations may retain some original meanings; for instance, "put up" can also imply "stay with." This highlights the complexity of multi-word verbs, where context plays a crucial role in deciphering their meanings, as seen in phrases like "check up on."
The term "investigate" can be broken down into the prepositional verb "check on" combined with the intensifier "up." Additionally, there are three transitive verbs with similar meanings: "check," "check on," and "check up," along with the intransitive forms "check" and "check up."
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are essential for effective communication, as they convey specific meanings in various contexts For instance, "break in on" refers to interrupting a conversation, while "cut down on" signifies the act of curtailing expenses Additionally, to "get away with" behavior means to avoid reprimand or punishment, and to "look down on" someone indicates a sense of disdain Conversely, "look in on" someone involves visiting them, whereas "look up to" someone expresses admiration Understanding these verbs enhances language proficiency and enriches interactions.
‘respect’; walk out on (the project), ‘abandon’
CHAPTER 3: Phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, phrasal–prepositional verbs
The structure of verb phrases can be analyzed in various ways, including combinations such as verb plus particle (e.g., "sat down"), verb plus prepositional phrase (e.g., "ran across the road"), and verb plus particle plus prepositional phrase (e.g., "set off on a journey") Other structures include verb plus prepositional adverb (e.g., "ran across"), verb plus prepositional adverb plus prepositional phrase (e.g., "go across to the baker’s"), transitive phrasal verb plus object (e.g., "find out the truth"), prepositional verb plus object (e.g., "looked at me"), and phrasal-prepositional verb plus object (e.g., "put up with him").
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., in which the of those eight ways the verb phrase in each of sentences below can be analysed:
1 I went into the dining room
2 We went into the matter carefully
3 We must call in the police
4 The police will call in a car
5 I rushed out of the house
7 I drove out to my friends
9 They all set off down the road
10 He flew across the Atlantic
11 We flew across in no time
12 How long can one do without water ?
14 Has anyone rung me up ?
18 You must face up to your
19 You must come up to my office
20 We must make up for lost time
21 Will you come up for a cup of tea ?
22 The train has passed over the bridge
23 It has passed over safely
24 The selection committee has passed you over
25 My hat has fallen off
26 The plane has taken off
27 The actor took the President off beautifully
29 Go on to the next town
30 You must cut down on cigarettes responsibilities
Replace the object in each of these sentences by the corresponding pronoun; then give the whole new sentence:
13 You take affter your father
14 I took to John at once
15 You can take over my job
16 Don’t turn on the light
17 The dog turned on the stranger
20 Now wind up your watch
Say whether the adverb, in brackets, could fit into position a, b, c or d Note that more than one position may be possible
1 They looked a at b the picture c (carefully)
2 They turned a on b the gas c (slowly)
3 They turned a the gas b on c (slowly)
4 He’s catching a up b with c the leaders d (quickly)
5 Go a on b to the end c (right)
6 The negotiations have a broken b down c (completely)
7 The crowd made a for b shelter c (hurriedly)
8 The Spartans brought a their children b up c (strictly)
9 I’ll look a into b your complaint c (immediately)
10 He puts a up b with c any inconvenience d (patiently)
Change the position of the word underlined, if it is mobile:
1 The Spartans brought up their children strictly
2 Lester gradually caught up with the leaders
3 I don’t want to break up the party
4 The meeting broke up in disorder
5 We must hurry to make up for lost time
6 Please send this telegram off urgently
7 Please get that parcel off at once
8 Why don’t you take off your coat?
9 We must find out the answer somehow
Put into the passive, supplying the by-phrase only if it contains relevant and essential information
1 I will bring up this question at our next meeting
2 We shall then deal with it more fully
3 Have you looked into this matter?
4 The facts do not bear out your argument
5 No one has ever looked after this house properly
6 Is anybody attending to you?
7 They have turned down my application
8 Thieves broke into the National Bank last night
9 The citizens set upon any foreigner, however innocent
10 You must get on with this job immediately
Transform each of the sentences below in the following way:
I was looking for that book ~
That is the book I was looking for
1 We were just talking about that article
2 Queen Elizabeth slept in this bed
3 I want to back out of that agreement
4 I want you to break down those figures
5 I think we should leave this sentence out
6 We have not yet dealt with this paragraph
7 We must now see to this matter
8 I was looking forward to that film
9 We must cut down on these expenses
10 You should get on with this job first
Exercise 7 *Word order after phrasal and prepositional verbs
I Replace the words in italics by a suitable pronoun, making any necessary changes in word order
The applicant filled in the form
The applicant filled it in (Phrasal verb)
John takes after his father
John takes after him (Prepositional verb)
1 Companies do a great deal of research in order to find out exactly what their customers want
2 The motorist ruled out one particular route because the road had a poor surface
3 Who’s looking after your house while you’re away?
4 Employees working in research departments are forbidden to give away confidential information
5 We might have known he would blurt out the news to everybody!
6 I looked at the problem quite differently
7 His publishers will soon be bringing out his latest collection of essays
8 The Company has put forward several new proposals
9 You should put away the medicine where the children can’t get at the medicine
10 The Council has decided to try out new defensive barriers along the centre of the motorway
11 Accountants seem to develop a remarkable facility for adding up a long column of figures
12 If the dog isn’t kept chained up, he goes for everyone who enters the garden
13 Don’t come here stirring up trouble!
14 I took to your friend as soon as I met him
II Replace the pronoun in italics by the words at the end of the sentences, making any necessary changes in word order If you think there are two possibilities, state both
The applicant filled it in (the form)
The applicant filled the form in or The applicant filled in the form
The applicant filled it in (the long and complicated application form)
The applicant filled in the long and complicated application form
1 The Minister brushed them aside (all objections)
2 The Minister brushed them aside (objections made by members of the Opposition)
3 The Embassy refused to hand him over (the man who sought political asylum)
4 It is not yet clear who will take it on (the job)
5 It is not yet clear who will take it on (the captaincy of the English touring team)
6 He always wraps them up in a cloud of obscurity (his arguments)
7 The State should not interfere in matters where it cannot bring it about (an improvement)
8 Insurance companies expect clients shortly to be putting them in after the recent floods (some very heavy claims)
9 To become competitive in world markets, British manufacturers must keep them down to the absolute minimum (their production costs)
10 The industrial spy handed them over (the confidential papers he had obtained)
11 They are trying them out in America (many new synthetic products)
12 No one brought it up (the question)
13 No one brought them up (the questions everyone most wanted to hear asked)
14 I read it quickly through (the letter I had just received)
Exercise 8 Replacing words with phrasal or prepositional verbs
PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
Some multi-word verbs consist of a verb followed by two particles:
He puts up with a lot of teasing (‘tolerates’)
Prepositional verbs can be analyzed as transitive verbs, with the following noun phrase serving as the direct object They permit pronominal questions and, under specific conditions, can be used in the passive voice.
He can’t put up with bad temper ~ What can’t he put up with ?
~ Bad temper can’t be put up with for long
As with single-word transitives and prepositional verbs, we cannot insert an adverb immediately before the object:
*He puts up with willingly that secretary of his though it is possible to do so between the particles:
He puts up willingly with that secretary of his
We look forward eagerly to your next party
In relative clauses and questions, the particles are positioned after the verb:
The party we were looking forward to so eagerly
Who(m) does he put up with willingly ? or (less commonly) the final particle can be brought into initial position:
The party to which we were looking forward so eagerly
With whom does he put up willingly ?
Multi-word verbs, including phrasal and prepositional verbs, exhibit varying degrees of idiomaticity Some, such as "stay away from," convey clear meanings derived from their individual components, while others, like "put up with," present challenges in understanding, as their meanings cannot be easily inferred from the parts Additionally, certain combinations may retain some individual meanings, as seen in "put up," which can mean both "tolerate" and "stay with." Similarly, phrases like "check up on" illustrate the complexity of these multi-word verbs in conveying nuanced meanings.
The term 'investigate' can be broken down into the prepositional verb 'check on' combined with the intensifier 'up.' Additionally, it encompasses the single-word verb 'check,' resulting in three transitive verbs that share similar meanings Furthermore, it includes the intransitive forms 'check' and 'check up.'
Phrasal-prepositional verbs play a significant role in English, with examples including "break in on," meaning to interrupt a conversation, and "cut down on," which refers to curtailing expenses Additionally, "get away with" signifies avoiding reprimand or punishment for certain behaviors, while "look down on" expresses a sense of despising someone Furthermore, "look in on" indicates visiting someone, and "look up to" conveys admiration for another person Understanding these verbs enhances both comprehension and communication skills in English.
‘respect’; walk out on (the project), ‘abandon’
CHAPTER 3: Phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, phrasal–prepositional verbs
The structure of the verb phrase can be analyzed in various ways, including combinations such as verb plus particle (e.g., "sat down"), verb plus prepositional phrase (e.g., "ran across the road"), and verb plus particle plus prepositional phrase (e.g., "set off on a journey") Additionally, it includes verb plus prepositional adverb (e.g., "ran across") and verb plus prepositional adverb plus prepositional phrase (e.g., "go across to the baker’s") Other structures involve transitive phrasal verbs with an object (e.g., "find out the truth"), prepositional verbs with an object (e.g., "looked at me"), and phrasal-prepositional verbs with an object (e.g., "put up with him").
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., in which the of those eight ways the verb phrase in each of sentences below can be analysed:
1 I went into the dining room
2 We went into the matter carefully
3 We must call in the police
4 The police will call in a car
5 I rushed out of the house
7 I drove out to my friends
9 They all set off down the road
10 He flew across the Atlantic
11 We flew across in no time
12 How long can one do without water ?
14 Has anyone rung me up ?
18 You must face up to your
19 You must come up to my office
20 We must make up for lost time
21 Will you come up for a cup of tea ?
22 The train has passed over the bridge
23 It has passed over safely
24 The selection committee has passed you over
25 My hat has fallen off
26 The plane has taken off
27 The actor took the President off beautifully
29 Go on to the next town
30 You must cut down on cigarettes responsibilities
Replace the object in each of these sentences by the corresponding pronoun; then give the whole new sentence:
13 You take affter your father
14 I took to John at once
15 You can take over my job
16 Don’t turn on the light
17 The dog turned on the stranger
20 Now wind up your watch
Say whether the adverb, in brackets, could fit into position a, b, c or d Note that more than one position may be possible
1 They looked a at b the picture c (carefully)
2 They turned a on b the gas c (slowly)
3 They turned a the gas b on c (slowly)
4 He’s catching a up b with c the leaders d (quickly)
5 Go a on b to the end c (right)
6 The negotiations have a broken b down c (completely)
7 The crowd made a for b shelter c (hurriedly)
8 The Spartans brought a their children b up c (strictly)
9 I’ll look a into b your complaint c (immediately)
10 He puts a up b with c any inconvenience d (patiently)
Change the position of the word underlined, if it is mobile:
1 The Spartans brought up their children strictly
2 Lester gradually caught up with the leaders
3 I don’t want to break up the party
4 The meeting broke up in disorder
5 We must hurry to make up for lost time
6 Please send this telegram off urgently
7 Please get that parcel off at once
8 Why don’t you take off your coat?
9 We must find out the answer somehow
Put into the passive, supplying the by-phrase only if it contains relevant and essential information
1 I will bring up this question at our next meeting
2 We shall then deal with it more fully
3 Have you looked into this matter?
4 The facts do not bear out your argument
5 No one has ever looked after this house properly
6 Is anybody attending to you?
7 They have turned down my application
8 Thieves broke into the National Bank last night
9 The citizens set upon any foreigner, however innocent
10 You must get on with this job immediately
Transform each of the sentences below in the following way:
I was looking for that book ~
That is the book I was looking for
1 We were just talking about that article
2 Queen Elizabeth slept in this bed
3 I want to back out of that agreement
4 I want you to break down those figures
5 I think we should leave this sentence out
6 We have not yet dealt with this paragraph
7 We must now see to this matter
8 I was looking forward to that film
9 We must cut down on these expenses
10 You should get on with this job first
Exercise 7 *Word order after phrasal and prepositional verbs
I Replace the words in italics by a suitable pronoun, making any necessary changes in word order
The applicant filled in the form
The applicant filled it in (Phrasal verb)
John takes after his father
John takes after him (Prepositional verb)
1 Companies do a great deal of research in order to find out exactly what their customers want
2 The motorist ruled out one particular route because the road had a poor surface
3 Who’s looking after your house while you’re away?
4 Employees working in research departments are forbidden to give away confidential information
5 We might have known he would blurt out the news to everybody!
6 I looked at the problem quite differently
7 His publishers will soon be bringing out his latest collection of essays
8 The Company has put forward several new proposals
9 You should put away the medicine where the children can’t get at the medicine
10 The Council has decided to try out new defensive barriers along the centre of the motorway
11 Accountants seem to develop a remarkable facility for adding up a long column of figures
12 If the dog isn’t kept chained up, he goes for everyone who enters the garden
13 Don’t come here stirring up trouble!
14 I took to your friend as soon as I met him
II Replace the pronoun in italics by the words at the end of the sentences, making any necessary changes in word order If you think there are two possibilities, state both
The applicant filled it in (the form)
The applicant filled the form in or The applicant filled in the form
The applicant filled it in (the long and complicated application form)
The applicant filled in the long and complicated application form
1 The Minister brushed them aside (all objections)
2 The Minister brushed them aside (objections made by members of the Opposition)
3 The Embassy refused to hand him over (the man who sought political asylum)
4 It is not yet clear who will take it on (the job)
5 It is not yet clear who will take it on (the captaincy of the English touring team)
6 He always wraps them up in a cloud of obscurity (his arguments)
7 The State should not interfere in matters where it cannot bring it about (an improvement)
8 Insurance companies expect clients shortly to be putting them in after the recent floods (some very heavy claims)
9 To become competitive in world markets, British manufacturers must keep them down to the absolute minimum (their production costs)
10 The industrial spy handed them over (the confidential papers he had obtained)
11 They are trying them out in America (many new synthetic products)
12 No one brought it up (the question)
13 No one brought them up (the questions everyone most wanted to hear asked)
14 I read it quickly through (the letter I had just received)
Exercise 8 Replacing words with phrasal or prepositional verbs
Sure! Please provide the article or the specific sentences you'd like me to rewrite.
1 The manager refused his request for a day off
2 I waited half an hour for my friend, but he didn’t come
3 It’s about time we went to bed
4 Would you lower the gas when the kettle boils?
5 His landlady evicted him for not paying his rent
6 The police told the suspected thief to empty his pockets
7 Crowds of people had to be refused admission to the theatre
8 This popular sport car is now being produced at the rate of a thousand a week
9 Our visit proved to be a waste of time because fog reduced visibility
10 After being hit by a huge wave, the rowing-boat capsized
11 Although the dog appeared to be friendly, it would attack anyone who tried to fondle it
1 We wondered how he was progressing in his new job
2 I don’t think I shall complete all this work this afternoon
3 She is so upset at her husband’s death that I don’t think she will ever recover from the shock
4 She put the book in a place where the child couldn’t reach it
5 As it’s got to be done, we may as well have done with it
6 He says that his lack of success is beginning to depress him
7 You must really apply yourself to some serious work
8 I see no way of avoiding the problem
9 The business partnership flourished despite the fact that they didn’t agree well personally
10 It must be nearly ten o’clock!
1 The teacher said I ought to start learning French
2 He resembles his father in many ways
3 The son assumed control of the business on the retirement of his father
4 The man looked so respectable and honest that I was completely deceived
5 He undertook so much work that he couldn’t really do it efficiently
6 The secretary wrote the letter in shorthand as the manager dictated it to her
7 When he discovered the truth, he retracted all he had previously said
8 That teacher has a way with children: they seem to like her immediately
9 I don’t wish to occupy too much of your time
10 The shopkeeper agreed to deduct five per cent from the bill
1 I had to postpone my visit because of the weather
2 He refused to tolerate laziness on the part of his pupils
3 They were very annoyed when they learned that the train had been cancelled without notice
4 The rebellion was suppressed by the army
5 He had managed to save quite a lot of money over the years
6 He advanced the theory that those who had money always made money
7 His aggressiveness was attributed to the fact that he had had an overbearing father
8 How many hours do you have to work each week?
9 Don’t let the fact that I didn’t enjoy the play deter you from seeing it
10 The workers have made a claim for higher wages
11 When the teacher asked who had broken the window, all the boys assumed an air of innocence
12 If I visit you at the week-end, will you be able to give me lodging for one night?
1 What does this abbreviation mean?
2 The strikers are maintaining their demand for higher wages and shorter working hours
3 I must make it clear that I refuse to tolerate such behaviour
4 He hoped that when the time came I would keep my promise
5 One man particularly was conspicuous at the meeting
6 When he realized that his nomination would mean competing with his closest friend, he decided to withdraw
7 Troops were ordered to be in a state of readiness for action
8 The understudy had to take the part of the leading actor, who had fallen ill
9 The employers in this case were obliged to take no part in the dispute, which was purely the result of inter-union rivalry
10 The machine soon went wrong: it was never intended to withstand the rough treatment it was given
1 While looking through the books he found an old and valuable map
2 Although he was unconscious when we found him, he soon recovered consciousness
3 When his father died he received a lot of money under his father’s will
4 We never discovered how the accident occurred
5 Although it seemed a good idea in theory, in practice it didn’t succeed
6 His new book will be published next week
7 The whole truth became known at the trial
8 The film didn’t equal our expectations
9 No one thought that any good could result from discussing the question further
10 The problem of finance is always raised on such occasions
1 He resigned from a secure job in order to devote himself to full-time writing
Because of difficulties in getting a visa, we had to relinquish the idea of visiting Albania
2 Although he agreed with me on most points, there were one on which he was unwilling to yield
3 He returned the money to the man who had lost it
4 The bad cheese emitted a very unpleasant smell
5 The man crossing the Sahara found to their horror that their supplies would come to an end before they reached to safety
6 The English like coal fires even though these don’t always produce much heat
7 Every time cigarettes go up in price, many people try to stop smoking
8 The escaped prisoner had tried to disguise his appearance, but a scar on his check betrayed him
9 The back entrance of the hotel led straight to a parking area
THE VERB AND ITS COMPLEMENTATION
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
There are some verbs that are always intransitive, i.e can never take an object:
Other verbs can be either intransitive:
He smokes every day The tomatoes are growing well or transitive, with or without a change in participant role:
He smokes cigars every day He is growing tomatoes
In this book, we categorize verbs that can function as both intransitive and transitive into two distinct groups We explore the relationship between intransitive verbs, such as "smoke" and "grow," and their transitive counterparts, viewing this connection as one of conversion.
The verb "live" necessitates an adjunct to convey its meaning effectively When used to indicate residence, it requires a position adjunct, as in "He lives in China." In the context of maintaining life or subsisting, a process adjunct is essential, exemplified by "He lives very comfortably" or "They live on rice." Additionally, when "live" refers to being alive, a time adjunct is almost always required, such as in "They lived in the nineteenth century." Similarly, the verb "get" also demands an obligatory adjunct, specifically a direction adjunct, as seen in "I’ll get into the car."
Certain intransitive phrasal verbs cannot function without their particles; for instance, 'get' in 'get up' means 'arise,' while other examples include 'find' in 'find out' meaning 'discover,' 'keep' in 'keep away' meaning 'stay away,' and 'set' in 'set off' meaning 'depart.'
[c] Intransitive verbs with a ‘passive’ sense (converted from transitive verbs) virtually require an adjunct: The book is selling badly, The door unlocks easily
[d] Verbs of measure require an adjunct, usually a noun phrase: weigh (five pounds), cost (a dollar), contain (much).
INTENSIVE COMPLEMENTATION
In sentences with a subject complement, the verb often functions as a copula or linking verb, with "be" being the most common example Copulas can be categorized based on whether the subject complement indicates a current attribute or an attribute resulting from the action described by the verb Many copulas are primarily used with subject complements that are either adjective phrases or noun phrases containing a gradable noun head, while some can also accommodate noun phrases.
The copulas which allow the widest range as subject complement are be for current attribute and become for resulting attribute:
The verb "be," similar to other copulas, is frequently employed to describe a characteristic or attribute of the subject Additionally, when used with complement noun phrases, it often serves to identify the subject.
John was the doctor (that I mentioned)
The verb feel has two copula uses In the meaning ‘have a sensation’ the subject must be personal and the complement an adjective or gradable noun:
He felt foolish/ill/a fool
In the meaning ‘give a sensation’, the subject is concrete but without other restriction, the complement being adjectival only:
The pit looked a danger to health
The verbs "turn" and "go" signify changes in occupation or political allegiance, with "turn" indicating a broader range of changes, such as becoming a plumber or a traitor In contrast, "go" is primarily associated with shifts in political identity, as seen in phrases like "gone Democrat" or "gone socialist." Additionally, "go" can be used with a few adjectives, such as "go mad" or "go bald." Both verbs often carry a negative connotation, and it's important to note that when used with noun phrases, they typically omit the indefinite article.
[b] Where the subject is a clause, the subject complement must be an adjective phrase or a generic noun modified by an adjective:
⎫ thing strange a strange there was him see
To come t' didn he That
Usually, of course, this structure has extraposition: It was a strange thing… b Predicative adjuncts
The only copula that allows an adverbial as complement is be The adverbials, termed predicative adjuncts in this function, are mainly place adjuncts :
The children are at the zoo/… are outside but time adjuncts are also common with an eventive subject :
The party will be at nine o’clock/… will be tonight
‘Current copulas: appear, feel (N), look (N), remain (N), seem (N), smell, sound, taste
‘Resuting’ copulas: become(N), get (chiefly informal), go, grow, turn (N), make (N only)
Other types of predicative adjuncts:
The two eggs are for you [‘recipient’ adjunct]
The drinks are for the journey [‘purpose’ adjunct]
The increase in food prices this year was because of the drought [‘cause’
Transport to the mainland is by ferry [‘means’ adjunct]
2 Complementation of adjective phrase as subject complement a Adjective complementation by prepositional phrase
Some adjectives (at least when used in a particular sense) require complementation by a prepositional phrase, the preposition being specific to a particular adjective:
Joan is fond of them
They are conscious of their responsibility
We are bent on a vacation in Mexico
Certain adjectives require a prepositional phrase to convey their full meaning These include "intent on," "reliant on," "averse to," "liable to," "subject to," "inclined to," and "(un)familiar with." Each of these adjectives is paired with a specific preposition that completes its meaning effectively.
Many adjectives can take such complementation but are not obliged to Usually, the prepositions are specific to a given adjective or to a given kind of complementation:
⎧ wedding the about married getting for Mary with married getting s) Mary(' at pleased angry
The complement of a preposition can include an –ing participle clause, where the subject may be introduced as a genitive or not This choice not only reflects stylistic preferences but also leads to variations in semantic implications.
I am frustrated with Mary’s decision to get married, which suggests my anger is directed at her personally for choosing to marry, rather than simply being upset about the marriage itself This highlights a distinction between feeling anger towards Mary for her actions and being displeased with the event of her marriage.
When –ed participial adjectives are used, the constructions have active analogues:
John is interested in English grammar ~ English grammar interests John
We were worried about the situation ~ The situation worried us
He was surprised at her behaviour ~ Her behaviour surprised him
The verbs in the active have a causative feature, e.g.: The situation worried us ~ The situation caused us to worry b Adjective complementation by finite clause
(a) indicative verb: I am sure that he is here now
(b) putative should: I was angry that he should ignore me
(c) subjunctive verb : I was adamant that he be appointed
An indicative verb is used if the adjective is ‘factual’, i.e concerned with the truth-value of the complementation An indicative verb or putative should ) is used I the adjective is
The subjunctive mood, often indicated by the use of 'should', is employed when the adjective is 'volitional', reflecting an indirect command In American English, the subjunctive is more prevalent, while British English tends to favor 'should' Typically, finite clauses take the form of that-clauses, but factual adjectives can also appear with wh-clauses, as seen in sentences like "I'm not sure why he came" or "I'm not clear where she went." Additionally, clauses introduced by 'whether' or, less frequently, 'if', are utilized with negative factual adjectives.
Personal subject + copula + adjective phrase + finite clause:
*factual adjective: I am aware that he was late
*emotive adjective: He is angry that
⎧ late are they late be should they
I am amazed that{ he should have got the post
*volitional adjective: He was that
BrE) in (formal present be they
Emotive adjectives can convey causation through complementation, which can be illustrated by a construction where the complementation serves as the sentence's subject This is especially noticeable with participial emotive adjectives, as they correspond to an active form.
He is angry that they should be late ~ That they should be late has made him angry
I am amazed that he got the post ~ That he got the post amazes me
Participial adjectives in this construction are commonly emotive adjectives c Adjective complementation by to -infinitive clauses
There are five primary types of construction where an adjective phrase is followed by a to-infinitive clause Although the following five sentences may appear similar at first glance, only sentences 2, 3, and 4 are entirely focused on adjective complementation.
(1) Bob is splendid to wait
(2) Bob is slow to react
(3) Bob is furious to hear it
(4) Bob is hesitant to agree with you
(5) Bob is hard to convince
In Types 1-4, the subject of the sentence (Bob) is also the subject of the infinitive clause
In infinitive clauses, a direct object can be present when the verb is transitive For instance, in Type 1, substituting the intransitive verb "wait" with the transitive verb "make" allows for the inclusion of a direct object.
Bob is splendid to make that for you
Type 1 (Bob is splendid to wait) has an analogue with a construction involving extraposition : It is splendid of Bob to wait As alternatives to the adjective phrase, we can use a noun phrase that has as its head a degree noun or a generic noun modified by an adjective: David must be
(quite) a magician to make so much money, Bob is a splendid man to wait
In Type 2 (Bob is slow to react), the sentence has an analogue in which the adjective is transformed into an adverbial:
Bob is slow to react ~ Bob reacts slowly
In Type 3 (Bob is furious to hear it), the head of the adjective phrase is an emotive adjective (commonly a participial adjective) and the infinitive clause expresses causation:
Bob is furious to hear it ~ To hear it has made Bob furious
~ It has made Bob furious to hear it
I was excited to be there ~ To be there excited me ~ It excited me to be there
In Type 4, where Bob is hesitant to agree, the adjective phrase is led by a volitional adjective Common examples of these adjectives include eager, keen, willing, and reluctant, which highlight Bob's mixed feelings about reaching a consensus.
3, this type often admits feel as the copula
In Type 5, characterized by the phrase "Bob is hard to convince," the subject functions as the object within the infinitive clause, necessitating a transitive verb This type is further divided into two distinct subtypes.
(a) There is an analogue with a construction in which the adjective is complement to the infinitive clause:
Bob is hard to convince ~ To convince Bob is hard ~ It is hard to convince Bob
In this subtype, key adjectives include hard, difficult, impossible, easy, and convenient It is important to note that unless ellipsis is present, the infinitive clause cannot be omitted, resulting in no semantic connection between the sentences "Bricks are hard to make" and "Bricks are hard."
The food is prepared and ready for consumption, allowing us to simply state, "The food is ready," without needing to include the infinitive clause.
TRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
Monotransitive verbs necessitate a direct object, which can be a noun phrase, finite clause, or non-finite clause such as an infinitive or participle clause However, prepositional verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs do not accept that-clauses (regardless of retention or omission) or infinitive clauses as direct objects For example, the prepositional verb "approve of" exemplifies these possibilities and restrictions.
* her meeting decided been had what meeting the
The restriction on that-clauses is limited to instances where the clause functions as a direct object In passive constructions, the preposition can still be retained, as seen in the example "That they should meet was approved of," even when the clause is extraposed, with the preposition appearing directly after the passive verb phrase.
(It was agreed to eventually that they should meet again soon)
Certain transitive verbs expressing causation of movement have an adverbial following the direct object, normally an adjunct of place:
The hostess showed me to the door
John put the car into the garage
Mary placed/set a vase on the table
We kept them out of trouble
With the above verbs (in the senses exemplified) where the adverbial is obligatory, there is a similarity with complex transitive complementation
1.Noun phrases as direct object
Direct objects are generally noun phrases that can transform into the subject of a passive sentence In this structure, the original subject of the active sentence becomes the prepositional complement, often introduced by an optional by-phrase.
The boy caught the ball ~ The ball was caught (by the boy)
It is, however, usual to omit the by-phrase, often because it is irrelevant or unknown, as in
Order has been restored without bloodshed and without concessions
The Prime Minister was attacked last night during the debate or because it is redundant in the context, as in
Jack fought Michael last night and Jack was beaten
The passive transformation is blocked when there is co-reference between subject and object, i.e when there are reflexive, reciprocal, or possessive pronouns in the noun phrase as object:
Paul could be seen in the mirror
We could hardly see each other in the fog
~ *Each other could hardly be seen in the fog
* tables The were wiped by the other waitress
[a] A shift of meaning may accompany shift of voice in verb phrases containing auxiliaries that have more than one meaning, e.g.: shall, will, and can:
John cannot do it ~ It cannot be done (by John)
In the active sentence can would normally be interpreted as expressing ability, whereas in the passive sentence it is interpreted as expressing possibility
[b] With dynamic verbs we can distinguish between ‘actional’ passives, illustrated above in this section, and ‘statal’ passives The latter express a state:
The house is already sold
Corresponding actives require an aspectual shift to the perfect:
Someone has already sold the house (*Someone already sells the house)
A sentence such as They were married is ambiguous between an actional interpretation (They were married in church yesterday) and a statal interpretation (They were married when I last heard about them)
A small group of transitive verbs, the most common of which is have, normally do not allow a passive transformation of the sentence:
They have a nice house Will this suit you ?
He lacks confidence John resembles his father
The coat does not fit you
These verbs are sometimes considered to form a separate category of non-transitive verbs taking noun phrases as their complementation (cf also verbs of measure) They include
Reciprocal verbs such as "resemble," "look like," and "equal" illustrate relationships, as in "Two times three equals six." Additionally, verbs like "agree with" and "mean" clarify definitions, for example, "'Oculist' means 'eye-doctor.'" Verbs indicating containment include "contain," as in "The library contains a million books," and "hold," exemplified by "The auditorium holds over a thousand people." These verbs can also imply lack Furthermore, verbs expressing suitability, such as "suit," "fit," and "become," can describe how something complements another, like in "This dress becomes her." Notably, "contain" and "hold" can be used in passive constructions, as seen in "A million books are contained in that library."
2 Finite clauses as direct object
Finite clauses can function as direct objects in sentences, similar to their role in complementing adjective phrases The type of verb used—whether indicative, putative should, or subjunctive—depends on the category of the superordinate verb.
(a) factual superordinate verb, with indicative subordinate verb:
They agree that she is pretty
I know how he did it
He forgot why they complained
(b) emotive verb, with indicative verb or putative should:
I regret that ⎨⎧ it about worries she it about worry should she
(c) volitional verb, with subjunctive verbs orhould (not clearly differentiated between its putative and obligational uses):
⎧ applicants all admit should applicants all admit
Factual verbs that are used to convey an indirect question are followed by clauses with whether or (less common) if:
⎫ if whether know t didn' He doubted He asked
A verb can belong to multiple classes, leading to ambiguity in meaning For instance, in the sentence "He suggested that she went," the verb "suggested" can be interpreted as either a factual statement or a volitional action Additionally, within factual verbs, the verb "say" can be paired with both that-clauses and whether/if clauses, as seen in the example "I didn’t say that/whether they had arrived." This flexibility in verb usage highlights the complexity of verb classifications in English.
Examples of the three classes of verbs are listed
Finite clauses as direct object can become the subject of a corresponding passive sentence: Everybody admitted that she sang well
~ That she sang well was admitted (by everybody)
However, it is far more usual for the passive to have extraposition with anticipatory it
~ It was admitted (by everybody) that she sang well
3 Non-finite clauses as direct object
Non-finite clauses functioning as direct objects can be categorized into two types: those with a subject and those without Specifically, we focus on non-finite clauses that lack a subject, which can include both infinitive and participle forms.
Factual verbs play a crucial role in communication, as they convey certainty and belief Common examples include admit, agree, declare, and deny, which express various degrees of affirmation or negation These verbs can also be used in conjunction with whether or if, as seen in verbs like ask, discuss, and wonder, to introduce inquiries or uncertainties Understanding how to effectively use these verbs enhances clarity and precision in both written and spoken language.
(b) emotive verbs: deplore, prefer, regret
(c) volitional verbs: command, demand, insist, order,
⎡ taken seats the found He ed coming her saw He ing come her saw He bare come to her wants He to talking likes
He ing talk to likes He to e participl e participl participle - infinitive infinitive - infinitive subject with e participl - infinitive subject - without
In non-finite clauses lacking an explicit subject, the verb typically appears as an infinitive with "to" or as an -ing participle The implied subject of these clauses usually corresponds to the subject of the main clause Additionally, certain verbs require specific structures in these contexts.
(3) either an infinitive or a participle clause:
Where both constructions are admitted, there is usually felt to be an aspectual difference that influences the choice The participle construction generally implies ‘fulfillment’ and the infinitive construction ‘potentiality’:
⎧ objected she because stopped but speak to hour an than more for on kept and speaking
Another factor influencing the choice is that the participle tends to express the progressive aspect:
⎧ midnight after just slam long night all slamming
The progressive aspect may also influence a preference for the participle after verbs of beginning, continuing, and ending, when multiple activities are involved:
⎧ cupboards the open to cupboards the all opening
While some verbs in this semantic group allow both constructions (begin, continue, cease, start), others allow only the participle construction (finish, go on, keep (on), stop)
The verbs forget, remember, and regret exhibit a temporal distinction between their infinitive and participle constructions The infinitive form suggests that the action occurs after the mental process has started, while the participle form indicates that the action takes place prior to the mental process.
) form' the out filled had I that remembered I
(' form the out filling remembered
) so' did then and form the out fill to was I that remembered I
(' form the out fill to remembered
) bank' he t went to I t forgot tha I
' : without (rare bank the to going (about) forgot
) so' do not did therefore and bank the to go to was I t forgot tha I
(' bank the to go forgot to
) it' stole John that you told I that regret I (' it stole John that you telling regret
) it' stole John that you tell to about am I that regret I (' it stole John that you tell to regret
For one small group of verbs (deserve, need, require, and, less commonly, want), the choice involves a difference in voice, the participle construction corresponding to a passive infinitive construction:
We list some common verbs according to the non-finite clauses that they allow, omitting the three small groups that we discussed above:
In general, sentences with a non-finite clause lacking a subject do not have a passive form However, a few verbs, such as agree, arrange, and decide, can form a passive voice when there is extraposition involved.
They decided to meet in London ~ It was decided to meet in London
When using verbs such as "need," the subject of the main clause does not serve as the implied subject of the participle clause Instead, it is the implied direct object For example, the phrase "Your shoes need cleaning" suggests that you or someone else is required to clean the shoes.
In English grammar, certain verbs can be paired with infinitive clauses that do not function as direct objects For instance, verbs like "appear," "happen," and "seem" integrate the infinitive clause into the subject of the sentence, as seen in "He appears to like the show," which can be rephrased to "He apparently likes the show." Similarly, adjectives such as "certain" and "bound" also relate to infinitive clauses, exemplified by "He is certain to like the show." Additionally, there are specific verbs that exclusively take infinitives, including "agree," "decide," and "want." Conversely, some verbs, such as "enjoy" and "suggest," only accept participles Notably, a group of verbs can use either infinitives or participles, often reflecting emotional states or intentions, including "hate," "prefer," and "try."
The verb "help" can be followed by a construction using the bare infinitive, as in "I helped her (to) do it." In contrast, the bare infinitive appears primarily in specific set phrases such as "make do," "make believe," "(live and) let live," and "let go."
Certain factual verbs allow a non-finite indirect question to serve as their direct object, excluding yes-no questions For example, one might say, "He asked how to get there" or "He inquired about the directions." In contrast, verbs like "arranged" or "forgot" can also take non-finite clauses, as seen in "He arranged when to do it" or "He forgot when to do it."
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
1 Non-finite and verbless clauses with subject
In monotransitive sentences, when a clause acts as the object and is either non-finite or lacks a verb, the expressed subject of that clause functions as if it were the sole direct object of the main verb Consequently, this subject is eligible to become the subject in a passive transformation For instance, compare the structures in examples (1a) and (2a) with their passive counterparts in (1b) and (2b).
(1a) Everyone expected that Mary would marry John
That Mary would marry John was expected by everyone
(*Mary was expected by everyone would marry John)
(1b) Everyone expected Mary to marry John
Mary was expected by everyone to marry John
(*Mary to marry John was expected by everyone)
(2a) John thought that Mary was exceptionally clever
(2b) John thought Mary exceptionally clever
Mary was thought exceptionally clever
It is divisibility of an essentially clausal object that is outstanding characteristic of complex transitive complementation
2 To -infinitive clauses with subject
In the realm of complex transitive complementation, it is essential to differentiate between two classes of verbs: factual and non-factual Factual verbs typically feature a subordinate clause with a stative verb, where a finite construction is generally favored over a non-finite one in everyday language, unless the non-finite form is needed for a passive construction Notably, the attribute of the verb "be" in this context must reflect a 'current' state.
The policeman a be to believed was stranger the believed John policeman a was stranger the that believed John
French some know to student
French some know to assumed was
(formal) student the assumed professor
French some knew student the that assumed professor
Other common factual verbs: feel, find, imagine, know, suppose, think
Non-factual verbs in non-finite constructions convey causative, volitional, or attitudinal relationships with subordinate clauses These constructions allow for any class of verbs in the non-finite clause, and there are no stylistic limitations on their application.
John intended that Mary should sing an aria
John intended Mary to sing an aria
Mary was intended to sing an aria
With some of the superordinate verbs no finite- clause construction of this type is possible: notably, get, want, like:
John wanted Mary to play the piano
(but that Mary (should) play the piano occurs in AmE)
Other common non-factual verbs: cause, expect, hate, mean
In cases where the subject of the subordinate clause matches the subject of the superordinate clause, a non-finite construction can be used with factual and causative verbs, provided that the reflexive form is explicitly stated, as is often the case with the verb "get."
I believed myself to have won (rare)
With volitional and attitudinal verbs, however, co-referential subjects are readily allowed but the subordinate subject cannot be expressed in the non-finite clause :
A few verbs, get, hate, like, want, do not have a corresponding passive, while a few others, in particular say, occur only in the passive form of the construction:
He was said to come from Ireland ~ *They said him to come from Ireland
3 Prepositional verbs with for use for to introduce a to-infinitive clause:
He arranged for/Mary to come at once
The infinitive construction is therefore a direct object of the prepositional verb, which may be emotive or volitional Some common verbs with this construction: ask, call, long, plan, wait
Prepositional verbs that are ditransitive allow another object (perhaps also introduced by a preposition) to precede the infinitive clause:
John for Mary to come at once
Cf He telephoned John/He arranged with John for another meeting
4 Bare infinitive clauses with subject
Three causative verbs take a bare infinitive in their infinitive clause: have (‘cause’), let, make: They had/let/made Bob teach Mary
Some verbs of perception take the bare infinitive in the active: feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch The verbs of perception also occur with the –ing participle clause:
I watched Bob teach(ing) Mary
In passive constructions, the bare infinitive is substituted with the to-infinitive, as seen in examples like "Bob was made to clean his room" and "They were heard to shout something." However, this substitution does not extend to the verbs "have" and "let," which typically do not form a passive voice, except in the case of "He was let go." Notably, only "let" can have a passive form within an infinitive clause.
Mary was allowed to be taught by Bob When using verbs of perception, a passive construction can be formed, as in "I watched Mary being taught by Bob." Additionally, for the passive form corresponding to the infinitive clause following verbs like "have" and "see," one can say, "I had Bob teach Mary" or "I had Mary taught by Bob."
5 – ing participle clauses with subject
Verbs that take an –ing participle clause can be categorized into two types: those that allow the subordinate subject to be in the genitive case, mainly emotive verbs used with personal nouns or pronouns, and those that do not permit the genitive form.
I dislike him/his driving my car
In passive constructions, the subject of the subordinate clause cannot also serve as the subject of the superordinate clause, as seen in the incorrect example: "He is disliked (by me) driving my car." When both subjects are the same, the subordinate subject is omitted, resulting in a more streamlined sentence: "I dislike driving my car."
In passive constructions, the subject of a subordinate clause can also serve as the subject of the main clause, as seen in the example, "He was found driving my car." When both subjects refer to the same entity, the reflexive form is used, such as in "I found myself driving my car."
Where there is a choice between –ing participle and infinitive (whether bare or to- infinitive), there is usually felt to be an aspectual difference that influences the choice
⎧ midnight after just slam to long night all slamming
Verbs taking a non-finite clause with subject may have
(1) only an –ing participle clause:
I started Bob cleaning the car
(2) either an –ing participle or a bare infinitive clause:
⎧ homework his do homework his doing
(3) either an –ing participle or a to-infinitive clause:
⎧ garden the in work to garden the in working
In this article, we categorize common verbs based on their allowance of the genitive case Within each category, we highlight verbs that accept both the –ing form and the infinitive form, with or without the preposition "to."
6 - ed participle clauses with subject
There are three distinct constructions that utilize the –ed participle with a subject The first type involves a causative or volitional verb, as in "He got the watch repaired." The second type features a factual verb that conveys an event, exemplified by "He saw the watch stolen." Lastly, the third type employs a factual verb that reflects a current state, illustrated by "He found the watch stolen."
Causative and volitional verbs can be expressed through finite clauses using subjunctive verbs or "should," such as in the sentence, "He ordered that the watch (should) be repaired." In contrast, factual verbs correspond to finite clauses with indicative verbs, as illustrated by "He saw the watch stolen," which can also be phrased as "He saw that the watch was being stolen." Additionally, "He found the watch stolen" is equivalent to "He found that the watch was stolen." The verb "have" can serve both as a causative and factual verb, leading to ambiguity in sentences like "He had a watch stolen," which could mean either that he caused the watch to be stolen or that he experienced the loss of a watch.
In passive voice constructions, verbs typically convey action rather than a state of being For instance, the phrase "My friend had his watch stolen" suggests that "someone stole my friend's watch," rather than indicating that "my friend was without a watch because it was stolen."
Common verbs of the three types are:
The factual verbs allow passivization:
The tourists found the chairs occupied
~ The chairs were found occupied (by the tourists)
• Genitive optional: (1) –ing participle only: (cannot) afford, enjoy, forget, (not) mind, regret, remember, resent, risk, (cannot) stand;
• (2) –ing participle or to-infinitive: dislike, hate, like, love, prefer
• Genitive disallowed: (1) –ing participle only: catch, find, keep, leave, start, stop; (2)-ing participle or bare infinitive: have(“cause”); verbs of perception- feel, hear,
In English grammar, the use of the -ing participle or bare infinitive with the verb "have" indicates causation, while verbs of perception such as feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, and watch can also be followed by either form Additionally, the verbs "get" and informal expressions like "I got Bob cleaning/to clean his room" demonstrate the flexibility of using both the -ing participle and the to-infinitive.
- ing participle or to-infinitive: ge t, informal( I got Bob cleaning / to clean his room) causative/volitional: get, order, have (‘cause’), want factual, expressing event: see, have (‘suffer’)
Factual, expressing state: find, keep, leave
In both the –ing and –ed clauses just considered, it is reasonable to see the non-finite clauses in many cases as resulting from ellipsis of infinitival be:
I hate him (to be) driving my car
They found the chairs (to be) occupied
With complementation by verbless clauses, we can also see underlying be clauses:
⎧ driver good a John driver good a be to John driver good a is John that
Verbless clauses consist of two elements in an intensive subject complement relation, yet they are traditionally described as an object and object complement since the entire construction functions as the object in the superordinate clause Similar to other transitive sentences, the object can become the subject in a passive transformation (e.g., "John is considered a good driver") Additionally, like other intensive clauses, the complement can typically be expressed as either a noun phrase or an adjective phrase.
DITRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
1 Noun phrase as both indirect object and direct object
Ditransitive complementation involves two objects that are not intensive relationship: an indirect object (normally animate), which is positioned first, and a direct object (normally concrete):
Indirect objects can be omitted without affecting the meaning or function of the rest of the sentence:
He gave the girl a doll
He bought the girl a white hat
≠He boughtthegirl hat white a bought He
They can usually be replaced by a corresponding prepositional phrase, which normally follows the direct object:
He gave a doll to the girl
He bought a white hat for the girl
We list some common verbs, which allow the indirect object to be replaced by a prepositional phrase, the preposition concerned being indicated:
A few verbs disallow the variant with a prepositional phrase: allow, refuse, wish With allow and wish, it would be exceptional to have either of the noun phrases omitted
One group of verbs (chiefly ask, owe, pay, teach, tell, show) taking ditransitive complementation allow either object to be omitted:
John to money the paid I money the paid I
[a] The verb give allows considerable flexibility: the direct object can be abstract and the indirect object inanimate, though in such cases the latter has no variant with a prepositional phrase:
He gave the car a wash (‘He washed the car’)
~ *He gave a wash to the car
Sentences with some ditransitive verbs have two passives:
He gave the girl a doll
⎧ girl the given was doll A
~ doll a given was girl The
Of these two passives, the first is the more common The second is usually replaced by the corresponding prepositional phrase:
A doll was given to the girl
The verb "make" can be used in various constructions, including monotransitive, as in "She made a cake," ditransitive, exemplified by "She made him a cake," and complex transitive, such as "She made him a good husband."
In English, the use of indirect objects can enhance sentence structure, as seen in phrases like "She made him a good wife." This construction allows for a more nuanced expression of actions involving others, such as asking John a question, doing a favor for someone, or offering assistance Indirect objects can clarify relationships in sentences, exemplified by expressions like "I owe you" or "I promise to help." By incorporating these elements, sentences become more dynamic, effectively conveying the speaker's intentions and interactions.
(~turned out to be a good wife to/for him)
Ditransitive verbs whose direct object must be introduced by a preposition (i.e ditransitive prepositional verbs) normally allow only one passive, with the indirect object as subject:
We reminded him of the agreement
~ He was reminded of the agreement
They differ from the most ditransitive verbs in frequently allowing the indirect object to be expressed alone: We reminded him (of the agreement)
Common verbs of this type enter into constructions of the form accuse X of Y, where with the most of the verbs X is usually a person and Y is usually a thing:
But there are notable exceptions, such as explain X to Y, where X would normally be a thing and Y a person
With several verbs (e.g blame, provide, supply), either of the noun phrases in the complementation can follow the verb immediately, the other requiring a preposition:
She blamed John for the damage ~ She blamed the damage on John
They provided the homeless with blankets ~ They provided blankets for the homeless They supplied the terrorists with guns ~ They supplied guns for/to the terrorists
3 Idiomatic expressions consisting of verb + noun phrase + preposition
Certain verbs create idiomatic expressions when paired with specific noun phrases and prepositions, similar to prepositional verbs Additionally, these constructions allow for two passive forms, as either noun phrase can serve as the subject in a passive sentence.
They had made good use of the house
~ Good use had been made of the house
~ The house had been made good use of (informal)
Other examples of the latter kind of passive (chiefly informal) are:
Mary realized she was being made fun of
Her beauty was made much of
Pretty girls will always be taken notice of
The children were taken good care of
This article presents a selection of common idioms structured as verb + noun phrase + preposition Notable examples include "charge with," "compare to," "congratulate on," "convince of," "deprive of," "inform of," "introduce to," "punish for," "refer to," "remind of," "rob of," "sentence to," and "treat to." These idioms are essential for enhancing language proficiency and understanding nuanced expressions in English.
With some verbs the indirect object is obligatory:
4 Noun phrases as indirect object + finite clauses as a direct object
With some verbs the indirect object is obligatory:
John convinced me that he was right
~ *John convinced that he was right
With other verbs, it can be omitted:
John showed me that he was honest
~ John showed that he was honest
Common verbs in this type of construction are listed according to whether the indirect object is obligatory or optional
The indirect object often occurs without the direct
The sentence can be transformed into passive voice by making the indirect object the subject, as in "I was convinced that he was right." Additionally, verbs like "show" and "tell" permit the direct object to serve as the subject in passive constructions, typically involving extraposition, exemplified by "That he was an honest man was shown (to me)" or "It was shown (to me) that he was an honest man."
Some verbs require a prepositional phrase introduced by to instead of the indirect object They all allow the omission of the prepositional phrase:
John mentioned (to me) that they were sick
In English grammar, passive constructions often involve the direct object becoming the subject of the sentence, typically accompanied by extraposition For example, the sentence "That they were sick was mentioned to me by John" can be rephrased to "It was mentioned to me by John that they were sick." Common verbs that facilitate this structure include admit, announce, confess, declare, explain, mention, point out, remark, report, say, state, and suggest.
5 Noun phrases as indirect object + non-finite clauses as direct object
Many of the superordinate verbs will allow the clausal direct object to be a to-infinitive clause:
⎧ me see to me see should he that
In certain constructions, the indirect object can only be identical to the subject of the direct object clause For instance, the sentence "They persuaded John that Mary should see me" lacks a corresponding form with phrases like "make fun of" or "take advantage of." Some verbs, such as advise, assure, and persuade, require an obligatory indirect object, while others like ask and promise allow for an optional indirect object Additionally, when using a non-finite clause as a direct object, the subject of that clause can serve as the subject of the passive superordinate clause.
John was persuaded to see me
Not all verbs that take a finite clause also accept a non-finite clause as a direct object However, common verbs that allow both constructions include ask (when used with wh-indirect questions), persuade, remind, teach, tell, and warn Additionally, there are verbs like ask (in the sense of 'request'), encourage, force, help, and order that permit non-finite clauses but do not readily accommodate finite clauses.
Mary helped John to carry the bag
(*Mary helped John that he might carry the bag)
There is a superficial similarity between certain complex transitive and ditransitive examples: complex trans: He wanted Mary to teach Bob [1] ditrans: He persuaded Mary to teach Bob [2]
The difference can be seen when the subordinate clause is made passive:
He wanted Bob to be taught by Mary [3, =1] He persuaded Bob to be taught by Mary [4, ≠2]
The distinction arises because, in complex transitive verbs, the infinitive clause (Mary to teach Bob) functions as the direct object, and Mary is not part of the superordinate clause Conversely, with the ditransitive verb "persuade," Mary acts as the indirect object and is a distinct constituent, while the subject of the infinitive clause is only implied.
[4], this indirect object function is taken over by Bob, and hence the radically changed meaning
When a wh-clause is object to a verb of stating, the subject is identical with the indirect object; with verbs of asking, however, it is identical with the superordinate subject:
He told them where to go (= where they should go)
He asked them where to go (= where he should go)
On types and problems of complementation, see Aijmer (1972); Allen (1966); Bald (1972); Halliday (1967-68); Huddleston (1971), Ch.3, 4; Macháček (1965); Poldauf (1972); Rosenbaum (1967); van Ek (1966); Stockwell et al (1973), Ch 8
CHAPTER 4: The verb and its complementation
To complete the sentences effectively, choose the appropriate copulas from the list: a appear, b be, c become, d feel, e get, f go, g grow, h look, i make, j remain, k seem, l smell, m sound, n taste, o turn Each option serves a specific purpose in conveying the intended meaning and enhancing the clarity of the sentences Make sure to select the copula that best fits the context of each sentence for optimal coherence and relevance.
2 She devoted to her work
3 The work more and more interesting
9 The poor old woman mad
11 These four books for you
12 The concert at six o’clock
15 That he crossed the desert alone unbelievable
• Complementation of the adjective phrase
Supply an acceptable preposition to fill each of the gaps If an adjectival complement is structurally optional in the context, put brackets round it, thus:
Most people are afraid (of snakes)
If the complement is structurally obligatory in the context, omit the brackets:
7 Jack is averse ……… hard work
9 Now we’re bound …… home
13 We’re not clear ……… this sentence
15 Who is concerned ……… this project?
16 We’re conscious……… the danger
18 The judge was deaf ………… our appeal
19 Mary is very dear ………… us
20 She is so dependent ……… us
22 When is John due …… promotion?
23 He is eager …… more responsibility
25 He is not equal ……… the task
27 Have you been faithful ……… me?
29 Fred is not fit ………… this job
34 We’re grateful………… your help
36 Don’t be too hard ………… me
41 John is intent ……… his work
45 That story is new ……… me
46 We’re very proud ……… you
48 You’re safe ………… danger now
49 John is not strong …… languages
50 We’re tired ……… this exercise.
Transform each of the sentences below so as to produce a subject complement consisting of a participial adjective + prepositional phrase, avoiding by whenever possible:
1 The young man’s discomfiture amused the Countess
2 The way she treated her servants annoyed him
3 The young man’s outburst astonished everybody
4 Etiquette obviously did not bother him
5 The reception they gave him did not content him
6 His presents, however, delighted the Countess
7 You do not appoint me
8 Do not let your coming adventures excite you
9 Roger found everything around him fascinating
10 Hunting had already interested him
11 The Countess found his answer very pleasing
12 His progress completely satisfied her
13 At first, his rudeness had shocked her
14 His conduct would have surprised his old father
15 Now, his behaviour would not have worried his father at all
Combine each of the pairs of sentences below so as to produce one single sentence containing an adjective complemented by a finite clause, omitting what is in brackets:
1 You must resign We are adamant (on that point)
2 You have made a serious error We are afraid that (that is so)
3 Why did you behave in that way? I’m ashamed
4 There will be a public inquiry I am certain (of it)
5 Why do you feel so offended? We are concerned (about that)
6 You will understand We are fully confident (of it)
7 Why do you say that? It is curious
8 You see our point of view at last We’re delighted
9 You must have complete trust in us It is essential
10 You revealed the secret The Captain is furious
11 You have received us so magnificently We feel greatly honoured
12 We are happy You feel at home in our country
13 You must prolong your stay Everyone insists (on it)
14 We shall have no more travelling That is a great relief to us
15 You were kept waiting at the gate I am deeply shocked
16 My husband will not be able to attend your meeting He is very sorry
17 I may not be able to come with you I’m not sure yet
18 Did you really say that? Is it true?
19 Don’t you know your programme? I’m surprised
20 Everyone should vote on Thursday It is vital
The sentences can be categorized as follows: a) "He is splendid to wait" fits into the category of expressing a positive quality, b) "He is slow to react" indicates a delay in response, c) "He is furious to hear it" conveys an intense emotional reaction, d) "He is hesitant to agree" reflects uncertainty in decision-making, and e) "He is hard to convince" suggests difficulty in persuasion.
1 I am very anxious to meet you
2 We were delighted to receive your telegram
3 You were sensible to stay indoors
4 The clerk was prompt to answer the call
5 This rule is easy to remember
6 We are reluctant to leave this neighbourhood
7 Our house is not difficult to heat
8 Unfortunately, it isn’t easy to find
9 Are you ready to leave?
10 You would be foolish to go out in this weather
11 John is quick to see the point
12 He is very keen to get on
13 We are proud to have him as a friend
14 I was rude not to answer your letter
15 Wee are happy to have you with us this evening
Rephrase each of the fifteen sentences in Ecercise 5 so as to illustrate the underlying difference between the five types of construction
A direct object may be a a noun phrase d a finite wh-clause b a noun phrase + obligatory adverbial e an infinitive clause c a finite that-clause f a participle clause
- Example: She asked him a question b **Explain** - Example: He explained the process to the team c **Lay** - Example: She laid the book on the table d **Remember** - Example: I remember him from the conference e **Believe** - Example: They believe her story f **Feel** - Example: I feel a sense of accomplishment g **Mind** - Example: Do you mind my asking? h **Approve of** - Example: They approve of her decision i **Consider** - Example: We consider him a friend j **Gather** - Example: She gathered the children around k **Need** - Example: I need your help l **Depend on** - Example: They depend on their parents m **Deny** - Example: He denied the accusation n **Hope** - Example: I hope you the best o **Owe** - Example: I owe you an explanation p **Make up** - Example: They made up a story q **Enjoy** - Example: She enjoys the music r **Keep** - Example: He kept the secret s **Place** - Example: She placed the order online t **Point out** - Example: He pointed out the mistake.
• Passive transform of monotransitive verb + direct object
Give the passive transformation, if one is possible, of the following sentences, supplying the by- phrase only if it contains relevant and essential information:
1 Builders built this house in 1968
2 King Khufu built the Great Pyramid
3 The Great pyramid contains over two million blocks of stone
4 Each block weighs over two tons
5 Has anyone weighed them recently?
6 People usually oppose new opinions
7 A man with a scar across his face held my attention
8 He hid himself behind one of the pillars
9 Someone had admitted him by accident
10 He must have dyed his hair
11 His coat did not fit him properly
12 This picture resembles the one in your drawing room
13 I have a picture like it in my house, too
14 Six time nine equals fifty-four
15 No one has ever equalled your record
16 I would like you to measure me for a suit
17 Would this material suit you?
18 This piece of cloth measures just two metres
19 Robert Boyle discovered the principle known as Boyle’s Law
20 The vendor has already sold property
• Finite clause as direct object
Combine each of the following pairs of sentences so as to produce one single
Sentence with a finite clause as object, omitting what is in brackets:
1 I have made a mistake I admit (it)
3 Have I given you the right figures? I doubt (it)
4 You have checked the figures carefully I don’t doubt (it)
5 You wrote me a cheque I agree
6 You pay me next week I agree (to that)
7 You were going to pay me half the money today We agreed (on that)
8 We decided (on one thing) We had gone far enough
9 Should we continue next day or not? We could not decide
10 How could we find the way? We had to decide (that) quickly
11 You go ahead to get help We have all decided (on that course of action)
12 Help will arrive at any moment (At least), I expect (so)
13 What do you intend to do next? May I ask (that)?
14 Are we to stay here all night? May I ask (that)?
15 Please tell us the truth All I ask is that
16 Why not divide ourselves into two groups? (That is what) I suggest
17 This is where we were two days ago I remember
18 Did we take the upper path or the lower one? Do you remember?
19 Where did we go wrong? Ah, now I know
20 You no longer trust your leader I sincerely regret that
• Non-finite clauses a direct object
In the sentences provided, the italicized parts illustrate different uses of non-finite infinitive clauses and gerunds as objects of verbs In sentence (a), "to go home" functions as an infinitive clause that expresses the desire to return In (b), "walking" serves as a gerund, indicating enjoyment derived from the activity Sentence (c) features "to be here" as an infinitive clause that conveys an expectation of presence In (d), "leave" is a bare infinitive, indicating the action heard Sentence (e) uses "waiting" as a gerund to describe the observed state of being Finally, in (f), "occupied" acts as a past participle, indicating the condition of the seat These structures highlight the versatility of non-finite forms in conveying meaning within sentences.
Indicate by a, b, c, etc., which of the finite verbs in the six sentences in Exercise 10 could be replaced by
Expand the following sentences so as to clarify the difference in meaning between the two members of each pair:
1 a I remembered to fill up the form b I remembered filling up the form
2 a I forgot to wake you this morning b I forgot about waking you
3 a I regret to tell you this story b I regret telling you that story
4 a I tried to turn the key another way b I tried turning the key another way
5 a My father taught me to ride b He taught me riding
6 a He had us all empty our pockets b He had us all emptying our pockets
7 a You deserve to shoot first b You deserve shooting first
8 a That boy wants to watch b That boy wants watching
Say whether each of these sentences is (a) monotransitive or (b) complex transitive Then put each main clause into the passive:
1 We admitted that a mistake had been made
2 Everyone considered the mistake to be very serious
3 We consider you to be one of our most loyal supporters
4 We fully recognized that you have had great difficulties
5 We find you innocent of all the charges
6 We know your companion to be a troublemaker
7 You have proved your story completely accurate
8 However, we think you, at times, indiscreet
9 We expect you to show a little more tact
10 We regret that we must make this criticism
11 The Air Force has reported two planes missing
12 The authorities meant you to complete this form, and return the Town Hall
Say which of the underlined items can be replaced by the genitive variant:
1 The police caught Wilson climbing the wall
2 I don’t approve of you climbing cliffs
3 Do you mind me opening the window?
4 Don’t let me find you opening this door again
5 How can I stop you biting your nails?
6 I remember John telling me that story
7 I often find myself repeating it
8 Do you ever remember that happening to you?
9 You won’t keep us waiting, will you?
10 We object to them being given preferential treatment
• - ed participle clauses with subject
He got the watch repaired can be paraphrased as He got someone to repair the watch Paraphrase the following:
1 I want this work done at once
2 I want to see this work done properly
3 We found the work done already
4 I have heard this story repeated too often
5 Can you have these notes copied before tomorrow?
6 I’m afraid we must have those trees cut down
7 I’m afraid George has had his leg broken
8 I think I’ll have my egg fried, please
9 Six thousand pounds was reported stolen
10 Didn’t you hear your name called?
To effectively complete the sentences, consider the following verbs: a) accept, b) appoint, c) call, d) consider, e) declare, f) describe, g) elect, h) find, i) hold, j) intend, k) make, l) mistake, m) push, n) put, o) recognize, p) regard, q) take, and r) treat Each verb offers a unique nuance that can enhance the meaning of the sentences.
1 They _ John chairman 7 We _ the door open
2 They _ John as their leader 8 We _ your room for
3 They _ him as a true friend the library
4 They _ him reliable 9 We _ the pole straight
5 They _ him very happy 10 We _the incident closed
6 They _ his appointment to be permanent
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., which of the 18 verbs in Exercise 16 could fill the gaps in the following:
4 Your room was _ for the library
Exercise 18 a Move the object complement, if it is mobile b Replace the object by the corresponding pronoun, then write out the new sentence:
1 George’s conduct made Mary very angry
2 He had broken open her wardrobe
3 Let us free all the prisoners
4 Will this agreement make the end of all the fighting possible?
5 Can you have ready for tomorrow the minutes of our last two meetings?
6 I would like you to leave clear those two cupboards over by the window
7 We shall not appoint officers of the society those members who do not attend regularly
Rephrase each of the following sentences using the pattern
(Subject) + verb + direct object + prepositional phrase, but only when such rephrasing is admissible:
1 The townsfolk accorded us a warm welcome
2 I have asked you a great favour
3 We booked you a double room with bath
4 Bring me your essay this afternoon
5 Someone has brought us some grapes
6 Call me a taxi right away
7 Can anyone cash me a cheque?
8 We have caused you so much trouble
9 This suit only cost me forty dollars
10 These pills haven’t done me much good
11 I will give you all the necessary information
12 Someone has just handed me the message
13 I’ll leave you your dinner in the oven
14 An uncle left her a small fortune
15 Do we owe the milkman anything?
16 I have paid George the whole sum
17 You must show me your ticket
18 I have told you the truth
19 Throw me that towel, will you?
Exercise 20 a Read the 20 sentences in Exercise 19, omitting the indirect object whenever such omission can be made without detriment to the sense b In which of those 20 sentences could the direct object be ellipted?
Give two different passive transformations for the following sentences in Exercise 19: 2, 3, 8, 11,
TEXT ANALYSIS
WATCHING CHILDREN
Observing children in their natural play, especially when they are unaware of being watched, offers a unique joy Their rapid mood shifts are captivating; for example, a young boy may dribble an imaginary football before becoming fascinated with balancing on the curb He might pause to think, then suddenly jump up and down for no apparent reason, simply because it feels good This contrast between their spontaneous energy and my own lack of inclination to jump adds to the fascination of the moment.
On a wide Cornish beach, I observed a two-and-a-half-year-old child joyfully stamping on small waves, her hands outstretched in delight As she focused on her playful task, her bathing pants slipped down until she eventually jumped them off, completely unaware Her monotone singing served as a charming commentary to her actions, blending harmoniously with the gentle sounds of the sea, creating a delightful melody.
When my housekeeper needed to be away, an Austrian friend stepped in to help, bringing along her inquisitive five-year-old daughter, Liesl With her fair complexion, round features, and striking blue eyes, Liesl was a bundle of energy and curiosity unlike anyone I had ever encountered Her relentless desire to explore and learn was so powerful that it felt as if it could fuel an entire electrical plant, making it impossible to keep her from discovering everything around her.
Small Fry by Joyce Grenfell (Br
FIRST IMPRESSIONS
When I first met Nina, I disliked her at once She was wearing skintight pedal pushers, a flashy, floppy top, and sneakers with no socks – bizarrely in appropriate even at our very informal company Soon, Nina was doggedly pumping me for information about the new department I was running, where she hoped to get a permanent job Not a chance, I thought Not if I have anything to say about it
Despite my initial hopes, it quickly became clear that Nina was not up to the task I assigned her a moderately challenging and low-priority project, which ultimately took her successor months to resolve due to the complications she created In just three minutes, I realized that Nina was someone I could not depend on to complete assignments effectively.
We often make quick judgments about strangers within seconds of meeting them, assessing their demeanor and personality traits These snap decisions can lead us to conclude whether someone is warm or cold, friendly or hostile, anxious or calm Unconsciously, we consider questions such as whether we will enjoy conversing with them or if they would be a good fit as a friend or professional While getting to know someone better may alter our initial impressions, we often don't have the opportunity to do so.
Nina's inappropriate attire and aggressive demeanor led me to perceive her as pushy and insensitive, revealing poor judgment I felt an unsettling instinct that warned me to distrust her, suggesting that her unpredictable behavior stemmed from a personal agenda that I could never grasp.
I was using a combination of observation, inference and intuition
THE THOUGHTS OF HENRY WILT
Henry Wilt and his dog followed a consistent walking route, often prompted by Mrs Wilt's request for them to leave the house during her yoga sessions Their journey took them past the Post Office, through a playground, under a railway bridge, and along the river for a mile They then retraced their steps under the railway line and navigated back through neighborhoods with larger houses, expansive gardens, and luxury cars like Rovers and Mercedes.
Clem, a pedigree Labrador, seemed at ease in the unfamiliar neighborhood while Wilt felt out of place, acutely aware of his surroundings for the first time during their walk The rest of his journey was a reflection of wishful thinking, imagining scenarios of Mrs Wilt's disappearance and fantasizing about wealth and power, including dreams of becoming Prime Minister Wilt's thoughts were a mix of desperate ideas and silent dialogues, occasionally causing him to move his lips and smile wryly, as if engaging in clever repartee It was during one rainy walk after a challenging day at the Tech that Wilt realized he could only reclaim his life and potential if an unexpected disaster were to befall his wife.
Wilt by Tom Sharpe (BrE)
AN ENGLISH LESSON
During my visit to Gamal Abdel Nasser Secondary School, I observed an enthusiastic English lesson led by a Scottish instructor, one of only three British teachers in Yemen The classroom was filled with twenty eager boys, aged fourteen to twenty-two, representing a small educated segment in a country with a staggering ninety percent illiteracy rate Their ambition was palpable as they competed intensely for the teacher's attention, turning the lesson into a lively contest Shouts of "Teacher! Teacher!" filled the air, and hands shot up urgently as students vied for the opportunity to answer questions Reflecting on my own teaching experience in England, I couldn't help but admire their fervor; had my students shown even a fraction of this enthusiasm, I might have remained in the profession longer These Yemeni students were driven by their desire for good grades and certificates, recognizing that every moment in the classroom was crucial for their future.
Arabie Through the Looking Glass by Jonathan Raban (BrE)
I Read the following passage, then label the types and explain the meanings of the underlined phrasal verbs :
Iris shares a striking similarity with my former wife, as both experience intense, violent dreams that leave them restless during the night They often wake up drenched in sweat, with their nightgowns clinging to their bodies Like my ex-wife, Iris feels compelled to recount her dreams in detail, exploring their meanings and implications My former wife would frequently kick off the covers and cry out in her sleep, as if she were being tormented by unseen forces.
In a vivid dream, a violent altercation unfolded as she struck my ear, prompting me to instinctively hit her forehead while I was in a deep sleep This led to a chaotic exchange of yelling, fueled by fear and confusion over what had transpired Once the lamp was turned on, we were able to clarify the situation, and later, we found humor in our unexpected sleep-fighting episode.
II/A- Underline the multi-word verbs in the letter and try to work out what they mean, what kind of multi-word verbs they are
I'm struggling with my studies and find it hard to concentrate in the evenings, often choosing to listen to music or watch TV instead of completing my homework My classmates seem to excel, making it difficult for me to keep up, and I sometimes struggle to follow lessons due to my slow writing speed My teacher has pointed out that I'm falling behind, and I often submit my essays late, leading me to create excuses for my incomplete work With my final exam approaching in January, I feel overwhelmed, especially after barely passing my mock exams with a 54%, while others performed much better Despite my teacher's feedback on my homework, the numerous mistakes only added to my frustration What can I do to improve my situation?
B- Using the multi- word verbs in the text above to replace the verbs in the following sentences :
1 Can I give you my homework tomorrow?
2 Can you check my homework to see if there are mistakes ?
3 Could we postpone our meeting until tomorrow ?
6 I passed my history exams with only 52%
7 Can I write down your name and address?
8 She’s remaining at the making progress with their studies, but I’m getting
9 I must try to reach the same level as the other students in my class
III Analyse the following sentences:
Eager to clear her backlog of typing, the secretary informed the manager of her decision to work overtime without taking a lunch break Understanding her dedication, the kind manager agreed and inquired if she had any food to sustain her during the extra hours.
2 Watching children, particularly when they don’t know you are doing so, is a particular pleasure
IV Replace the underlined words, using the verbs indicated at the head of the sentence together with an adverbial or prepositional particle, making any necessary changes in word order,and identifying their kinds:
TAKE: He resembles his father in many ways
> He takes after his father in many ways ( Type 3- prepositional verb)
1 TURN : The manager refused his request for two days off
2 GET : She is so upset at her husband’s death that I don’t think she will ever recover from the shock
3 TAKE: That teacher has a way with students: they seem to like her immediately
4 PUT : I had to postpone my visit because of the weather
5 PUT : He refused to tolerate laziness on the part of his students
6 STAND: What does this abbreviation mean?
7 COME: While looking through the books he found an old and valuable map
8 GIVE : Although he agreed with me on most points, there was one on which he was unwilling to yield
V Identify the non-finite and verbless clauses in the following sentences, then denote their names and functions:
1 Having received their final medical check, the astronauts boarded their spacecraft ………
2 The thieves took two mail-bags containing registered letters
3 Closing the factory means putting people out of work
4 Not very happy with the result, she said nothing to her classmates
5 The long journey over, we relax in the warm sunshine
6 He likes being invited to parties
7 The worst thing at University is retaking examinations
8 We are happy having you with us today
9 Used economically, one tin can last for at least 4 weeks
10 Her ambition, to be a teacher, was never fulfilled
11 To be honest, I’m not sure what to do
12 All he did was hit his son on the head
13 We come to see you
14 Cleared, the site will be very valuable
VI Say whether the complementation in each of the following sentences is intensive, monotransitive, ditransitive or complex transitive:
1 Transportation to the mainland is by ferry
2 They blamed him for the damage
3 They had made good use of the language lab
4 I am not familiar with this town
5 We are proud to have her as a friend
6 Ah,now I know where we went wrong
7 I would love John to teach me
8 We wish you to help us
9 We admitted that a mistake had been made
10 We expect you to show a little more tact
11 Everyone considered the mistake to be very serious
12.We have not kept pace with the latest research
13 I advise you to be more careful
14 I am sure that she is here now
15 John put the car into the garage