Encyclopedia of Global Resources part 88 pdf

Governance Matrix, a result of those proposals, pro - vides information categorizing sites as privately owned and managed,government ownedand managed,com- munity owned and managed, or comanaged. Because the terms “national park” and “reserve” were in use before the IUCN system was first imple- mented in 1978, many protected areas with such titles may have management goals that differ from those with the same IUCN designations. For example, Yozgat Camleg e National Park in Turkey is managed as a na- tional monument. Snowdonia National Park in Wales and the United Kingdom is managed as a protected landscape/seascape. The Wolong Nature Reserve in China is a strict nature reserve established mainly for giant pandas. The Talamanca Cabécar Anthropologi- cal Reserve in Costa Rica is managed primarily for protection of forest resources. Biodiversity may be protected under not only dif- ferent but also multiple IUCN management designa- tions. Australia’sGreat Barrier Reef is thelargestcoral reef system in the world. In 1975, more than 98 per- cent of the reef was designated a marine protected area, but fourteen bioregions were unprotected. Fol- lowing conservation campaigns in 2003, the area un- der strict protection by national parks and reserves was increased. Although most of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is now managed for sustainable use of the ecosystem, the park is also managed for multi- ple uses that range from scientific research to recre- ation. Expanded Global Protection The United Nations may broaden biodiversity protec- tion in accord with the conventions on World Heri- tage Sites, the Man and the Biosphere Reserve Pro- gramme (MAB), and Ramsar Sites. In addition, the World Database on Protected Areas maintains infor- mation on protected areas that includes these various classifications. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Program promotes the identification, protection,and preservation of outstanding cultural and natural heri- tage. The World Heritage Convention, which calls for the designation of biological and cultural World Heri- tage Sites, was adopted by UNESCO in 1972. In 2009, the World Heritage list included more than eight hundred sites in approximately 150 countries. The primary goal of UNESCO’s MAB is to improve the global relationship of people with their environ - ment. MAB began in 1970; its Biosphere Reserve con - cept was launched in 1974 and revised in 1995. Each Biosphere Reserve is established primarily to promote species and ecosphere conservation, economic devel- opment, and environmental research and education. In 2009, there were approximately five hundred Bio- sphere Reserves in more than one hundred coun- tries. The Convention on Wetlands of International Im- portance was signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. The Ramsar Convention aims to conserve and use wisely all wetlands through local, national, and regional co- operation in concert with sustainable development. A broad definition of wetlands is used for protected habitats that include lakes, rivers, marshes, peatlands, coral reefs, mangroves, and rice paddies. The Ramsar list contains nearly eighteen hundred wetlands cover- ing more than 160 million hectares. Data on protected areas have been tracked since the World Parks Congress in 2003. The world’sfirst of- ficially designated park, Yellowstone National Park in the United States, was established in 1872. Afterward, the number of nationally and internationally desig- nated sites has increased. The comprehensive World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) helps in track- ing conservation trends and assessing progress to- ward conservation goals.The WDPA holds spatial and attribute information from governmental and non- governmental organizations on more than 120,000 national and international protected areas. The WDPA also holds information on private, community, and comanaged reserves. The UNEP-WCMC uses the database to update the U.N. List of Protected Areas and to track the world’s progress toward targets for biodiversity coverage, biodiversity representation, and management effectiveness. Case Study: The Galápagos Islands Protected areas such as the Galápagos Islands and Ma- rine Reserve in Ecuador exemplify the extent to which selected areas can receive protection. This popular UNESCO spot has been a World Heritage Site since 1978 and a Biosphere Reserve since 1984. Because of its fragile ecosystem and the negative effects of tour- ism growth, the area was designated a World Heritage Site in Danger in 2007. The Reserve encompasses 97 percent of the land area of the Galápagos Islands and more than ten times that area offshore. The Galápagos Islands’ ecosystem features coastal- marine, biological, and geological developments that 798 • National parks and nature reserves Global Resources attract scientists and researchers. Ongoing seismic and volcanic activities reflect the processes that formed the islands. These processes, together with the ex- treme isolation of the islands, led to the development of related marine and terrestrial species that inspired Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution following his visit to the region in 1835. Many visitors are drawn to the Galápagos, and the lucrative tourism industry has attracted employable immigrants from the mainland. Tourism and immi- gration have led to both increased land development and the introduction of plant species that now out- number native species. Fisheries have led to the deple- tion of groupers, lobsters, and sea cucumbers. Illegal fishing is an additional problem. The Charles Darwin Research Station (CDRS) and the Galápagos National Park Service formed a partici- patory management group for the Galápagos Marine Reserve. In 1988, the Special Law for the Galápagos was passed to keep this management approach. Scien- tific data on the fisheries and coastal ecosystem in- form decisions of the management group. Results from CDRS marine surveys revealed bleaching of cor- als andcrustose corallines, mortality of barnacles, and spread of fish species from the north to the south of the archipelago. Other findings included the absence or low density of commercially exploited species. On- going research monitors the Galápagos marine and coastal ecosystem and marine resources. A Galápagos geographical information system (GIS) summarizes the existing information on species distributions and densities, physical environmental data, and human impacts in a comprehensive form to promote in- formed management decisions. The Ecuadoran government has instituted and enforced local protection for decades, and the UNESCO designations have added funding and fur- ther protection. UNESCO makes recommendations to the park, such as quarantine measures to reduce alien invasions, and has instituted a program to elimi- nate animals that destroy the native vegetation. The CDRS has adopted a broad approach to the problems associated with Galápagos biodiversity conservation, both marine and terrestrial. Such conservation ef- forts include research, education, and training. The 2007 IUCN/UNESCO mission conducted stake- holder meetings in an attempt to identify additional solutions to these problems. Apresidentialdecree was issued, declaring the Galápagos ecosystem in a stateof risk and its conservation and environmental manage - ment of national priority and outlined an agenda to address systematically the various factors affecting the state of conservation of the property. Other Management Systems Among other international nonprofit organizations promoting biodiversity by protecting national parks and reserves are Conservation International, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and the Nature Conservancy. The mission of Conservation International is to safeguard global biodiversity and to demonstrate that humanity can live in harmony with nature. Conserva- tion International strives to protect the richest re- gions of plant and animal life, biodiversity“hot spots.” To qualify as a hot spot, a region must contain at least fifteen hundred species of vascular plants as endem- ics, and the region must have lost at least 70 percent of its original habitat. Conservation International has identified thirty-four biodiversity hot spots. Although these lands cover only 2.3 percent of the Earth’s sur- face, they are a haven for more than one-half of all plant species and 42 percent of all terrestrial verte- brate species. The WWF is the largest multinational conservation organization in the world. The fund has identified Global 200 ecoregions for conservation within terres- trial, freshwater, and marine habitats. The regions are chosen for their exceptional levelsof biodiversity,spe- cies richness, endemism, or unusual ecological and evolutionary phenomena. The Global 200 list includes not only Ecuador’s Galápagos Islands but also Ecua- dor’s largest national park, Yasuní. Conservation In- ternational tries to correlate its biodiversity hot spots with the Global 200 list. There is a 92 percent overlap within the most crucial and endangered regions. Yasuní National Park lies in the western Amazon basin. The park protects rain forests that are widely recognized by scientists and conservationists as among the most biodiverse on Earth. The WWF has named the area a Global Ecoregion Priority, and UNESCO designated the park a Biosphere Reserve in 1989. Within 1 hectareofYasuní, 644 different species of trees have been identified. The park shelters an astounding diversity of wildlife. There are 567 birds species, 106 amphibian species, 72 reptile species, and 173 mammal species, including 13 species of pri- mates. Yasuní holds the country’s largest oil reserve, around 1 billion barrels. Ecuador has offered to pro - tect Yasuní from oil drilling in exchange for cash Global Resources National parks and nature reserves • 799 compensation from the international community.Ec - uador’s proposal has brought strong international attention to the concept of payment for ecosystem services and whether payments should be made for avoided degradation of ecosystem services. The mission of the Nature Conservancy is to pre- serve the plants, animals, and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth by protect- ing the lands and waters they need to survive. The Conservancy owns and manages the largest private system of nature sanctuaries in the world and has joined other organizations to impact biodiversity con- servation in the Maya Biosphere Reserve. The Maya Biosphere Reserve is located in the Petén department in northern Guatemala. This re- serve is the largest protectedarea within the MayaFor- est and contains more than 10 percent of Guatemala’s total land area. In 1990, the Guatemalan government and UNESCO established the Maya Biosphere Re- serve to safeguard the region’s outstanding biological and cultural diversity. Within the reserve are eight core protected areas, including Tikal National Park, which was declared aNaturaland Cultural World Her- itage Site in 1979. Tikal National Park is located in the south-central part of the reserve. In the western part of the reserve, Sierra del Lacandon National Park is a protected area that harbors the archaeological ruins of Piedras Negras, a Mayan archaeological site. A ecoregional assessment published in 2006 and re- vised in 2007 concluded that Lacandon was among the most intact sections of the Maya Forest. The park is the second largest in Guatemala’s national park sys- tem and is a corridor that bridges Guatemala’s Maya Biosphere Reserve to the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas, Mexico. The Nature Conservancy works in the Maya Bio- sphere Reserve because the area has enormous ecolog- ical, cultural, and commercial value. However, it faces numerous threats, including unplanned colonization, ranching and agricultural activities, unstable and ex- cessive natural resource extraction,anduncertain land tenure. In 2006, the Nature Conservancy and Conser- vation International negotiated a landmark debt-for- nature transaction between the United States and Guatemala. Under this agreement, the United States agreed to forgive $24 million in debt owed to it by Guatemala in exchange for the funds being invested in tropical forest conservation in Guatemala. June Lundy Gastón Further Reading Chivian, E., and A. Bernstein, eds. Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity. New York: Ox- ford University Press, 2008. Coad, L., et al. State of the World’s Protected Areas, 2007. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 2008. Dudley, Nigel, ed. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: Inter- national Unionfor Conservationof Nature,2008. Hanna, Kevin S., Douglas A. Clark, and D. Scott Slo- combe, eds. Transforming Parks and Protected Areas: Management and Governance in a Changing World. New York: Routledge, 2007. Hilty,Jodi, et al. Corridor Ecology: The Science andPractice of Linking Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation. Washington D.C.: Island Press, 2006. Riley, Laura, and William Riley. Nature’s Strongholds: The World’s Great Wildlife Reserves. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005. Web Sites Conservation International http://www.conservation.org International Union for Conservation of Nature http://www.iucn.org/ Natural Resources Defense Council http://www.nrdc.org/ The Nature Conservancy http://www.nature.org UNESCO World Heritage Centre http://whc.unesco.org/ World Database on Protected Areas http://www.wdpa.org World Wildlife Fund http://www.worldwildlife.org/ See also: Biodiversity; Biosphere reserves; Conserva- tion biology; Earth Summit; Ecozones and biogeo- graphic realms; Global 200; International Union for Conservation of Nature; Nature Conservancy; Rain forests; Ramsar Convention; United Nations Conven- tion on Biological Diversity; Wetlands; World Com- mission on Environment and Development; World Wide Fund for Nature. 800 • National parks and nature reserves Global Resources National Wildlife Federation Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1936 The National Wildlife Federation is a conservation educational organization that works to promote the wise use of natural resources. Background The National Wildlife Federation (NWF) is an organi- zation of approximately six million private citizens interested in influencing state and national conser- vation policies. Its programs are based on the organi- zation’s beliefs that wildlife, an important indicator of environmental quality, can be protected through awareness, understanding, and action. The NWF be- lieves that clean air, pure water, rich soil, and abun- dant plant and animal life should be seen as gifts to be used wisely, and it views the welfare of wildlife as inseparable from that of humans. Impact on Resource Use The NWF sponsors the Institute for Wildlife Research, which focuses on studies of species of special interest, and the National Biotechnology Policy Center, which addresses the environmental implications of biotech- nology. Each year it sponsors National Wildlife Week, which reaches millions of students annually to promote awareness about the needs of wildlife. The NWF has developed science and social studies supplements for middle schoolsand runs a wildlife camp forchildren. Among the many publications of the National Wild- life Federation are Ranger Rick, a monthly magazine for elementary schoolchildren, NatureScope, a curricu- lum supplement of science and nature activities, and National Wildlife. The NWF has helped defend the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act, worked to prevent most oil and gas leasing in national wildlife refuges, fought to help en- dangered species such as the red squirrel and the bald eagle, and initiated a nationwide campaign to amend the U.S. Constitution with an Environmental Quality Amendment. Grace A. Banks Web Site National Wildlife Federation http://www.nwf.org/ See also: Biotechnology; Conservation; Mineral Leasing Act; Wilderness; Wildlife; Wildlife biology; World Wide Fund for Nature. Native elements Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources Native elements are those found in nature that are un- combined with other elements and include metals, semimetals, and nonmetals. These twenty-four native elements have a number of important economic uses. Definition Twenty-four elements are found in their “native” state (uncombined with other elements in nature), but only eight of these native elements are important ores. These eight significant native elements are di- vided into metals (gold, silver, copper, and platinum), semimetals (antimony), and nonmetals (sulfur, graph- ite, and diamond). Overview Only gold and platinum are important ores of the na- tive metals. The main ores of silver and copper are de- rived from silver and copper sulfides. Gold comes from South Africa, former Soviet states, China, and the United States. Native silver occurs in Germany, Canada, and the United States. Native copper occurs in the United States and Bolivia. Native platinum oc- curs in South Africa, Colombia,andRussia. Native sul- fur is a major ore, and it occurs in Texas, Louisiana, and, internationally, Sicily. Most diamonds are found in Africa, Australia, or Russia. The main producers of graphite are India, Mexico, China, former Soviet states, and North and South Korea. The native elements have a number of important uses. Gold isused as a world monetary standard and in jewelry, dental fillings, and various scientific applica- tions. Silver is used in photographic film, silverware, and electronic equipment. Copper is used for wire, brass, and bronze.Platinum is used as a catalyst to con- trol automobile emissions and in jewelry and den- tistry. Sulfur is used for the manufacture of sulfuric acid, insecticides, hydrogen sulfide, and rubber. Dia- mond is used as a gemstone, for cutting glass, and as a fine powderforpolishing gemstones. Graphite isused as a lubricant in oil, as a writing tool (it is mixed with Global Resources Native elements • 801 clay in pencils), and in paints, batteries, and refrac - tory crucibles. Gold (abbreviated Au; atomic number 79; atomic weight 196.97) is chemically inert and is in the same column on the periodic table as the transition ele- ments copper and silver. Native gold is gold to yellow in color and has a high density (19 grams per millili- ter). Silver (Ag; atomic number 47; atomic weight 107.87) is chemically more reactive than gold. Native silver is white on a fresh surface, but it is quickly tar- nished; it has a density of 10.5 grams per milliliter. Na- tive copper (Cu; atomic number 29; atomic weight 63.5) has a red color, but it is stained green on weath- ered surfaces. Native copper hasa density of 8.8 grams per milliliter. Sulfur (S; atomic number 16; atomic weight 32.064) is in Group 6 of the periodic table. Na- tive sulfur is a pale to deep yellow color, and it has a density of only 2.1 grams per milliliter. Graphite and diamond are both composed of carbon (C). Carbon (atomic number 6; atomic weight 12.011) is in Group 4 of the periodic table with chemical properties simi- lar to silicon. Graphite is submetallic, lead gray, and has a density of 2.1 grams per milliliter, whereas dia- mond can be almost any color and has a density of 3.5 grams per milliliter. The metallic native elements have metallic chemi- cal bonds with delocalized outer electrons; this situa- tion results in their metallic luster and their high con- ductivity of heat and electricity. The native nonmetals have localized bonding electrons because they share electrons between atoms; this results in nonmetallic luster and low electrical and heat conduction. The native semimetals have properties intermediate be- tween the metals and nonmetals. The native metals in some deposits are formed by hot, ascending water vapor called hydrothermal de- posits, and they are associated with a wide variety of minerals. Native gold may be weathered out of the hy- drothermal deposit without alteration and may be concentrated in streams. Native silver may also be concentrated in the oxidized zone by weathering of the original hydrothermal deposits. The most abun- dant sulfur deposits are formed in the caprock of salt domes in the southern United States. Diamond is found mostly in igneous rocks called kimberlites and lamproites. Diamond may also be weathered out of the original igneous rocks and be concentrated in streams. Graphite is formed in metamorphic rocks by heating the original organic material in sediments to the high temperatures of metamorphism (more than 200° Celsius and more than 2 kilobars of pres - sure). Robert L. Cullers See also: Antimony; Australia; Canada; China; Cop- per; Diamond; Germany; Gold; Graphite; Hydrother- mal solutions and mineralization; India; Mexico; Plat- inum and the platinum group metals; Russia; Salt domes; Silver; South Korea; Sulfur; United States. Natural capital Category: Environment, conservation, and resource management Natural capital is of paramount importance for global resources; it dictates that natural resources should be preserved and maintained, rather than destroyed and depleted in the name of consumerism and economic de- velopment. Definition Natural capital is the total ecological system and all its entities that are not human-made and exist naturally in the world. Examples are rocks, minerals, plants, an- imals, soil, trees, and water. More specifically, these can be categorized as nonrenewable natural resources, such as oil and minerals, and renewable resources, such as fish, water, and timber. The work of ecosys- tems must be balanced and maintained in order to continually provide capital. This can happen within a natural system or as a response to human interven- tion, such as pollination and flood control. Overview “Natural capitalism” is a term associated with ecologi- cal economists Herman Daly, Robert Costanza, and Lester Brown and was popularized by the Biosphere II project and entrepreneurs Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins. These ideals are in- creasingly advocated by politicians such as Al Gore, Barack Obama, and Ralph Nader. “Capitalism,” broadly defined as a system of econ- omy, and “natural,” pertaining to nature, combine to form the concept of “natural capital” or “natural capi- talism.” The concept is multifaceted and best de - scribed in the following terms: to progress from valu - ing human-made manufactured items to valuing the 802 • Natural capital Global Resources goods and services of nature, including energy, water, waste, production, consumption, trade, and social capital; the maintenance of natural capital ensures a healthy ecosystem and ensures a sustainable economy in the future. Inherent in the concept is the idea that natural resources should be preserved. Transforming economies would require huge changes to established economic models that have been in place since the In- dustrial Revolution. Although controversial, the trend would require changes in social, educational, and governmental paradigms. There are currently progressive trends toward this in many countries, in- cluding the United States, although changing tradi- tional capitalism in the United States has proven to be difficult because some people believe overhauls in energy and material efficiency will actually reduce economic gains. Advocates of natural capital, how- ever, maintain that it is essential for the health of the population and the environment and thus in the best interest of the global economy to embrace the con- cepts of natural capitalism. Further, the dominant argument as to why natural capitalism should prevail over traditional capitalism is that failure to maintain natural resources will result in losses to businesses and economies that support people; natural resources are limited and should be preserved rather than destroyed. In traditional capi- talism, goods and services are valued because they are limited; maintaining ecosystems can provide unlim- ited and expansive capital, as ecosystems can be main- tained or destroyed based on human interaction. Some economists believe natural capitalism assess- ments influence money supply and inflation, noting that in times of slow economic growth, there is no direct connection between well-being measurements and economic indicators, such as the gross domestic product. Advocates of natural capitalism endorse concepts such as the “triple bottom line” (integrating positive economic, social, and environmental per- formance), “measuring reform” (for example, soft money and barter systems), and measures of well- being (quality of life). They also propose measuring an ecological, or natural, deficit and social and finan- cial deficits. Plans such as these are difficult to quan- tify, largely because of the lack of consensus about measuring and auditing the full range of natural cap- ital. An example of a large organization that utilizes the concept of natural capitalism is the World Bank. It calculates the economic savings rate of a country by taking into account many factors, including its ex - traction of natural resources and the human and eco- logical damage caused by carbon dioxide emissions. LeAnna DeAngelo See also: Biodiversity; Deep ecology; Ecology;Ecosys- tem services; Ecosystems; Environmental movement; Gore, Al; Resources as a medium of economic ex- change; Resources as a source of international con- flict. Natural gas. See Oil and natural gas entries; Propane Natural Resources Canada Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established January 12, 1995 Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) was established to measure, catalog, conserve,and develop thenatural resources of Canada, including forests, mineral, met- als, and energy. This assignment includes making the products from Canada’s natural resources competitive in the world market. The vision of Natural Resources Canada is to make the life of every Canadian better by making use of, while also preserving, the country’s abundance of nature. Background On April 14, 1842, the Geological Survey of Canada was established to determine if a mining industry could be a contributing factor to Canada’s economy. Over the following 153 years the Geological Survey of Canada changed names and added responsibilities until all of the natural resources of Canada were placed under the same department through the for- mation of Natural Resources Canada, which com- bined Forestry Canada with Energy, Mines, and Re- sources. Natural Resources Canada employs about forty-two hundred people, and, in 2003, it had a bud- get of $812 million. The department is charged with the sustainable development and use of Canada’s for - ests, minerals, metals, and energy. Global Resources Natural Resources Canada • 803 Impact on Resource Use Natural Resources Canada is arranged by types of natural resources and interest areas. The nine sectors include Canadian Forestry Service, Corporate Man- agement, Earth Science, Energy Policy, Energy Tech- nology and Programs, Minerals and Metals, Strategic Policy, and the Geographical Names Board. Natural Resources Canada communicates and cooperates with international agencies and other countries in the field of natural resources. Especially important inter- national issues are the effects of pollution and sustain- able sources of energy. One sector of Natural Resources Canada, the Ca- nadian Forestry Service, employs more than one thou- sand workers and is a leader in the study and practice of using, maintaining, and preserving forests. An- other sector is responsible for mapping and remote sensing. Surveys, maps, and data related to geogra- phy are available through Geomatics Canada. The Office of Energy Efficiency (OEE) within Natural Re- sources Canada not only does research on the most efficient use and generation of energy but also does analysis on types and uses of energy. The OEE pro- vides homeowners, businesses, and governmental en- tities with information on the most efficient use of en- ergy in the home, at work, and on the road. Grants to improve energy efficiency are available through the OEE. Research concerning energy in the areas of oil, natural gas, uranium, and coal is ongoing. This re- search is distributed to the various sectors of the pub- lic, industry, and governmental agencies that can make use of the information. Pollution prevention is also a major part of the work of the OEE. The Earth Sciences Sector studies the Canadian landmass to better understand what it encompasses and how it can be maintained. The Energy Policy and the Strategic Policy sectors help lawmakers develop the policies and laws that will make the best use of natural re- sources, while conserving those resources and pro- tecting the environment. C. Alton Hassell Web Site Natural Resources Canada http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/com See also: Athabasca oil sands; Canada; Canadian Environmental Protection Act; Forest management; Forests. Natural Resources Conservation Service Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1933 as the temporary Soil Erosion Service; became Soil Conservation Service in 1935; renamed Natural Resources Conservation Service in 1994 The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, works with farmers, ranchers, and local government agencies in conserving and protecting resources. The NRCS’s ar- eas of activity include soil and resource conservation, plant materials, flood protection, and wetlands preser- vation. Background The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) was established as a response to the devastation wrought by winds and erosion in the Dust Bowl of the 1930’s. At first, it was briefly called the Soil Erosion Service, a temporary agency established bythe1933 National Industrial Re- covery Act (NIRA). The NIRA was one of the corner- stones of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, intended to help pull the country out of the Great De- pression. In 1935, under the Soil Conservation Act, the agency was given permanent status and moved from the Department of the Interior to the Depart- ment of Agriculture. Hugh H. Bennett, considered the father of mod- ern soil conservation, was the first head of the Soil Erosion Service and then the SCS. The Civilian Con- servation Corps (CCC), another New Deal program, provided considerable manpower for the SCS’s early erosion-prevention efforts. Farmers signed five-year agreements with the SCS; in return for putting the SCS’s recommendations into practice, they could re- ceive equipment, seeds and seedlings, lime, fertilizer, and, in many cases, labor from the CCC or Works Proj- ect Administration. Conservation approaches, such as strip-cropping under longer rotation, were designed for individual farms. In 1937, the country was divided into soil conserva- tion districts; the plan was intended to foster local par- ticipation in conservation operations. District bound- aries were based on such factors as local watersheds and county lines. Districts elected local supervisors and signed agreements with the U.S. Department of 804 • Natural Resources Conservation Service Global Resources Agriculture. The Department of Agriculture employed trained soil conservationists to work with the local dis- tricts. The activities of the Soil Conservation Service had considerable impact in stabilizing the United States’ landscape, most notably farmland and range- land. Impact on Resource Use The agency’s name was changed to the Natural Re- sources Conservation Service in 1994, reflecting the agency’s expanding focus in the late twentieth cen- tury. The NRCS has the responsibility of helping the country’s farmers, ranchers, and other private land- owners conserve and protect natural resources. Through a wide variety of programs, the NRCS is ac- tive in soil conservation, flood protection, watershed protection, resource conservation, and wetlands pres- ervation. The Conservation Technical Assistance program is the central or foundational program of the Natural Resources Conservation Service. More than one mil- lion landowners receive its services annually, as do lo- cal government entities; services are channeled through numerous conservation districts in the United States. It provides assistance in sustaining agri- cultural productivity and enhancing the natural re- source base. Assistance includes comprehensive ap- proaches to reducing soil erosion, improving soil and water quality (and quantity), conserving wetlands, en- hancing fish and wildlife habitat, improving air qual- ity,improving pasture andrangeconditions, reducing flooding, and improving woodlands. The National Cooperative Soil Survey provides in- formation on the uses and capabilities of local soils throughout the country. Published soil surveys in- clude maps, soil classifications, and scientific inter- pretations that can aid landowners in farm planning and other land-use decisions as well as help guide fed- eral, state, and local governments in policy decisions. The Natural Resources Inventory, originally issued ev- ery five years but later issued annually, reports on the nation’s progress in sustaining resources on nonfed- eral land. It provides extensive and comprehensive data on land use and predicts how trends will affect the future of resources. A number of programs are concerned with water— both with water use and conservation and with river management and flood control. The Snow Survey and Water Supply Forecasting Program collects snowpack data and forecasts seasonal water supplies for areas most affected by snowmelt. The River Basin Surveys and Investigation program works with state and local agencies in such areas as flood hazard analy- sis, floodplain management, and water conservation and quality. The Small Watersheds Program helps local groups plan and install watershed protection projects on private lands; the Emergency Watershed Protection Program provides emergency assistance to safeguard lives and property from natural disasters that impair watersheds. The Public Law 78-534 Flood Prevention Program applies specifically to eleven flood prevention projects that cover about 14 million hect- ares in eleven states. The Plant Materials Program tests and selects new or improved plants for their usefulness in conserva- tion efforts and focuses on issues such as invasive spe- cies, damage from natural disasters, drought, air and water quality, and alternative energy. The Plant Mate- rials Program has twenty-sevenplantmaterials centers Global Resources Natural Resources Conservation Service • 805 A member of the Natural Resources Conservation Service discusses a laser leveling project in Yuma, Arizona, with local officials. (Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS) across the country. The program works with conserva - tion districts, other government agencies, commer- cial entities, and seed and nursery associations. Two NRCS programs are directed specifically toward wetlands conservation: the Wetlands Reserve Program and the Water Bank Program. The intent of the Great Plains Conservation Pro- gram is to find long-term solutions to resource prob- lems in the country’s ten Great Plains states. It aims to provide conservation treatment for ranches and farms. The program has been effective in addressing the needs of low-income farms and ranches, includ- ing many under American Indian ownership. Other programs of the NRCS include the Resources Conser- vation and Development Program, the Rural Aban- doned Mine Program, and the Forestry Incentives Pro- gram. Vincent M. D. Lopez Web Site U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ See also: Civilian Conservation Corps; Department of Agriculture, U.S.; Dust Bowl; Erosion and erosion control; Farmland; Land management; Soil; Soil management; Soil testing and analysis. Natural Resources Defense Council Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1970 The nonprofit Natural Resources Defense Council seeks wise management of natural resources through education, research, and governmental policies. Its concerns include land use, air and water pollution, and wildlife protection. Background The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) is a nongovernment organization started by two groups of lawyers: recent graduates of Yale and Harvard Uni- versities and well-established lawyers from New York. They sought to protect the environment and public health. The staff grew to include not only lawyers but also scientists,planners, and public health specialists. Impact on Resource Use The council works to increase public education for the protection of natural resources, monitors federal resource agencies, and seeks protection in the courts to preserve natural resources. As of 2010, the council was supported by more than one hundred founda- tions, employed morethan three hundred lawyers, pol- icy analysts, andscientists,and had an annual budget of about $85 million. The organization had 1.3 million members. The threat of global warming—along with environmental law designed to remove toxic chemi- cals, save wildlife, and move the U.S. energy economy off oil—is one of the organization’s priorities. Albert C. Jensen Web Site Natural Resources Defense Council The Earth’s Best Defense http://www.nrdc.org/ See also: Air pollution and air pollution control; Greenhouse gases and global climate change; Land- use planning; Water pollution and water pollution control; Wildlife. Nature Conservancy Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1951 The Nature Conservancy is a private, nonprofit orga- nization devoted to the preservation of plants, ani- mals, and natural communities by direct acquisition of ecologically significant lands and other means. Background The Nature Conservancy has its headquarters in Arlington, Virginia, and local chapters in all fifty states. It also operates in Canada, China, sixteen Latin American countries, and the Pacific region. It oper- ates the world’s largest system of privately owned na- ture preserves. Impact on Resource Use Ecologically significant properties are obtained by di- rect purchase, gifts, and bequests. The Nature Con - servancy also arranges conservation easements and other arrangements in which landowners agree notto 806 • Natural Resources Defense Council Global Resources develop ecologically important lands. Many of the Na - ture Conservancy’s conservation projects are con- ducted in cooperation or partnership with other pri- vate or government organizations. Some properties are sold to state or national government conservation agencies, but many are managed by the Nature Con- servancy staff and volunteers. The Nature Conser- vancy has been responsible for the protection of al- most 50 million hectares of prime wildlife habitat all over the world. The Nature Conservancy’s first acquisition, in 1955, was 24 hectares of New York’s Mianus River Gorge. A 1995 acquisition in southwestern New Mexico was Gray Ranch, a 130,000-hectare property including mountain ranges and vast grasslands. In 2007, the Na- ture Conservancy purchased 65,000 hectares in the Adirondacks forest in New York. Each holding is a carefully selected wildlife habitat, and special empha- sis is placed on rare and endangered species of plants and animals. Beyond purely protective activities, the Nature Conservancy staff participates in research on ecosystems and conducts educational field trips and programs for members and the general public. Robert E. Carver Web Site Nature Conservancy http://www.nature.org/ See also: Conservation; Ecosystems; Wilderness; Wil- derness Society; Wildlife. The Netherlands Categories: Countries; government and resources The Netherlands has one of the world’s largest natural gas fields. The country is the second highest producer of natural gas in the European Union and is the fifth highest exporter in the world. The Netherlands ranks third in global peat production, accruing more than $84 million in 2007. It is also sixth in salt exporta- tion, which is a billion-dollar industry globally. The Country The Netherlands declared independence from Spain in 1579, and by the 1600’s it had the world’s first mod - ern economy. The Netherlands was one of the top commercial and seafaring powers of the time. It had also established colonies around the world. The small nation is located in Western Europe along the North Sea. The 451-kilometer coastline gives the country easy access to ocean trade routes; the country is often called the gateway to Europe. The Netherlands also shares borders with Germany and Belgium. Three main rivers—the Rhine, Schelde, and Meuse—divide the country. Most of the southwestern region of the Netherlands is part of a large riverdelta.Twenty-seven percent of the country is below sea level. An extensive set of dikes protects the Netherlands from flooding and erosion. The Netherlands’ economy is the six- teenth largest in the world. The nation was ranked ninth in overall global competitiveness in 2007. The average annual income that year was $31,700. The country was a founding member of the European Union, joining in 1952. Natural Gas Natural gas is composed mostly of methane. It can be found in petroleum fields, coal beds, and isolated natural gas fields. The location of the gas affects its components. In addition to methane, natural gas can include ethane, propane, butane, carbon dioxide, ni- trogen, and helium. In 1959, a large natural gas deposit was discovered in the Groningen province in northern Netherlands. The Slochteren field provides much of the country’s fuel supply. In 1973, the Dutch government predicted that nuclear power would eventually replace natural gas and other fuels. This led to its decision to export a majority of the country’s natural gas reserve. By 1974, public opinion had shifted away from nuclear energy. The government created its “small fields” policy in order to extend the life of the Slochteren field. Appli- ances and other equipment were built to run on gas from the Groningen field. Because gas differs by location, fuel mined from other fields could not be used. The problem was solved by collecting gas from the smaller fields and mixing it with gas from the Slochteren field. The small fields policy is still in use. The discovery of the massive field in 1959 changed the Dutch economy. By the 1970’s, profits from natu- ral gas made up a large part of the country’s gross do- mestic product. In 1997, rules and regulations were changed in Europe, which required the Netherlands to allow foreign companies to sell natural gas there.In 1999, a bill was proposed to liberalize the Dutch gas industry completely. The final draft stipulated that Global Resources The Netherlands • 807 . Geological Survey of Canada changed names and added responsibilities until all of the natural resources of Canada were placed under the same department through the for- mation of Natural Resources Canada,. supervisors and signed agreements with the U.S. Department of 804 • Natural Resources Conservation Service Global Resources Agriculture. The Department of Agriculture employed trained soil conservationists. Conservation Service in 1935; renamed Natural Resources Conservation Service in 1994 The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, works with farmers, ranchers,