N Nanotubes. See Carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes National Audubon Society Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established January 5, 1905 The National Audubon Society seeks to preserve wild- life and habitats through education and active protec- tive measures. Background The National Audubon Society (NAS) grew out of concern over the widespread use of bird plumes in women’s fashions in the late nineteenth century. Be- ginning in the late 1880’s, several state and local Au- dubon societies were founded, taking their name from famed painter John James Audubon, whose art depicted more than one thousand bird species. By 1903 societies existed in thirty-seven states. Viewing wildlife as part of the country’s heritage, the societies united and founded a national office in 1905. The or- ganization instituted a policy of educating the public and promoting awareness of the depletion of birds and other wildlife. Its successes include helping to preserve whooping cranes, flamingos, and bald ea- gles. Impact on Resource Use During the mid-twentieth century, the organization expanded its policy to promote awareness and protec- tion of all natural resources, including wildlife habi- tats. Through educational endeavors, the NAS ex- panded into creating nature centers and reserves that conferred renewed importance ontheirconservation cause. Aware of the importance of grassroots environ- mental efforts (like those from which it had come), the NAS adopted a new motto in the late 1970’s, call - ing on citizens to “Think Globally, Act Locally.” The idea spread, and the phrase became a rallying cry for conservation groups across the country. In the first decade ofthetwenty-firstcentury,theNAS focused on environmental issuessuchasglobalwarmingandcon- tinued to set up sanctuaries throughout the United States. Jennifer Davis Web Site Audubon http://www.audubon.org/ See also: Conservation; Endangered species; Endan- gered Species Act; Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S.; Greenpeace; National Wildlife Federation; Sierra Club; Wildlife. National Biological Service Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1993; abolished 1996 The National Biological Service, though short-lived, was an important clearinghouse to make available in- formation on the state and trends of flora, fauna, bird and mammal species, and the condition of selected eco- systems and ecoregions. Background The National Biological Service (NBS) was estab- lished by President Bill Clinton in 1993. The agency’s mission was to inventory and monitor various biologi- cal resources in an effort to understand, or at least record the impact of human activities upon, various biological resources. The agency also was to provide information sufficient to construct options for uses and protection of biological resources. Vice President Al Gore was instrumental in estab- lishing the NBS. The agency collected information from its own research projects, otherfederal and state natural resource agencies, private organizations, and volunteers, and it worked to develop standardized methods for recording and disseminating this in - formation to other government agencies, policy mak - ers, and members of the public. The NBS was also di- rected to make available as much information as possible on the country’s biological resources to gov- ernment officials, to other organizations engaged in similar studies of biological resources, and to con- cerned citizens. Impact on Resource Use Scientists with the NBS took “big picture” views. Rather than study an individual species, NBS researchers studied the current state and possible futures of en- tire ecosystems. This holistic approach allowed re- searchers toanalyzethehealthof groups of plants and animals, as well as the condition of air, soil, and water resources in ecosystems upon which these plants and animals depended. Only an agency with access to the resources and expertise of the federal govern- ment could attempt to study the conditions of entire ecoregions, each composed of several types of ecosys- tems with common topographic, climatic, and biotic characteristics. The overall goal of the NBS’s multi- disciplinary projects was the protection and preserva- tion of the current state of biodiversity. NBS publications stated that the agency’s research- ers took no advocacy positions that would compro- mise the credibility of the agency’s research findings. Opponents in Congress, however, disagreed. These opponents argued that the use of other organiza- tions—such as the Sierra Club and the Nature Con- servancy—in data collection amounted to advocacy positions that could not but compromise research results. Congressional opponents also pointed out that the terms “ecosystem” and “ecoregion” lacked agreed-upon, official definitions. Thus, NBS projects were not specific enough tobe useful to federal policy makers. Even if “ecosystem” and “ecoregion” couldbe suitably defined, opponents wanted guarantees that the rights of private landowners in these locations would be respected. Government researchers were forbidden to trespass on privately owned land without prior permission from the landowner. Researchers ar- gued that surveying animals or waterfowl, monitoring pollution spills, and documenting the numbers and state of habitats of endangered species would be im- possible without access to information located on pri- vate property. Congressional opponents also argued that the activities of the NBS were already largely per - formed by other federal and state agencies. In an ef - fort to balance the federal budget by fiscal year 2000, Congress slashed the agency’s budget in fiscal year 1995. InOctober, 1996,theentireNBS was folded into the United States Geological Survey and renamed the Biological Resources Division. While it existedasanindependentagency, theNBS published a number of important documents. Fore- most among them was Our Living Resources (1995), a collection of more than two hundred articles on the state of health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. These articles were written by field experts and of- fered in-depth informationto state, regional, and fed- eral policy makers regarding how best to protect and utilize the country’s biological resources. One of the ecosystems studied by NBS scientists was Prince Wil- liam Sound off the coast of Alaska. Combining infor- mation from thirty-five other government agencies, the NBS produced a compact disc explaining the geo- graphical features and human activities throughout the area, as well as information necessary to construct plans to restore the sound. Researchers at the NBS developed computer pro- grams to allow information in biological-resources electronic databases to be accessible to researchers worldwide through the use of standardized taxonomic (scientific) names and information. NBS researchers began to use this standardized format for all North American plants and animals. NBS researchers also constructed a network to link all state Natural Heri- tage Programs to a centralized Internet portal. All state-collected research information would be avail- able to anyone with access to the portal. NBS researchers made a concerted effort to pro- duce up-to-date findings in the most usableformat pos- sible for other researchers. For example, the agency developed a system to track the distribution of zebra mussels in order to map the rapid spread of this inva- sive species throughout the Mississippi River drainage system. The NBS collaborated with the National Park Service to monitor natural resources in and around national parks and developed a pollution-monitoring system for use in national wildlife refuges. The agency also developed cooperative agreements with fifteen state natural resources departments to provide finan- cial resources and expertise in the study of twelve dif- ferent ecosystems throughout the United States. Victoria Erhart Further Reading LaRoe, Edward, ed. Our Living Resources: A Report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance, and Health of Global Resources National Biological Service • 789 U.S. Plants, Animals and Ecosystems. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Bi- ological Service, 1995. Web Site U.S. Geological Survey Biology http://biology.usgs.gov/ See also: Department of the Interior, U.S.; Environ- ment and Natural Resources Division. National Environmental Policy Act Categories: Laws and conventions; government and resources Date: Signed into law January 1, 1970 The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is a U.S. law that set forth a national policy to protect the environment. It established a requirement that envi- ronmental impact statements be prepared for major federal actions that would have a significant effect on the environment. Background The 1960’s marked a time of increasing public aware- ness of the environmental consequences of human activity. Silent Spring (1962), Rachel Carson’s book on the dangersofwidespread pesticideuse,reached best- seller status, and alarming environmental episodes— a 1966 air-pollution emergency in New York City; a massive oil spill near Santa Barbara, California, in early 1969; and a fire on the Cuyahoga River in Cleve- land, Ohio, later that year—drew national media at- tention. In 1969, Congress acknowledged the impact humans were making on the natural environment and the importance of restoring and maintaining en- vironmental quality with the introduction of House Resolution 6750 and Senate Bill 1075. Both of these formed the basis of NEPA, which President Richard Nixon signed into law on January 1, 1970. Provisions NEPA establishes a broad national environmental policy for the United States. Its goal is a harmonious, productive coexistence between humankind and na - ture, in which beneficial use of resources and mainte - nance of ahighstandardoflivingcause the least possi - ble harm to human and ecosystem health. NEPA requires all branches of the federal govern- ment to consider the environment when planning major projects. Title I of NEPA states that proposals for major federal actions (including legislation) that could significantly affect the environment must in- clude a detailed analysis of potential environmental affects in the form of an environmental impact state- ment (EIS). The EIS must include an analysis of short- term resource use in light of long-term sustainability. Title I also requires that the U.S. president submit an annual environmental quality report (EQR) to Con- gress. Title II of NEPA established the Council on Envi- ronmental Quality (CEQ), a council of three presi- dential appointees with environmental expertise, to ensure that federal agencies meet Title I requirements. CEQ advises the president and provides assistance in preparing the EQR.The council, which initially served as the federal government’s environmental policy 790 • National Environmental Policy Act Global Resources Senator Henry Jackson wrote the National Environmental Policy Act, which became law in 1970. (Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images) arm, developed major legislation and policy regard - ing pollution control as well as guidelines for the EIS process. Policy-making responsibilities have since been given to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, although CEQstillcoordinatessome large programs. Impact on Resource Use Because of NEPA, major federal-government projects routinely include environmental quality consider- ations. Many state governments have adopted require- ments similar to those of NEPA. Airports, military com- plexes, highways, power plants, urban development, resource exploitation, and more are subject to NEPA requirements. Many projects have been modified or even abandoned based on their determined environ- mental impacts. By requiring federal agencies to con- sider the environment during planning, NEPA has helped to protect water and air quality, rein in run- away community growth, and reduce adverse impacts on sensitive areas such as wetlands, forests, flood- plains, prime agricultural lands, and archaeological and historical sites. Karen N. Kähler Web Site U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) http://www.epa.gov/compliance/nepa See also: Carson, Rachel; Clean Air Act; Clean Water Act; Ecology; Energy Policy Act; Environmental impact statement; Environmental law in the United States; Environmental Protection Agency. National Mining Association Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1995 The National Mining Associationpromotes American mining products in national and international mar- kets and represents the mining industry before the U.S. Congress, federal agencies, state governments, and in- ternational agencies. Background The National Mining Association (NMA) was formed by the merger of the National Coal Association and the American Mining Congress. The National Coal Association was formed in 1917 and the American Mining Congress in 1897. The merger of these two strong groups enabled a single voice to represent all the businesses affiliated with the U.S. mining indus- try. Groups belonging to the NMA include mining companies (in the areas of coal, metals, hard rock, and minerals), mining equipment manufacturers, mineral processors, bulk transporters, and financial and engineering firms and other support services companies. Impact on Resource Use The purpose of the NMA is to promote mineral re- sources developed fromU.S.mines.Theorganization fosters both domestic use and exports to interna- tional markets. It maintains a strong political pres- ence in Washington, D.C., and represents U.S. min- ing interests in international deliberations. The NMA has two political action committees, COALPAC and MinePAC. The NMA provides legal counsel and rep- resentation in judicial, administrative, and regulatory proceedings that involve the U.S. mining industry. Finally, the NMA conducts public education pro- grams, informing people of their dependency on minerals that are used in producing common items such as carpeting, telephones, automobiles, and even doorknobs. Dion C. Stewart Web Site National Mining Association http://www.nma.org/ See also: American Mining Congress; Mining safety and health issues; Mining wastes and mine reclama- tion; Reclamation Act; Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act; United States. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established October 3, 1970 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra - tion has a wide range of responsibilities relating to Global Resources National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration • 791 resources and the environment. It is charged with exploring the ocean and conserving ocean resources, with mon- itoring and predicting weather and at- mospheric conditions, and, after the disbanding of the U.S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey, with providing precise geodetic surveys. Background The National Oceanic and Atmo- spheric Administration (NOAA, pro- nounced NOH-ah), part of the De- partment of Commerce, was founded in 1970 to study and predict changes in the ocean and atmosphere and to help conserve U.S. coasts and ma- rine resources. It is a descendant of an army weather warning service and a fishing commission begun onehun- dred years earlier. Its earliest prede- cessor was a coastal survey that took place in 1807. NOAA both performs scientific research—some of it concerned with long-term environmental and re- source issues—and helps formulate government pol- icy in such areas as ocean mining and energy. Subdivi- sions of NOAA include the National Weather Service; the National Marine Fisheries Service; the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Ser- vice; the National Ocean Service; and the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. Impact on Resource Use Preserving coastlines is a priority of the NOAA be- cause more than half the U.S. population lives near the coasts. In recent decades uncontrolled pollution, overfishing, and coastal development have begun to make even the oceans appear fragile. Tocombat dete- rioration of the oceans, the NOAA works with the En- vironmental Protection Agency (EPA), also founded in 1970. NOAA monitorsactivities that affect theenvi- ronment, and the EPA, working with the Justice De- partment, enforces measures to protect it. Together these two agencies help enforce several acts of Con- gress, notably the Marine Mammal Protection Act; the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act; the Coastal Zone Management Act; the Endan- gered Species Act; the Magnuson Fisheries Conserva - tion and Management Act; and the Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act. NOAA scientists study how the ocean and atmo- sphere influence each other. For example, the Gulf Stream current moves with the force of 750 Missis- sippi Rivers as it brings the warm waters of the Carib- bean up the Atlantic coast and moves them eastward to England. For such studies NOAA works with other agencies, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), whose TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite charted ocean currents in a joint project with France from 1992 to 2006. NOAA has a number of other functions. It is dedi- cated to buildingsustainablefisheriesandhelpingen- dangered marine life to recover. When overfishing cuts fish populations such as cod and salmon, it also shrinks their gene pool, making them more suscepti- ble to disease. Part of the solution is to identify key species and their habitat requirements. NOAA gives advance warnings of hazardous weather. Each year in the United States hundreds of lives and billions of dollars are lost to severe storms, floods, and other natural disturbances. To minimize these losses, NOAA modernized the National Weather Service by refining the computer models it uses to predict impending disasters and upgrading the means of disseminating warnings. The NOAA also promotes safe navigation. Begin- ning in the 1940’s the size of ships greatly increased, and maritime commerce expanded significantly, leading to more than eleven hundred groundings or 792 • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Global Resources Members of the Coast and GeodeticSurvey, an early incarnation of the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, atwork near Prince William Sound in Alaska around 1910. (Family of Captain Gilbert T. Rude, Coast and Geodetic Survey) collisions of oil tankers beginning in 1974. NOAA’s Office of Coast Survey not only creates and maintains the nation’s nautical charts but also integrates these data with digital geographic information systems avail- able via the Internet. Charles V. Cordaro Web Site National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration http://www.noaa.gov/ See also: Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S.; Coastal engineering; Environmental Protection Agency; Fish- eries; Landsat satellites and satellite technologies; Oceans; U.S. Geological Survey; Weather and re- sources. National Park Service Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs The U.S. Congress established the National Park Ser- vice to manage and promote the use of federal parks, monuments, and reservations. Its purpose was to en- sure that the scenery, natural and historic objects, and wildlife in the parks could be enjoyed by the public and at the same time left unimpaired for future genera- tions. Background Thirty-seven national parks were already in existence when Congress formed the National Park Service on August 25, 1916.The creation of Yellowstone, the first national park in the world, like that of later parks, en- gendered struggles between those who wanted to pre- serve federal lands, preservationists, and those who wanted to use them, utilitarians. In general, Congress encouraged the economic development of federal lands. Yet many different groups—preservationists, local businessmen, the railroad industry, and scien- tists—each with its own particular interests, were able to convince Congress to pass the Yellowstone Act in 1872, therebypreserving more than 800,000 hectares. Despite the law, Yellowstone’s pristine status was soon under attack. Conflicts continued at the end of the century: An attempt to establish a gold mine outside the park was blocked by President Bill Clinton; ranch - ers were upset with the reestablishment of wolves inside the park in 1995, though this venture has been considered a success by scientists and the public. Fur- thermore, in 2003, the government put restrictions on snowmobile use within the park. Congress used the Yellowstone Act as the basis for establishing other parks. For most of these, preserva- tion was more theoretical than practical. For exam- ple, in Yosemite National Park, established in 1890, preservationists, including John Muir, lost a long bat- tle to utilitarians, including Gifford Pinchot, over the flooding of the Hetch Hetchy valley to provide San Francisco with water in 1913. This loss would later be used by preservationists as a rallying cry against future attempts to impinge on the national parks. Debate about Hetch Hetchy continued into the twenty-first century. The Antiquities Act In 1906, Congress passed the Antiquities Act to pro- tect federal lands of historical, scientific, and cultural interest. Congressman John Lacey of Iowa had recog- nized that scenicwonderswere not the onlylandswor- thy of preservation. Lacey’s original objective was to protect American Indian ruins and artifacts of the Southwest from looters, vandals, and other criminals. The wording of the act, however, has allowed presi- dents to have considerable latitude in setting aside sites as nationalmonuments. Some national parks, in- cluding Mesa Verde and Grand Canyon, were first made into national monuments. Their conversion into national parks involved compromise, including permitting railroad rights of way, farming by Ameri- can Indians, and the recognition of valid land claims and mining rights within park boundaries. Establishment of the National Park Service Without a centralfederalofficecoordinating national parks, many problems developed. The parks com- peted with one another for federal appropriations. No government agency had the authority to deter- mine national park criteria, thus allowing local inter- ests to convince Congress of the value of protecting natural wonders in places few people had seen. Pro- tection of resourcesfrom economic exploitation in all parks was difficult. Congress was not interested in adding to the federal bureaucracy and establishing a new government agency to administer the parks. The Forest Service, in the Department of Agricul - ture, wanted to maintain its role as a major federal Global Resources National Park Service • 793 landholding agency. It and the Reclamation Service, in the Department of the Interior, opposed new na- tional parks in general, since, from their viewpoint, parks overemphasized preservation of federal lands and did not allow sufficient economic use. Years of campaigning by such men as secretaries of the inte- rior Richard Ballinger, Walter Fisher, and Franklin Lane, J. Horace McFarland (president of the Ameri- can Civic Association), Representative William Kent, Senator Reed Smoot, and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. (son of Frederick Law Olmsted and a renowned land- scape architect in his own right) helped to convince Congress of the value of a new agency. After much controversy, in 1916, Congress passed the National Parks Act, establishing a central authority within the Department of the Interior and stating its responsibil- ities. Impact of the Park Service The law that established the National Park Service, the Organic Act of 1916, has been interpreted in many ways, not always emphasizing conservation and preservation. The first director of the National Park Service, Stephen Mather, tried to enforce his pres- ervationist beliefs but was notalways successful. Mather worked hard to make the service a professional orga- nization and an influential part of the Washington bureaucracy. He also recognized that, in order to make the na- tional park system truly national, some parks needed to be established in the East. All existing parks were in the West, but the majorityof the country’s population and wealth were in the East. Although the scenery of the East was not considered as spectacular as that of the West, local groups worked with state and local governments as well as with residents to establish Shenandoah, Great Smoky Mountains, Acadia, and Mammoth Cave National Parks in the 1920’s and 1930’s. Evolving Responsibilities In 1933, the federal government expanded the role of the NationalPark Serviceto include federallandsthat had been under the control of the Departments of War and Agriculture, including monuments, historic sites and buildings, and national military parks. By preserving and managing important historical sites along with natural ones, the Park Service enlarged its roleandmore completely fulfilledits mission of1916. There are almost four hundred national park units. Their popularity with Americans and foreigners con- tinues to grow, frequently resulting in damage to the very resources that the visitors come to enjoy.Because federal funds have not always kept pace, the National Park Service has been forced to close sections of parks and to depend more on volunteers. Yet the national parks remain unique national treasures, and the Na- tional Park Service continues to manage the parks by balancing use and preservation. Margaret F. Boorstein Further Reading Frome, M., R. W. Waver, and P. Pritchard. “United States: National Parks.” In International Handbook of National Parks and Nature Reserves, edited by Craig W. Allin. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Grusin, Richard. Culture, Technology, and the Creation of America’s National Parks. New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 2004. Heacox, Kim. An American Idea: The Making of the Na- 794 • National Park Service Global Resources U.S. National Park System Statistics 2000 2005 2007 Expenditures $1.833 billion $2.451 billion $2.412 billion Revenue from operations $234 million $286 million $346 million Recreational visitors 285,900,000 273,500,000 275,600,000 Overnight stays 15,400,000 13,500,000 13,800,000 Park system lands 78,200,000 79,048,000 78,845,000 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2009, 2009. Note: Includes visitor data for national parks, monuments, recreation areas, seashores, and miscellaneous other areas. tional Parks. Washington, D.C.: National Geo - graphic Society, 2001. Kaufman, Polly Welts. National Parks and the Woman’s Voice: A History. Updated ed. Albuquerque: Univer- sity of New Mexico Press, 2006. Mason, Kathy S. Natural Museums: U.S. National Parks, 1872-1916. East Lansing: Michigan StateUniversity Press, 2004. Mateo, Rony, ed. American National Parks: Current Is- sues and Developments. New York: Novinka Books, 2004. Ridenour, James M. The National Parks Compromised: Pork Barrel Politics and America’s Treasures. Merrill- ville, Ind.: ICS Books, 1994. Runte, Alfred. National Parks: The American Experience. 3d ed.Lincoln: University ofNebraskaPress, 1997. Whiteman, David. “The National Park System.” In Fed- eral Land Management Agencies, edited by Pamela D. Baldwin. New York: Novinka Books, 2005. Web Site National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior http://www.nps.gov/ See also: Antiquities Act;Department of the Interior, U.S.; Forest Service, U.S.; Muir, John; National parks and nature reserves; National Parks Act, Canadian; Pinchot, Gifford; Roosevelt, Theodore. National Parks Act, Canadian Categories: Laws and conventions; government and resources Date: May 30, 1930 The Canadian National Parks Act removed the parks from authority of the Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act and stated that they should be used but left unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations. Background The 1930 National Parks Act changed the purpose of Canada’s existingnationalparksfrom serving as areas of resource exploitation to becoming places to be pre- served for future generations. J. B. Harkin, the com - missioner of national parks, was the primary force be - hind the National Parks Act passage, which involved many compromises among national ministries as well as the provinces.Theact was passed concurrently with other acts that transferred natural resources within the boundaries of their respective provinces from the Dominion to the provinces themselves. New national park boundaries were also drawn. The resources in- side the parks remained attractive, and conflict con- tinued for decades over whether they should be pre- served or exploited. Provisions The act permitted, under governmentregulation, the granting of leases in town sites for lots for residence and trade, and it provided for public works and utili- ties. Therefore, the national parks were to be places where plants and animals were protected, but they were also to contain permanent homes and places of business for human beings. The act has undergone some modifications over the years. The first “parks policy” was developed in 1964 to change the parks from serving primarily as ar- eas of recreation to areas of natural conservation and to deal with the great increase of visitors over the 1950’s and early 1960’s. This modification was devel- oped under the administration of John I. Nicol, direc- tor ofthe National and HistoricParks Branch. Federal expropriation of Indian lands was ended. The Na- tional Parks branch became part of Environment Canada, Parks, contained in the Department of the Environment. Impact on Resource Use In the 1970’s, Canada identified thirty-nine natural regions within its borders to be represented by its na- tional parks. Canada had designated three additional national parks. The 1979 Parks Canada Policy called for both protection of natural ecological processes with little human interference and provision of qual- ity visitor services and recreational opportunities. In 1988, amendments to the National Parks Act of Can- ada emphasized the overall importance of preserving natural ecological processes. Conflicts over thenational parks system remain. Al- though the parks are protected from development, many contain towns and the concomitant human ac- tivities and natural disruptions. Highways running through parks bring visitors while serving as vital com- ponents of major transportation routes. In the newly established northern parks, indigenous peoples are permitted to use resources as part of their traditional Global Resources National Parks Act, Canadian • 795 ways of life. In outside areas adjacent to the parks, activities such as logging and mining affect wildlife and contribute to air and water pollution within and around the parks. In 1994, the Canadian parliament replaced the Parks Canada Policy of 1979 with Guiding Principles and Operational Policies, placing more emphasis on protecting natural and historic heritage areas. It called for ecosystem management while meeting social and economic needs, including tourism. The document emphasized the importance of cooperation with the public and with adherence to international conven- tions such as the World Heritage Convention and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Margaret F. Boorstein See also: Biodiversity; Canadian Environmental Pro- tection Act; Department of the Interior, U.S.; Na- tional Park Service; National parks and nature re- serves; Public lands. National parks and nature reserves Categories: Ecological resources; environment, conservation, and resource management National parks and nature reserves form about12 per- cent of Earth’s land area and contain valuable natu- ral resources and representative samples of species and ecosystems upon which humanity depends. Of the fif- teen regions recognized bytheUnited Nations Environ- ment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), North America has the most protected area; Europe has the most individual pro- tected sites; and with more than 20 percent of its region protected, South America has the highest percentage of protected land compared to total land area. Background Since the mid-twentieth century, Earth’s human pop- ulation has tripled, raising demand for resources that include not only land and fresh water but also plants and animals for food, medicine, and scientific re- search. There is continuingcontroversy over manage- ment of public lands with respect to these and other resources, such as carbon, natural gas, timber, and minerals. There are more than 120,000 protected areas worldwide. Environmental protection agencies can be found in more than one hundred countries, and more than five hundred international environ- mental treaties and agreements have been estab- lished. National governments usually designate land for preservation. Several nonprofit organizations work internationally to call attention to ecosystems that are of global value and need protection. National parks and naturereserves wereamong the first protectedar- eas of the modern conservation movement, which be- gan in the United States in the nineteenth century and spread worldwide. IUCN Designations The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) broadly defines a protected area to include any geographical location in which protection of bio- diversity is a priority. Protected areas are internation- ally designated for conserving species and ecosys- tems. For effective biodiversity protection, adequate funding for protected area management is funda- mental. Ensuring that the needs of a growing human population are balanced with the need to conserve the world’s biological diversity is also essential. Nationally designated protected areas are those that are recognized, designated, and supported by na- tional legislation or national authority. International organizations, such as the United Nations, have en- couraged national governments to jointly create a sys- tem of collective protection. International sites are thus defined as areas that are recognized and pro- tected by international agreements, such as treaties or conventions. International cooperation is assumed to assure greater protection than national initiatives alone. Since the 1970’s, international organizations and conventions have promoted the establishment of international sites and have encouraged national governments to set a number of protection targets. Several international conventions have produced agreements affecting protected areas. In June, 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), commonly known as the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It brought nations together to reach global agreement on sustainable development. The Convention on Bio- logical Diversity (CBD), which recognized that biodi- versity is fundamental to human life and therefore created policies and incentives for sustaining biodi - versity, was one of the major agreements to come out of the Earth Summit. In 2004, the Seventh Confer - 796 • National parks and nature reserves Global Resources ence of the Parties to the CBD established the Pro- gram of Work on Protected Areas (POWPA) to sup- port the establishment and maintenance ofprotected areas, to set goals and dates for reducing the rate of biodiversity loss, to work to reduce poverty, and to pursue sustainable development. In 2000, at the U.N. Millennium Summit in New York City, world leaders set eight Millennium Devel- opment Goals (MDGs) to be achieved by 2015. Among these goals was the establishment of protected areas to ensure environmental sustainability and reduce biodiversity loss by integrating principles of sustain- able development into national policiesandprograms. Both the CBD and the MDGs have established terres- trial and marine goals for protected area coverage. These goals call for at least 10 percent of each of the world’secological regions tobe effectivelyconserved. IUCN Management Protected areas such as parks and reserves can differ widely in their purpose and management. Through a classification system developed by the IUCN and en - couraged by the CBD, categorization of these areas is established in accordance with the area’s manage- ment objectives: A strict “nature reserve” is managed mainly for scientific research; a “wilderness area” is managed topreserveitsnatural condition; a“national park” is managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation; a “natural monument” is managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features; a “habitat/species area”ismanaged to ensure the main- tenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of specific species; a “protected landscape/seascape” is managed mainly for conservation and recreation; and a “managed resource area” is managed to ensure long-term protection and maintenance of biological diversity while also providing for sustainability of re- sources. These IUCN categories are used for diverse pur- poses, including site planning, setting regulations, land and water use negotiations, and progress reports on establishing and maintaining protected areas. At the Durban, South Africa, Worlds Parks Congress (2003) and the Bangkok, Thailand, World Conserva - tion Congress (2004) proposals were made to add a governance dimension to the categories. The IUCN Global Resources National parks and nature reserves • 797 A family stops to admire the view of the Grand Canyon from Duck on the Rock Overlook in 1958. (U.S. National Park Service) . Department of Agricul - ture, wanted to maintain its role as a major federal Global Resources National Park Service • 793 landholding agency. It and the Reclamation Service, in the Department of. direc- tor ofthe National and HistoricParks Branch. Federal expropriation of Indian lands was ended. The Na- tional Parks branch became part of Environment Canada, Parks, contained in the Department of. vital com- ponents of major transportation routes. In the newly established northern parks, indigenous peoples are permitted to use resources as part of their traditional Global Resources National