Nghiên cứu so sánh ảnh hưởng của đường hướng dạy học trên cơ sở giao nhiệm vụ và phương pháp dạy học truyền thống đối với việc dạy ngữ pháp ở trường trung học p

Littlewood 1981: 1 states his views of the communicative language teaching approach, "One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systemati

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 Le Thi Phuong Thao a comparative study of the effect of a task-based teaching and traditional method to grammar instruction at Vietnamese upper secondary schools an experimental research nghiên cứu so sánh ảnh h-ởng của đ-ờng h-ớng dạy học trên cơ sở giao nhiệm vụ và ph-ơng pháp dạy học truyền thống đối với việc dạy ngữ pháp ở tr-ờng trung học phổ thông: nghiên cứu thực nghiệm Minor Thesis

Field: English Methodology

Code: 601410

Hanoi- 2009

Acknowledgements i

Abstract ii

Table of contents iii

List of Abbreviations vi

List of tables and graphs vii

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

1.1 Rationale of the study 1

1.2 Hypotheses 2

1.2.1 The Null Hypothesis (Ho) 2

1.2.2 The Alternative Hypothesis (H1) 3

1.3 Purpose of the study 3

1.4 Important of the study 3

1.5 The setting and background 3

1.6 Definition of terminology 4

1.7 Design of the study 4

Chapter 2: Literature Review 6

2.1 The role of grammar in English language teaching 6

2.1.1 Arguments against grammar teaching 6

2.1.2 Research supporting grammar teaching 6

2.2 Grammar teaching as Process or as Product 7

2.2.1 The process of language learning 8

2.2.2 Teaching grammar as product 9

2.2.3 Teaching grammar as process 9

2.3 Grammar and methods of language teaching 12

2.3.1 Grammar-Translation Method 12

2.3.1.1 Characteristics of Grammar-Translation Method 12

2.3.1.2 Advantages of Grammar-Translation Method 13

2.3.1.3 Drawbacks of Grammar-Translation Method 14

2.3.2 Task-based approach to grammar teaching 14

2.3.2.1 Definition of "Task" and types of tasks in language teaching and learning 15

2.3.2.2 Definitions and features of task-based teaching approach 16

grammar teaching 19

2.3.2.5 Advantages of task-based approach 21

2.3.2.6 Possible constraints of task-based approach 22

2.4 Conclusion 23

Chapter 3: Research methodology 24

3.1 Methodology 24

3.1.1 Subjects 24

3.1.2 Variables and constants 24

3.2 Research instruments 24

3.3 Data collection 25

3.4 Achievement Tests 25

3.4.1 Pre-test 25

3.4.2 Post-test 25

3.4.3 Other data source 26

3.5 Hypotheses testing instrument 26

Chapter 4: Data analysis and discussions 27

4.1 Pre-test results 27

4.1.1 Descriptive group statistics of the pre-test result 27

4.1.2 Independent samples T-test of the pre-test result 28

4.2 Post-test results 29

4.2.1 Analysis of overall mean performance 29

4.2.2 Descriptive group statistics of the post-test result 30

4.2.3 Independent samples T-test of the post-test result 31

4.3 Hypothesis testing 31

4.4 Classroom observation report 32

Chapter 5: summary, conclusion and Recommendations 39

5.1 Summary of the findings 39

5.2 Conclusions 40

5.3 Recommendations 41

5.4 Limitations of the study 42

5.5 Suggestions for further study 42

References 43

Appendix II: Pre-test XI Appendix III: Post-test XIV Appendix IV: Raw data of the study group and the control group on the pre-test and post-test results XVIII

List of tables

Table 1: Willis's model for task-based instruction 18

Table 2: Descriptive Group Statistics of the Pre-test 27

Table 3: Independent Samples T-test of the Pre-test 28

Table 4: Descriptive Group Statistics of the Post-test 30

Table 5: Independent Samples T-test of the Post-test 31

List of graphs Graph 1: Frequency distribution of scores of the Control class 29

Graph 2: Frequency distribution of scores of the Study class 29

List of Abbreviations

CLT : Communicative Language Teaching

EFL : English as a Foreign Language

GTM : Grammar-Translation Method

L2 : Second Language

SL : Second Language

TBA : Task-based Approach

TBI : Task-based Instruction

Chapter 1: Introduction

One of the most important elements necessary to acquire a language is grammar Not only in terms of the first language, but also of the second language, grammar is of primary importance for speakers to convey their messages Vietnamese students start to study English at school, mainly focuses on learning grammar The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) has been widely employed in Vietnam The GTM focuses on, in particular, the memorization of grammatical features, vocabulary and direct translations of text into the mother tongue Yet, since the 1970s, the orthodoxy in pedagogies of English education and research in applied linguistics has shifted away from the GTM toward Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), because the method no longer fit the demands of learners to use language as a tool of communication (Howatt, 1984) Littlewood (1981: 1) states his

views of the communicative language teaching approach, "One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language, combining these into a more fully communicative view."

With the application of the GTM in teaching grammar, students learn only the formal properties of the language (verb conjugation, rules of syntax, vocabulary lists), but they cannot exchange information, express their ideas or feelings, or construct and control problem solving Therefore, the Task-Based Approach (TBA) is a suitable approach to teach English to Vietnamese students today because task-based teaching is an important way of CLT Although the TBA is still new to teachers and students in Vietnam, it is a really effective way to improve students' communicative abilities However, the reality is that there is a long-standing tradition in Vietnam for teachers to teach English using the GTM This method has been widely used in almost all Vietnamese schools With an urgent need for English in communication, the suitable approach should be the TBA

This chapter presents the rationale, the hypotheses, the purpose of this study, the importance of the study, definition of terminology, the setting and background, and the

design of the study

1.1 Rationale

Grammar teaching has played an important role in language learning and acquisition No-grammar teaching will lead to the product of clumsy and inappropriate

foreign languages It is a fact that grammar teaching is essential for language teaching According to Wood (1995), "nobody can doubt that a good knowledge of the grammatical system is essential to master a foreign language and it is also one of the most important parts of communicative competence."; therefore, we can see that grammar is a framework without which language cannot be structured and a message cannot be conveyed smoothly and fluently However, grammar teaching is still one of the most controversial and least understood aspects of foreign language teaching although it has been a central aspect of foreign language teaching

In Vietnam, the teaching of grammar is an area of controversy and debate In the

grammar teaching classroom, some teachers pay excessive attention to the importance of teaching rules and grammatical structures However, there are not many grammar rules that can be clearly formulated and easily taught or learned Some rules are easy to formulate

and some are relatively difficult Others are too abstract to be described and cannot be applied mechanically These rules are not always governed by the immediate, linguistic environment and thus are difficult to practice in simple contexts So, the students gradually become uninterested in learning English They negatively accept, process and store the grammar knowledge They are successful in mastering only a set of structure forms which are useless in improving their integrative communicative competence Some other teachers excessively pursue the communication functions, emphasize the notional-function, and totally reject grammar instruction As a result, students are successful but grammatically inaccurate communicators It is not surprising that a Vietnamese student cannot express himself fluently and accurately after spending more than ten years in learning English

The reason I choose this topic is related to my personal profession From my observation and professional experience as an upper secondary school teacher of English, I have realized that different teachers have different attitudes and approaches to grammar in the classroom Although the design of English textbook is task-based, many teachers of English apply the traditional method to teach grammar There are teachers who view grammar teaching as unnecessary while the others who are obsessed by it I am always haunted by the question which method to deal with grammar more effectively in the secondary school classroom For several years, I have pursued the answer to this question

It is my belief that the answer would be of great help to myself as well as to my colleagues

I plan to conduct an experimental study so as to check whether or not teaching grammar

through task-based approach is effective Accordingly the following hypotheses are formulated

1.2 Hypotheses

1.2.1 The Null Hypothesis (Ho)

There will not be significant difference between the effectiveness of translation method of grammar teaching and the effectiveness of grammar teaching through task-based approach

grammar-1.2.2 The Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

There will be significant difference between the effectiveness of translation method of grammar teaching and the effectiveness of grammar teaching through task-based approach

grammar-1.3 Purpose of the Study

This experimental study is to check whether or not teaching grammar through based approach is more effective and functional than grammar-translation method that is still being used as the dominant method of grammar teaching in many Vietnamese high schools

task-1.4 Importance of the Study

This study is important in that:

• It provides the opportunity for English language teachers to look back and evaluate the effectiveness of the methods and techniques they employ for grammar teaching, and to compare with the integrated approach of grammar teaching

• It serves as a threshold on which other researchers can conduct studies in a similar area with a greater magnitude for reliable and comprehensive research finding

• It may be used as an instance for the concerned bodies to deal with the prevailing problems in connection with the method that teachers employ in the teaching of grammar, and strive for a possible solution

1.5 The setting and background

Chau Phong upper secondary school is located in Phuc Yen Town, Vinh Phuc Province English learning is very popular for everybody here because there are some colleges and a university nearby Therefore, students in the town are motivated to learn

English To be more exact, their purpose to learn English is to have opportunities in order

to enter colleges or universities All teachers of English of Chau Phong upper secondary school graduated from The College of Foreign Languages, Vietnam National University (CFL-VNU) or Hanoi University They all have good qualifications Besides, they are very enthusiastic in their teaching

English is taught as a curriculum subject It is compulsory and students have to pass the national examination by the end of grade 12 Both the textbooks and syllabuses for English are prescribed by the Ministry of Education and Training, and students have four 45-minute lessons of English a week Most students are at pre-intermediate level of English, and some students are still at elementary level

1.6 Definition of terminology

The terms which are commonly used in this thesis are grammar teaching, grammar instruction, grammar-translation method, and task-based approach Although there may

be some connotational meaning between grammar teaching and grammar instruction,

grammar instruction is more preferred in the literature In this thesis, I use both

interchangeably The approach means the theory about nature of grammar and how

grammar should be taught accordingly

1.7 Design of the study

The thesis contains five chapters

Chapter One, the introduction, provides an overview of the study with specific reference to the rationale, the purpose, the hypotheses, the importance of the study, the setting and background of the study, and the design of the study

Chapter Two is aimed at exploring the theoretical background for the thesis The chapter will focus on three main points: the role of grammar, grammar teaching as product

or as process, and grammar teaching method (grammar-translation method and task-based approach)

In Chapter Three, the methodology underlying the research is presented This chapter presents the background information of the subjects of the study, the instruments used to collect the data, and the procedure for data collection

Chapter Four is devoted to a detailed description of data analysis and a thorough

discussion of the findings of the study In this chapter, some explanations and interpretations of the findings are explored

In Chapter Five, the conclusion of the thesis, presents the summary of the findings and some pedagogical suggestions, which are proposed for the teachers teaching grammar

in the upper secondary school Those suggestions are related to teaching techniques and grammar tasks that are relevant and applicable to the teaching of grammar for the upper secondary school students The limitations of the study and some recommendations for further research are also discussed in that chapter

The References are the last part of the study, following the Appendices

Chapter 2: Literature review

2.1 The role of grammar in English language teaching

With the rise of communicative methodology in the late 1970s, the role of grammar instruction in language learning was downplayed, and it was even suggested that teaching grammar was not only unhelpful but it might actually be detrimental However, recent research has demonstrated the need for formal instruction for learners to attain high levels

of accuracy This has led to resurgence of grammar teaching, and its role in language acquisition has become the focus of much current investigation

Continuing in the tradition of more than 2000 years of debate regarding whether grammar should be a primary focus of language instruction, should be eliminated entirely,

or should be subordinated to meaning-focused use of the target language, the need for grammar instruction is once again attracting the attention of language acquisition researchers and teachers Below will be a brief review of arguments against and in support

of grammar teaching before examining the approaches to grammar instruction

2.1.1 Arguments against Grammar Teaching

Much grammar research over the past few decades has concentrated on determining whether grammar should be taught at all This focus has been motivated in part by debates

in the field of cognitive psychology over the role of explicit versus implicit language learning and whether such learning occurs through conscious manipulation of information

or primarily through unconscious processes when people are exposed to language input (N.Ellis, 1994; Reber, 1967) Theoretically, the debate was represented by Krashen's (1981) distinction between conscious learning and unconscious acquisition of language It was claimed that language should be acquired through natural exposure, not learned through formal instruction It was therefore believed that formal grammar lessons would develop only declarative knowledge of grammar structures, not the procedural ability to use forms correctly, and that there was no interface between these two types of knowledge since they exist as different systems in the brain (R Ellis, 2001, 2002a)

2.1.2 Research Supporting Grammar Teaching

In recent years, some researchers hold new perspectives towards grammar instruction They have argued, theoretically and empirically, that "grammar teaching does aid L2 acquisition" (Ellis, 1992) As early as in 1988, Long thinks that formal grammar

teaching helps learners to acquire L2 more rapidly and get higher achievement (cited in Ellis, 1999a) Celce-Murcia also concludes that "some focus on form may well be necessary for many learners to achieve accuracy as well as fluency while grammarless approach can lead to the development of a broken, ungrammatical pidginized form of the target language beyond which students rarely progress" (1991) Nassaji & Fotos (2004) summarized four reasons:

(1) Some researchers, such as Schmidt (1990), proved that "noticing" is one of the necessities in language learning, compared with the theory that language is not learned consciously, but acquire unconsciously

(2) Some researchers, such as Pienemann (1984), have found that though the sequence of acquisition in grammar cannot be changed, grammar instruction can accelerate the process of learning some structures

(3) Due to the fact that communicative language teaching has not produced ideal outcomes in its practice, which lays emphasis on the meaningful communication whereas ignores the structural forms of language completely, Swain (1985) and his colleagues concluded that the most effective way to improve the ability of using grammar accurately

is to use formal instruction after they did the research on "immersion programme" to some English learners, and found that though they had been exposed to considerable corpus, they still could not use some structural forms correctly

(4) During the last 20 years, considerable empirical classroom teaching research has demonstrated that classroom grammar instruction has great effect on second language acquisition For example, Doughty (1991), in her empirical study of SL relativization, illustrated that "second language instruction does make a difference."

Thus, based on the up to date research, Ellis concludes that though it does not enable learners to change the natural order of acquisition, grammar instruction has an effect in helping learners to make more rapid progress along it, and has lasting effect when

it is indeed effective on learners (2002)

2.2 Grammar teaching as product or as process

According to Rod Bastone (1994), grammar is multi-dimensional: grammar is a formal mechanism, a functional system from signaling meanings, or a dynamic resource which both users and learners call on in different ways at different times

The teaching of grammar has been the focus of language teachers and learners for many years The main goal of grammar teaching is to enable learners to achieve linguistic competence; learners use grammar as a tool or resource for comprehension, and creation of oral and written discourse efficiently, effectively, and appropriately depending on the situation There are many approaches of grammar teaching A major argument is to teach grammar as product or as process

Teaching grammar as product can help to give learners a clear and explicit framework about the language; learners notice and structure the language But teaching grammar may not help the learner to use the language

Process teaching emphasizes the use of language by the learner It aims at developing the skills and strategies and constructing tasks for learners to use to communicate more effectively in the real discourse process The significance of process teaching is that it helps the learner to proceduralize the language and realize the stage of

automaticity of the language

2.2.1 The process of language learning

There are several stages in the learning process: noticing and re-noticing, structuring and automatizing In the first stage of noticing and structuring, learners notice the form of the language and sort out the rules of how the language is structured through

plenty of input Then they may begin to sort out how grammatical forms relate their associated meanings through renoticing and restructuring Learners may begin to structure for themselves the complexities and irregularities of the language systems Learners then

can build up a good knowledge about grammar and get familiar with the ready-to-use knowledge called proceduralized knowledge, which encourages them to use the language Gradually the language will be accessed more or less automatically and the language learners will be able to deploy the language without any specific attention (this stage called automaticity) This process can be roughly shown in the following diagram:

Grammar Product Process

(knowing) (using) Noticing structuring renoticing restructuring Automatizing

The process of language learning

At the beginning of the learning process, learners focus on the component parts of the language system (i.e grammar as product); the later stage of the learning process, grammar is regarded as an essential element in the process of the language use (i.e not only knowing but also using grammar)

2.2.2 Teaching Grammar as Product

Traditionally, the language classroom was a place where learners received systematic instruction in the grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation of the language The learners were provided with instruction in the grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation of

the language, and were provided with opportunities for practicing the new features of the

language as these were introduced Teaching grammar as product, as its name implies, takes a product perspective on grammar, which means that the emphasis of teaching is on particular grammatical forms and their associated meanings In this approach, particular grammatical forms have been targeted by syllabus designers and grammar teaching is always focusing on these pre-selected grammatical forms Grammar, therefore, includes many forms of linguistic knowledge: the sound system (phonology), the system of meaning (semantics), and the vocabulary of words (lexicon) In addition, there are always connections between forms and meanings

When grammar is taught as product, the learners are given a more abstract idea about the language Product teaching promotes two key stages in the learning process: noticing and restructuring Noticing is the conscious, reportable detection of elements of the input to which the learner is exposed It involves selective attention to linguistic information and potentially creates opportunities for the development of form/function relationship within the learner Learners have to act on what they have noticed and put it

into their working hypothesis about how grammar is structured Restructuring is the process of amending mental hypotheses about how language is structured (Bastone, 2002:76) Noticing and structuring, when they occur, are rapid and immediately available

to sustain improved performance in the language

2.2.3 Teaching Grammar as Process

Unlike product teaching, teaching grammar as process aims at helping learners employ grammar effectively in their own language use; learners are given the opportunity

to be creative with the language and therefore to develop fluency or automaticity

Teaching grammar as process emphasizes language use and helps learners reorganize their knowledge of language Therefore, only the knowledge of language grammatical system is far from enough for us to communicate We need more than that Teaching grammar as process is needed It engages learners directly in the procedures of language use in discourse process so that they can achieve the process of self-discovery by means of consciousness-raising and the self-expression of language use

In the real on-going process of discourse, learners use the language under great pressure of not only the knowledge of the language system (systematic knowledge), but also the knowledge of the world (schematic knowledge) Somehow, the learner has to mentally organize language into a "user-friendly mode" (Bastone, 1994), so that he/she can manage this complex of skills and reach a point where language can be deployed without the need for too much careful attention, engaging what is known as "automatic processing" Fluency and automaticity are two main focuses of language teaching and learning For Brumfit (1984: 56), fluency is to be regarded as natural language use, whether or not it results in native-speaker-like language comprehension or production Automaticity is a stage in which learners can use the language effectively and with a focus

on meaning Process teaching aims at helping learners to reach the stage of automaticity by engaging them in language use, so that they may formulate their own ongoing resource (Bastone, 1994) Learners can proceduralize their knowledge, learning to deploy grammar, while for the most part, concentrating their attention on meaning

In process teaching, the most popular approach language teachers employed may be the task-based approach Task here means a goal-oriented activity with a clear purpose Tasks should involve communicative language use in which the learner's attention is focused on meaning rather than linguistic structure Nunan (1989:10) defines the communicative task as "a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form" Nunan also suggests that tasks will contain some form of input data, which might be verbal or non-verbal, and an

activity, which in some way, is derived from the input The tasks will also have (implicitly

or explicitly) a goal and roles for teachers and learners

Goals Teacher's role

Input TASKS Learners' role

Activities Settings

A framework for analyzing communicative tasks

(Adopted from Nunan, 1989:11)

By using tasks in process teaching, learners are put in a meaning-focused context and are given a chance to elaborate their grammar, so they may achieve the self-discovery

as discourse participants

There is certainly a gap between product teaching which is very teacher-centered and process teaching which is highly learner-centered In existing understandings of language learners in different cultures and contexts, Vietnamese learners are often typically viewed as less active, even "passive" and that most language teachers employ the more traditional approach -teaching grammar as product We have to admit that it is not an easy task to adopt a process approach completely without reading with the cultural differences The following are some factors that language teachers may need to consider when using process approaches to teach grammar in Vietnam's context

(1) The roles of teachers and learners

In process teaching, learners are required to adopt a range of roles which are relative uncommon to traditional instruction They are required to be adaptable, creative, inventive and most of all, independent Teachers only have partial control to the learners' activities, which means that learners have to take risks in the language use

(2) Large size of the class

The number of students in one class in Vietnam is relatively large Thus, it is more challenging to develop individual ability of language use, and it is quite difficult for teachers to ask students to complete tasks in big groups in limited time and space

(3) Limited awareness of task-based approach

Up to now, teaching grammar as product is still the most popular approach in Vietnam Process teaching is still at an experimental stage A large number of language teachers and learners do not have a clear idea of what task-based approach is and how it is deployed in a language class The teachers still apply the traditional method in their

classrooms However, this method is not very effective in a language class Therefore, understanding task-based approach as well as process teaching is an essential stage to improve the process of language teaching and learning

Product teaching has been integrated deeply in people's mind and in the real social discourse At the same time the significance of process teaching has been recognized in the field But language teaching is not just a matter of product teaching or process teaching Product teaching has its own place Without the basic knowledge of language system, process teaching would face greater difficulties and challenges But knowing the language does not mean using the language So these two approaches can work together in the process of language teaching and learning

Task-based approach may be a good choice for teaching grammar as process because it combines language the real-life communication and aims at helping learners to develop their spontaneous language use But not all tasks work well in all contexts They may need to be changed differently Cultural differences in classroom like the roles of teachers and learners, the size of the class and the concepts towards product and process teaching require task-based approach to be more flexible and more practical

Because the teaching of grammar is multi-dimensional (Bastone, 1994), we should look at language teaching from different perspectives and adopt a flexible teaching method

2.3 Grammar and Methods of Language Teaching

2.3.1 Grammar-translation method

The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) was the dominant foreign language teaching method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and a version of it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world, even today The GTM method, broadly speaking, sees foreign language study as a mental discipline, the goal of which may be to read literature in its original form or simply to be a form of intellectual development The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammar rules of the language, and then to practice manipulating grammatical structures through the means of translation both into and from the mother tongue

2.3.1.1 Characteristics of Grammar-Translation Method

As Brown (1994) commented, in the GTM, 'languages are not being taught primarily to learn oral/aural communication but to learn for sake of being "scholarly" Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979) listed the major characteristics of the GTM as follows:

1- classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language

2- much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words

3- long elaborate explanation of the intricacies of grammar are given

4- grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words

5- reading of difficult classical texts is begun early

6- little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in

7- often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the

target language into the mother tongue

8- little or no attention is given to pronunciation

Exercises of a class using the grammar-translation method are:

• Translation of a literacy passage: Students translate a reading passage from the

target language into their native language

• Reading comprehension questions: Students answer questions in the target language

based on their understanding of the reading passage

• Antonym/ Synonym: Students are given one set of words and are asked to find

antonyms in the reading passage

• Fill-in-the-blanks: Students are given a series of sentences with words missing

• Deductive application of rule: Grammar rules are presented with examples Once

students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different examples

The GTM has a long history, so its advantages and disadvantages have been

demonstrated during the teaching processes

2.3.1.2 Advantages of Grammar-Translation Method

The following are advantages of the GTM

First, the GTM is good for language learners to recognize some features of two languages, and some of the learners study the target language very well by this method

That's because, the GTM emphasizes the importance of vocabulary and grammar learning

For example, the students generally show their interest in language structures and linguistic

details when they are learning a language Therefore, in teaching English to students, appropriate grammar analysis is essential especially for beginners

Second, the GTM is good for language learners to cultivate their abilities to study

independently Because the focus of the GTM is on reading, the learner's reading abilities

can be improved greatly

Third, due to the features of the GTM, teacher's English ability is not very high Grammar is taught with extensive explanations with the native language, and only much later, the production of sentences are through translation from one language to the other, and it is good for students to understand the content of the text

Besides advantages, the GTM also has some drawbacks

2.3.1.3 Drawbacks of Grammar-translation method

Obviously, there are many drawbacks of the GTM Virtually no class time is allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences, and even less time is spent on oral practice (whether productive or reproductive) Students may have difficulties

"relating" to the language, because the classroom experience keeps them from demonstrating and developing their own potentials In addition, culture is communicated through means of reading passages, but there is little direct confrontation with foreign elements This method gives students the false idea of what language is and of the relationship between languages Language is seen as a collection of words which are isolated and independent and there must be a corresponding word in the native tongue for each foreign word he learns What the biggest defeat of the GTM is that learners are not enthusiastic about studying target language, because learners feel dull when they just learn grammar It seems there is no need for students to master the four skills of English (listening, speaking, reading and writing) The GTM is the easiest for a teacher to employ

It does not require a teacher to speak good English

2.3.2 Task-based approach to grammar teaching

Task-based approach is a dynamic and developing learning method It advocates learning language knowledge and training skills in the process of completing tasks Teachers are no longer just instructors but also guides, nor are learners just receivers but also principal agents Through this approach, learners will learn how to make full sense of their own communicative abilities to transfer from mother language to the target language

It provides an opportunity for them to learn together and mobilizes their potential abilities

to use and handle the target language skilfully

Since the 1980s, task-based approach has attracted more and more attention in the foreign language teaching field It is a learner-centered approach, which considers language as a communicative tool It is in accordance with the direction of English teaching reform in Vietnam Task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for

learners to learn language both in speaking and writing through learning activities which

are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language

for meaningful purpose

2.3.2.1 Definition of "Task" and types of tasks in language teaching and learning

Definition of "Task"

The meaning of "Task" has been given in various ways

Long (1985: 89) defines "task" as a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward In other words, by "task" it is meant for hundreds of things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between

Nunan (1989: 10) defines "task" as a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, producing and interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form

Willis, J (1996: 53) gives the meaning of "task" as goal-oriented activity in which learners use language to achieve a real outcome

Skehan (1989: 95) lists characteristics of "task" as: 1) meaning is primary; 2) there

is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities; 3) task completion has some priority; 4) the assessment of tasks is in terms of outcome

Many definitions can be summarized from the above review "Tasks" are a series of correlative and purposeful activities in which learners perform when learning a language, absorbing information, solving problems, and achieving goals with the target language as they do in the real world "Task" is an essential part of the whole course that leads to influence in speaking the target language It is also the process in which learners solve simulative or real-world problems with the target language It can help learners acquire language knowledge and develop their comprehensive abilities in solving problems

Types of tasks

There are numerous types of tasks However, they are, in general, are characterized

as two main typologies: pedagogical tasks and target tasks Pedagogical tasks include any

of a series of techniques designed ultimately to teach students to perform the target task

Target tasks are much more specific and more explicit related to classroom instruction In nature, tasks are categorized as one-way/two-way tasks, planned/unplanned tasks, close/open tasks, and convergent/divergent tasks For development of the practical work in this study, the definitions of these tasks suggested by Long (1989) should be taken into consideration:

• One-way tasks refers to ones in which one person describes the information which

only he or she can see so that others can get it For example; describe one's own

process of interviewing a number of people on their daily life

• Two-way tasks are the ones in which each member of a group has exclusive

access to information about the final result of a problem-solving activity An example could involve giving one person a version of a picture, giving another version of the same picture to their partner, and asking them to identify the differences between the two pictures

• Planned tasks are the ones that are prepared and planned in advance to access

their effects on written or oral work For example: planning the words, phrases and ideas before carrying out an interview

• Unplanned tasks: the ones that are not prepared and planned in advance before

accessing their effects on written or oral work For example: students are asked to have informal face-to-face conversations

• Convergent tasks include problem-solving through social interaction, decision

making, arrangement making and information organizing through conversation or correspondence

• Divergent tasks include topic discussions through the exchange of information,

ideas, opinions, attitudes, feelings, experiences and plans

2.3.2.2 Definitions and features of task-based teaching approach

Task-based teaching approach, which was put forward in the 1980s, derives its idea from the process syllabus It can be regarded as one particular approach to implement the broader "communicative approach" It is a teaching method that puts tasks at the center of the methodological focus It considers the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals The aim of task-based learning is to make

language classroom approximate to the target language environment, develop students ability to communicate, and communication takes place through using the grammatical system

Nunan (1999) defines task-based language teaching as follows, "Task-based language teaching is an approach to the design of language course in which the point of departure is not an ordered list of linguistic items, but a collection of tasks" Tasks provide the basis for an entire language curriculum Task-based language teaching provides learners with opportunities to experiment with and explore both spoken and written

language through tasks designed to engage learners in authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purpose

About the features of task-based language teaching, Nunan (1991) gives a summary

as follows:

(1) An emphasis on learning to communicative through interaction in the target language;

(2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation;

(3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the learning process itself;

(4) An enhancement of the learners' own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning;

(5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom

2.3.2.3 The implementation of task-based approach

Brown (1994) referred to task-based approach as a series of tasks which directly serve and connect with teaching purpose transcending merely practicing language for language It is the core of task-based approach to complete a real and meaningful task through the common effort of both teachers and learners (Willis, 1996) Therefore, learners learn the language skills naturally rather than take language as fragments and practice some language components mechanically The common essence of TBA and communicative approach is that they both give top priority to fostering learners' communicative ability in the target language

Traditional foreign language teaching approaches in Vietnam place too much emphasis on instruction and pay too much attention to explaining language forms All the practices focus on grammar teaching and seldom give consideration to authenticity and communicative function of language While in task-based approach, an independent teaching unit consists of only one task; all the classroom activities center on the task and

serve the task

As a teaching approach, it is not persuasive when it only stops at the theoretical level; the key issue is the way teachers put it into practice So far, the research of practicing task-based approach has been best represented by Skehan (1998) and Willis (1996) who both agreed on the key issue and fully suggest the idea of using task-based approach in

teaching Willis's framework will be taken as an example to talk about the teaching pattern

Task Cycle

Task Planning Report

Practice

Table 1: Willis's model for task-based instruction (Willis, 1996:52)

1- Pre- task: Topics and tasks are introduced in the pre-task stage Teachers introduce

tasks to learners They present necessary knowledge, explain the requirements and procedures of the task in detail and help learners familiarize with the topic, vocabulary and expressions In this stage, teachers should take the individual differences among learners into account

2- Task cycle: Task cycle can be divided into three parts: task, planning and report

i) Task In this part, learners are given plenty of chances to express their ideas in the

target language The fluency of language is emphasized Learners implement tasks

in pairs or groups Teachers supervise the process without interrupting their speech and correcting their errors so that the learners feel safe to express themselves freely Teachers should help learners gain confidence in language learning Emphasis lays

on communication not accuracy of language

ii) Planning This part is preparation for report Each group is getting ready to show

classmates their process and achievements of the task Since learners have to report publicly, emphasis of language naturally transfers from fluency to accuracy In this part, teachers should give suggestions and correct grammar

iii) Report Several learners report to the class while other learners should listen

carefully and compare those reports In this way, all the learners are involved Besides, teachers should be commentators to assess the implementation of tasks

3- Language focus Learning by doing motivates learners to fulfill their potential Learners

master the language by using it communicatively in the classroom, and they still have to

learn grammar and memorize vocabulary Teachers lead learners' attention to language forms Some exercises are necessary to consolidate the learnt knowledge and improve their sensitivity to language form It is divided into two parts

i) Analysis The purpose in this part is to help learners explore the usage of

language, become aware of syntax, phrase arrangements and vocabulary, etc., and help them to systemize the language features they observed in learning process, so

as to discover new language knowledge

ii) Practice It is necessary for learners to do some exercises under the guide of

teachers This part makes the whole teaching procedure be accepted by learners more easily It also functions as a conclusion of the whole teaching procedure

2.3.2.4 Integration of the task-based teaching approach into grammar teaching

* Teaching activities

At present, most teachers adopt the traditional teaching method in the grammar class They spend a lot of time explaining the grammar points, analyzing long and boring sentences and expounding less useful but difficult words This method focuses on form, and the process of presentation, practice and production is deadly dull, full of drills and drudgery It is so boring that it cannot arouse students' interest, so it is not an effective way

to teaching grammar

Task-based language teaching approach can be viewed as within the framework of communicative teaching and the study of task-based language teaching stems largely from communicative language teaching (Nunan, 1989) It puts tasks at the center of the methodological focus It considers the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals It emphasizes the development of students' communicative ability and communication takes place through using the grammatical system of the language It combines the teaching of language forms with teaching of language skills Therefore, it has significance or is effective in grammar teaching

In order to confirm whether the task-based teaching approach is useful in grammar teaching, I will make an experiment based on Willis' model of task-based teaching

approach- the pre-task phase, the task cycle and the post-task phase In the following part, subjunctive mood will be taken as an example to illustrate the design of the classroom activities

i) Pre- task

The teacher asks students to talk about what they would do if they had a lot of money At first, the teacher gives students some examples on the blackboard, such as:

e.g If I had a lot of money, I would buy my parents a beautiful house

If I had a lot of money, I would travel with my parents around the world

ii) Task- cycle

Then the teacher asks students to talk about the topic freely The students work in pairs to talk their own wishes or plans using the structure presented on the blackboard They can talk about any wish with their imagination In this process, the teacher walks around the classroom as the language resource or monitor to give students help or suggestions and offers them encouragement

After discussion, the teacher asks students to prepare a short written report to tell

the whole class what their wishes are Then some of the students are invited to the blackboard to write down their wishes

iii) Post- task

Check the sentences written on the blackboard to make sure that students understand the meaning Illustrate the rules of the subjunctive mood by applying the examples to make students identify the features of subjunctive mood

After that the teacher asks students to do some exercises which relate to the grammar point of subjunctive mood In addition, before the end of the class, the teacher

gives students an assignment, asking them to make a survey about their family members'

wishes and report to the whole class next time

* The advantages of the teaching activities

Compared with the traditional grammar classroom, the teaching activities designed according to the theory of task-based approach could arouse students' interest in the group work During the whole process, students felt excited As a result, they could remember the grammar more clearly and easily, and grammar was no longer difficult and boring Group work made the tasks more interesting and much easier The application of tasks enabled students to create more ideas and they could express their opinions freely on the topics Moreover, it provided them with opportunities and language environment to speak English

They had more chances to practice their speaking and their communicative ability could be virtually improved Through finishing task-based activities, students could get much meaningful language input and what they had learnt in the classroom could help them solve the problems in real life

2.3.2.5 Advantages of task-based approach

According to Bowen (2000), the main advantages of the TBA are that language is used for genuine purpose, meaning that communication should take place and that when preparing the report for the class, students should consider language form in general than concentration on a single form (as in the GTM) The aim is to integrate all four skills and

to move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency

In comparison with traditional teaching methods, task-based approach can give learners better initiative and make them more active in class In traditional English teaching process, the contents and outcomes of teaching are completely controlled by teachers There is no real language environment and meaningful communication Learners can just passively learn some isolated grammar rules or expressions and cannot use the target language to communicate and express their feelings and thoughts freely On the contrary, in the TBA, teachers design some familiar activities in everyday life to create real

or relatively real language environment to stimulate learners' interests and teach them how

to communicate in certain situations The TBA is an effective approach, the tasks of which can improve the structure of classroom teaching, urge learners to learn and to use English

in activities and help learners get together to cooperate and experience the success and joy

in English learning Its advantages are as follows:

• Task-based approach shortens the distance between teaching contents and everyday life The ultimate goal of language teaching is to make learners fulfill the communicative purposes in the target language in everyday life Traditional English teaching seldom involves itself in daily practice in the real society Thus learners are trained to be "dumb" English learners, who have been learning English for years but cannot communicate in everyday life The TBA is exactly designed for this ultimate goal It emphasizes the combination of language learning in class and activities out of class so as

to improve learners' communicative abilities in the target language

• Task-based approach also pays considerable attention to the learning process In the process of communicating in English to complete learning tasks, learners focus on their interaction and cooperation In order to complete tasks, they are inspired to apply and share

their existing experience together Meanwhile, it transfers the teacher-centered teaching mode to a mode which emphasizes the input of language skills and productions of language learning

2.3.2.6 Possible constraints of task-based approach

Implementing the task-based approach in Vietnam's EFL classrooms may encounter some constraints The crucial ones are: (1) greater burden on the teachers and

their expertise; (2) students' expectation of learning; (3) students' learning habits and learning styles; and (4) the assessment system Implementing the task-based approach in EFL classrooms inevitably creates more work and challenges for the teachers To implement the approach successfully, the teachers need to understand the rationale behind the approach thoroughly Their work will be more demanding than in the traditional approach since they need expertise in "selecting and sequencing tasks, setting up optimum conditions for learning, recognizing quality learning opportunities and judging when and how to intervene and when to move learners to the next phase'' (Willis, 1996) They also

have to prepare to respond appropriately to learner's divergent language needs Not being

native speakers of the target language means that they have to prepare more than their native English speaking counterparts do In addition, they have to change their beliefs about language learning and their roles They have to unlearn their beliefs that all students should learn the same grammar or language features, and use them in their productions at the end of each lesson They have to lessen their control over students and "stand back, have faith and let learners get on with their own learning" (Willis, 1996: 61) Though the

burden and challenges seem overwhelming, it will be rewarding as the teachers will find

their teaching more interesting and satisfying

Students, like teachers, come to class with some expectations about language learning Since EFL students are not used to being active in English classes, and lack experiences using the target language for real communication, the task-based approach that encourages them to be active, to think by themselves how to communicate, experiment and take risks may depress them It is suggested that to overcome this constraint the teachers

need to provide a clear explanation to make the students understand the principles behind the task-based approach, the purpose of each activity in the teaching and learning process, and how the approach will benefit them "Once learners are used to a task- based approach and become aware of the learning opportunities it offers, they develop both as learners and language users, achieving greater fluency and confidence" (Willis, 1996: 60) Both the

teachers and the students also need to adapt to a new assessment system The present assessment system for Vietnamese EFL students usually has not gone beyond paper-pencil tests that assess only linguistic competence, and assess each language skill separately Ordinarily, a test consists of two parts, reading and writing that have no relationship to each other The speaking and listening are rarely evaluated due to impracticability The task-based approach will require a performance test and all the four language skills will be evaluated It will take time to change the assessment to accommodate task-based teaching approach

2.4 Conclusion

Many instructional methods are available in second language teaching and each of them has its own strengths and weaknesses In Vietnam, teachers have been using receptive methods These methods are teacher-centered, and stress on language grammar and vocabulary, as main objectives of learning a language should not be that of just learning the rules and vocabulary The task-based approach, which is not widely used in all levels of English teaching in Vietnam, especially in junior and senior high schools, overcomes the above-mentioned weakness Although the TBA is still new to current foreign language teaching in Vietnam, teachers need to think about how to integrate this approach into teaching grammar at upper secondary schools

This chapter has presented the issues realating to grammar teaching in terms of its definitions, and the distinctions between the GTM and the TBA This chapter has reviewed some theoretical issues of grammar teaching methods The focus of the chapter is on the

TBA with particular reference to the definitions of tasks within the task-based instruction (TBI) the characteristics as well as the framework of the TBA These issues are considered

as the baseline theory for the implementation of a task-based approach in this project

Chapter 3: Research methodology

This chapter presents the research methodology which is chosen for the achievement of the aims and objectives of the study and the data collection procedures

3.1.1 Subjects

The participants in this research were sixty 11th students They included 25 girls and 35 boys at the age of 16 They were randomly selected from 160 students studying at Chau Phong Upper Secondary School 30 students of group A formed the study group and the remaining 30 students of the other selected section formed the control group These two groups are taught by Vietnamese teachers of English

Sample students' age level and their first language were also taken as the other criteria of the sample selection As a result, it was checked that selected sample subjects

were at the age of 16 Their first language is Vietnamese

3.1.2 Variables and constants

The variables of the study were the two grammar teaching approaches employed to teach both the study and control group These are the TBA and the GTM

The constants, which were the intersection area of the two groups, were students' age level, their first language, instruction time, teachers' qualification and students' previous (before the treatment) knowledge of the target language (pretest result)

3.2 Research instruments

In order to equate the control and the experimental groups, a teacher conducted test (Appendix-II) was administered before the allocation of students to the experimental and the control groups Immediately after the treatment was over, a teacher conducted

pre-post-test (Appendix-III) was administered to the subjects of both the experimental and the control groups The purpose of this test was to measure the achievement of the students constituting the sample

3.3 Data collection

Two achievement tests were used as the major source for the quantitative data needed for the study In addition to the tests, the teacher kept record of classroom observation throughout the experimental phase The observation was made on students' activities, problems and challenges that the teacher faced while conducting the lessons through integrated grammar teaching approach

During the experiment two different treatment patterns were applied The control group (11C) was provided with traditional routine situation in the classroom while the experimental group (11A) was provided with task-based approach as treatment The experiment continued for 5 weeks Soon after the treatment was over, post-test was administered to measure the achievement of the sample subjects Pre-test scores of the sample served as data to equalize the control and the experimental group, while post-test was administered to measure achievement level of the students as result of treatment

3.4 Achievement tests

The achievement tests (pre-test and post-test) having different purpose and content were designed and conducted for the study and the control groups before and after the experimental teaching

3.4.1 Pre-test

The purpose of the pre-test was to see whether there was statistically significant difference between the language performance of the study group and the control group before they went into the training To this end, an attempt was made to cover most of the grammar items included in grade 11th students' textbook All the test items were taken from what students had learnt during the academic year The test items were objective to make the marking free from the question of subjectivity The question types were: -multiple choice, matching, and dialogue completion

3.4.2 Post-test

The post-test was conducted after the 5 weeks (20 periods) consecutive training to measure the sample subjects' language performance (attainment) following the training

Accordingly, the post-test was constructed on the basis of principles of communicative testing

The test contained both objective and subjective type questions The subjective type questions were incorporated in the post-test because they are better ways of testing (production) although they are exposed to subjectivity and require competent marking To reduce the marking problems and to minimize personal bias, the marking for the post-test was carried out by another teacher who did not participate in this study The teacher was asked to take the grammaticality and meaningfulness of words, phrases and the sentences into account to award or deduct marks for each answer of the students In addition, the value of each question type was given

The post-test contained four test types Each type has its own objective Below are some points about the test types and objectives

a Comprehension questions: To test students' comprehending ability using the

knowledge of grammar they have learnt Comprehension questions were set through a reading text

b Multiple choice questions: To measure students' knowledge of grammar they

have learnt during the training Multiple choice questions focusing on correct and meaningful structure were set

c Completion questions: To measure students' ability of understanding a reading

text, completion test type was constructed, which requires students to complete inserting the correct form of the provided words

d Sentence construction: In order to see students' ability of constructing

grammatical and meaningful sentence using the list of given words and phrases, sentence construction test type was set

3.4.3 Other data source

The study group teacher was asked to keep record of his classroom observation on the students' activities during the experimental teaching

3.5 Hypotheses testing instrument

T-test was employed to check whether there exists any significant difference between the mean scores of the study and the control groups with respect to their post-test results The full preview of the T-test results is displayed and discussed in Chapter Four Furthermore, the analysis was supported by descriptive statistics