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TABLE OF CONTENT INTRODUCTION Unit 1: THE ROLE OF TREES Page 1-3 Unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION Page 4-6 Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I) Page 7-9 Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II) Page 10-12 Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION Page 13-16 Further Reading: TREES AND FORESTS Page 17-20 Unit 6: FOREST AND FLOODING Page 21-24 Further Reading: WINDBREAKS Page 25-26 Unit 7: CREATING A NEW STAND Page 27-31 Unit 8: DIFFERENT TYPE OF CUTTING Page 32-36 Unit 9: FOREST MEASUREMENTS DEFINED Page 37-39 Unit 10: FOREST HARVESTING Page 40-42 Unit 11: FOREST TREE INSECTS AND HOW TO CONTROL THEM Page 43-47 Further Reading: TREES DISEASES Page 48-53 Unit 12: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDFIRES Page 54-57 REFERENCES Page 58 Unit 1: THE ROLE OF TREES For hundreds of years people have planted trees to serve the needs of future generations for timber and tree products. In Europe and Asia forests were planted by rulers, church leaders and farmers – for the people. By planting trees they particularly and symbolically showed faith and hope for the future. Trees are fundamental to life and the processes that maintain healthy soil, and clean air and water. There is evidence which shows that in regions where the trees are cleared to less than 30% of their original surface area, other sustainable life processes begin to collapse. Rivers silt up, soils wash away, and air quality declines. James Lovelock, a renowned ecologist, claimed these breakdowns in natural systems will in turn affect other word bio-areas continent or cyclones may occur more frequently. It will be sad if these things happen before we change from consumers to producers. I/ Comprehension 1. What do people plant trees for? 2. What do European and Asian people want to show by planting trees? 3. What are fundamental roles of trees? 4. What will happen to the area when the trees are cut down? II/ Grammar ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition 1. It’ very nice you to let me use your car. Thank you very much. 2. Why are you always so impolite ………… your parents? Can’t you be nice …… … them? 3. It wasn’t very polite ………….….him to leave without saying thank you. 4. I can’t understand people who are cruel to …………. animals. 5. Why do you always get so annoyed …………… little thing? 6. We enjoyed our vacation, but we were disappointed ………….…. the hotel. 7. I was surprised ………….… the way he behaved. It was out of character. 8. These days everybody is aware ……………… the danger of smoking. 9. Mr. Davis spends a lot of time gardening. His garden is very well-kept, and he’s very proud … …… …. it. 10.Bill has been doing the same job for too long. He’s bored …… ……… it. Exercise 2: Fill in the gaps with words in the box boundary ; slopes ; verges ; sanctuary ; shelter ; indigenous pressures ; surrounding ; reptiles ; uncontaminated ; backbones 1.……… forests involved over millions of years with all the …………. of natural selection operating, so that finally what we see is a highly refined complex which is beautifully honed to survive in the ………… environment. 2. If the forest is large enough it will offer ………… to indigenous mammals, birds and ……… ………. . 3. Forest may be established in the areas such as: creeks, gullies, farm ………… , ridges and places with …………. greater than 15, and roadside …………………. . 4. Your garden is the natural forest that are the …………. and security for the whole landscape. 5. Like your food forest and structural forest, this assembly of trees and their organisms provides …………… and protection, and maintains air, water and soil in ……………. states. Exercise 3: Expressing purposes: To-Infinitive 1. A tree uses sunlight. The purpose in using it is to combine carbon dioxide with water to form carbohydrates. 2. In countries with inadequate rainfall we irrigate the land. Our object in doing this is to supply enough moisture for satisfactory plant growth. 3. We should add fertilizers or manure to the soil. Our aim in doing this is to encourage plant growth. 4. Tile drains may be laid in or on the land. The reason for this is to remove surplus water from the fields. 5. We apply inorganic materials to the soil. Our object in doing this is to increase the supply of one or more of the essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. Expressing conditions 1. Take one clause from each of the two columns below to make one sentence. Make sure your sentences make sense: If you don’t understand the trees, If a soil is badly drained, Crops are often lost If you don’t take notes, If agriculture fails, You get better crops Most trees die People get sick it can become waterlogged you will never be a good forester the world will starve if the farmer does not look after them if they don’t get enough water if they don’t eat proper food you won’t remember the lectures if the soil is fertile 2. Now say what you think would be the result if the circumstances below actually happened. Complete the sentences, giving your opinion: Example: My car/not/start If my car didn’t start ……………………. a. drought/hit/my country b. My land/flood c. Lose/my note d. My country’s population/double e. There/be/no rice/my country f. we/not/test/new plant varieties Unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION In very early pioneer days, trees were cut down with no thought of replacing them. However, the significance of trees was indicated as early as the 1620s by the Plymouth Colony, when an ordinance was passed prohibiting the felling of timber on any colony land without official consent. A little later in Pennsylvania, William Penn, the governor, ordered that, for every 5 acres of forest land cleared, 1 acre was to be left uncut. After the United States was established, laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent thoughtless waste of the forests. In the early 1800s Congress authorized the president to protect live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida and to use the Army and Navy for enforcement. During this same period the first step in forestry was taken by the government by providing for the growing of live oaks in the southern states for ship timbers. A federal act also provided for preservation of nearly 250.000 acres of forest land in Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana. According to another act passed in that decade, any person cutting down or destroying living red cedar, live oak, or other trees on federal land could be punished by the government. These laws and regulations, through which the government tried to control the forest land, helped call attention to the importance of forests and led to the development of conservation at the state level. In January 1867, the first state committee on forest protection was appointed in Michigan, and Wisconsin followed in March of that year. Two years later the State Board of Agriculture of Maine appointed a committee to develop a state policy for the preservation and production of trees. Minnesota created a law in 1871 that granted bounties to encourage the planting of forest trees. The first Arbor Day, a day in late April or early May observed by the planting of trees was celebrated the following year in Nebraska. The federal government adopted the Timber Culture Act in the early 1870s. It provided that the government would donate 160 acres of land to any person who planted 40 acres of that trees with trees not more than 12 feet apart and kept the trees growing and healthy for one decade. This act, however, was repealed after 10 years because of serious abuses; too many recipients of these grants were not honoring their commitments by failing to follow the rules and regulations pertaining to the grants. In many instances, while employing fire to prepare their land for cultivation, the settlers disregarded caution relating to neighboring land. Gross carelessness often resulted in destruction of property well. I/ Vocabulary 1. Look at paragraph 1 again. Which word has the same meaning as: A. harvested C. importance B. without thinking of D. banning 2. Look at paragraph 3 again. Find the synonym of the words: A. agreement C. give hope and courage B. conservation 3. Look at paragraph 4 again. Which word has the same meaning as: A. 10 years B. parliament II/ Put the appropriate word in the blank conserve cut significance fell prevented protection growing timber laws destruction 1. The…………………….…of Eucalyptus on waste land is becoming popular. 2. In Sweden, machines have been used to……………….….trees. 3. It is very important to……………….….all the valuable wood species. 4. Shifting cultivation causes a lot of forest……………….… . 5. Nowadays, most of people are aware the…………………of forests. 6. Forests…………… …….is a very important subject for us. 7. Long, long ago, trees were………………………with no thought of replacing them. 8. ………………… consumption of Japan has been increasing since the Second World War. 9. Everybody should respect the……………….………. . 10. New forest laws have…………… ……people from destroying forests. III/ Comprehension A/ True or False? 1. Trees were cut with thought of replacing them in very early pioneer days. 2. The importance of trees was known in the 17 th century. 3. Before USA was founded laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent thoughtless waste of the forests. 4. In the early 10 th century, live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida were protected. 5. Red cedars were grown by the government in southern states for ship timbers in the early 19 th century. 6. In some states of America, about 250.000 acres of forest land were preserved by a federal act. 7. Any persons cutting down one acre of living red cedar, live oak or other trees on federal land could be punished by the government. 8. In the early 19 th century police were used to enforce forest laws and regulations. 9. In 1896 the state Board of Agriculture of Maine appointed a committee to develop a state policy for the preservation and production of trees. 10. These early laws and regulations played an important role in the establishment of forestry in USA. B/ Answer the questions: 1. In very early pioneer days, why were trees cut with no thought of replacing them? 2. What was the content of the ordinance passed in 1620? 3. What did William Penn order? 4. In the early 1800s, what did the congress authorize the president to do? 5. When was the planting of trees started? When was the timber culture Act adopted and what was its content? IV/ Grammar + Some verbs in English must be followed by the - ing form: For example: He admitted taking my book. + Others are followed by the infinitive, “to”: For example: He agreed to lend me his book. + Verbs followed by a particles like ‘in’, ‘from’, etc. are followed by the -ing form: For example: He insisted on going to a film last night. Exercise : Make sentences from the following notes. Think whether you should use the infinitive or the – ing form after the verbs. 1. He/suggest/read/chapter 5/before/we/go/lecture 2. The rain/not stop/fall/until yesterday evening 3. He/wants/spend/more time/study. 4. A good farmer/try/set/objectives. 5. Peter/prevent/harvest/his crop/bad weather. 6. I enjoy/listen/music. 7. He/not mind/work/weekends. 8. He/forget/hand in/essay/ last night. 9. There/nothing/that shop/worth/buy. 10. It/no use/leave/your work/last minute. 11. I/miss/watch/college football match/last week. Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I) Trees are woody plants, but not all woody plants are trees. A tree usually grows upright to at least 20 feet (15.5 metres) at maturity and has a single stem, often called bole or trunk. The stem supports limbs and leaves, forming the top or crown. Other woody plants are vines and shrubs. Vines may have woody stems but do not have a distinct crown of upright branches. Shrubs may have several woody stems growing from a clump, and they usually are smaller than trees. Trees generally develop a typical shape when they grow in an open area. Trees that grow in crowded forests usually have trunks of greater clear length. Essentially, we have no timberline resulting from high elevation in the East, but at timberline and at higher mountain elevations in the West many trees are knurled, twisted, and sometimes prostrate. Such tortuous form is the result of many factors, including thin soils, limited growth periods, deep snows, and continuous exposure to strong winds. However, under favorable conditions, most species develop characteristic shapes. Several field trips with a good identification manual showing local species should enable an inexperienced person to become rather proficient in identifying trees. Identification features are also found in bud, flower, fruit, leaf, twig, and bark structure. The precise botanical characteristics by which trees are classified (primarily flower parts) are too small or fleeting to be useful in field identification for those with little experience. The gross features (shape, leaf, and bark structure, buds and twigs) are more useful for quick field identification. I/ Comprehension A/ Multiple-choice 1. A tree usually grows…………… . A. vertically B. horizontally C. downward 2. A tree usually has…………… . A. two stems B. one stem C. some stems 3. Vines has got……………… . A. great crown B. small crown C. complex crown D. indefinite crown 4. The branches of a vine are…………… . A. big B. long and thin C. not upright D. hard 5. When growing in an open area, trees often have a………… . A. nice form B. popular form C. great form D. dense form 6. The tree that has to compete for light often has …………. . A. a long stem B. many branches C. thick bank D. a beautiful crown 7. The tree that grows on very adverse place generally has…………. . A. a long stem B. a usual shape C. an unusual shape D. a dense brown B/ Answer the questions 1. All woody plants are trees or not? 2. At maturity, how high is a tree? 3. How many stem does a tree have? 4. What does the stem support? 5. Do vines have distinct crowns? 6. How do trees develop when they grow in an open area? 7. What kind of trunk does a tree often have when it has to compete for light? 8. Why are some trees knurled or twisted? 9. In what conditions do most species develop characteristic shape? 10. In order to have quick field identification what should be used? II/ Vocabulary Put the appropriate word into the blank: stem crown shape branches light knurled factors identification bark characteristics 1. ………………… is very important for the growth of trees. 2. Trees………………… is a subject that we are going to study next week. 3. The…………………………… of this tree is very thick. 4. Many………………………affect the growth of a tree. 5. After the flood, the……………………… of the river banks changed so much. 6. This kind of Pine has got a lot of………………….… . 7. We used to play under the…………………………….of this old, big tree. 8. The………………………… of this bamboo is 10 metres long. 9. Yesterday, a car run into that tree, but only the……………………….is damaged. III/ Paragraph writing Match the following clauses together, using and, but, when, after, so and because. a. the next evening he needed them b. he arrived at the canteen c. they did not please Andrew very much d. Last night Andrew lend Robert his lecture note e. Andrew needed his notes immediately f. He had waited for an hour Robert could not attend Robert finally arrived he went to the canteen to look for Robert Robert has not returned them Robert was not there he decided to wait