Having adopted the combined analytical framework of Critical Metaphor Analysis proposed by Charteris Black 2004,Systemic Functional Grammar established by Halliday 1994, and Martin and W
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Among the most prominent schools of thought, structuralism and functionalism were the first formal psychological theories that greatly affected the approaches to discourse in linguistics Structuralism studies the internal structure of language while functionalism is concerned with its more practical facet: its functions As the two theories approach different facets of language, the recent and more comprehensive trend in discourse study — the combined functional — structural approach, embraces both theories in a way that appreciates the various functions fulfilled by language, how they largely determine language structures and how different structures influence the communicative effect Consequently, the emphasis of discourse study now is on how texts can be understood or how thoughts and ideology are conveyed in social process In this sense, language is not merely a means of reality reflection or interaction but also an essential tool for power and ideology for its capability of constructing reality As a matter of fact, language is never neutral because it reflects the intentions of the communicators (Fiske, 1994; Fowler et al., 1979).
The time we are currently living in is condensed with a variety of catastrophic events, including Amazon wildfire, Australia bushfire, Lake Michigan catastrophe, Coronavirus (or COVID-19) outbreak, etc., which lead to the rise of global economic recession and social instability regarding the sharp rise in social evils such as racial discrimination and terrorism One of the most fundamental issues to resolve is the deadly pandemic caused by COVID-19 Although it is not the first health-related crisis facing the world (SARS was the first international pandemic that spawned a variety of other medical issues including MERS, Zika and swine flu), COVID-19 has marked a shift in the global health security regime (Puyvallée and Kittelsen, 2019).
According to Pharmaceutical technology online newspaper, from December 31“,
2020 — when the first case was detected until now — 9" June 2020, “the total confirmed cases of COVID-19 have reached over 7,138,000 with over 406,000 deaths and 3,311,000 recoveries” The evolving speed of virus seems not to decrease as the expected cases are on the rise due to ineffective social distancing measures in countries such as the US, Brazil, India and a number of Middle East countries In the pandemic context, communication of information related to the way to respond to Coronavirus and the management of public’s perception of the outbreak have fallen to prominent public figures As a result, public communication, practices of governance and the issues of epidemiology have got entangled with each other (BJứrkdahl & Carlsen, 2019) With the wide spread of COVID-19, it comes to researcher’s notice that the global pandemic provides a fertile ground to study a variety of communication events related to and unfolding public health crisis (Powers, 2008).
Among the prominent public figures, Bill Gates, who is deemed a worldwide billionaire, entrepreneur and enthusiastic philanthropist lies among the first to initiate the pandemic talks to the public He makes several warnings about the possibility of an upcoming outbreak in his speech on TED — a world famous American media organization posting talks by influential figures around the word under the slogan
“ideas worth sharing” At the time the COVID-19 pandemic occurs, the world is astounded by his previous warnings and several media organizations come to him for his opinions on the occurrence of the outbreak and how people should respond to this situation In the interview hosted by the head of TED recorded on March 24" 2020,
Gates emphasizes the significant role of large technological enterprises, particularly the Gates Foundation, in disease testing and vaccine production, and at the same time, addressing the ineffective health crisis management of the US government and a number of politicians This raises the question of whether Gates simply discussed the events revolving around the pandemic and suggested ways to mitigate its consequences or whether he intends to use the interview as a means of promoting his ideas on leveraging private organizations as well as marginalizing the US government’s interference.
Despite numerous pandemic discourse studies, research examining the interplay between pandemic discourse and philanthrocapitalism remains scarce This study aims to address this gap by analyzing the representation of COVID-19 in relation to philanthrocapitalism through the lens of critical discourse analysis The study examines the discursive structures evident in an interview with Bill Gates on the Coronavirus outbreak, hosted by TED Talk, to uncover the underlying connections between the two concepts.
1.2 Aims and objectives of the research
The study is carried out with an attempt to discuss how ideology is embedded in political discourse, specifically how philanthrocapitalism is interwoven in Bill Gates’ pandemic talk in his interview with TED Talk on ‘How to respond to the Coronavirus pandemic’ in 2020 Moreover, the study is expected to contribute to the existing research on English for education purposes.
To achieve this aim, the following objectives are specified to:
-Explore how the COVID-19 pandemic is linguistically represented by Bill Gates.
-Estimate the extent to which such representations construct the philanthrocapitalist ideology in Bill Gates’ statements.
In order to address two objectives, the study is intended to answer two corresponding research questions as follow:
(i) How is the COVID-19 pandemic represented in Bill Gates’ statements in the interview?
Gi)To what extent do these pandemic representations construct the philanthrocapitalist traces?
In this study, my focus lies on exploring the philanthrocapitalist traces underlying Bill Gates’ pandemic talks in his interview with two TED hosts (TED
Chris Anderson and current affairs curator Whitney Pennington Rodgers) The interview is carried out virtually and was recorded on March 24", 2020 Due to the constraint of time and length limits of the minor thesis as well as the researcher’s knowledge,this paper concentrates on examining philanthrocapitalist ideology in pandemic discourse through Gates’ grammatical and lexical choices as well as their functions. Paralinguistic (intonation range, tempo, pitch, loudness, etc.) and extralinguistic (facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, etc.) features are excluded in this study despite the fact that they are essential in interpreting interlocutors’ intentions, identity, and ideology.
This is a pure linguistic study so the researcher is not expressing personal viewpoint or political stance The researcher does not support any particular political or social movement The study is for academic purpose only.
This study is expected to provide both theoretical and practical significance.
In terms of theoretical contribution, the findings of the study attempt to provide support to the existing CDA theories at a minor scale Practically, the study aims to raise the awareness of the pervasiveness of political ideology in pandemic discourse.
In addition, with the examination of Bill Gates’ discussion on the COVID-19 outbreaks, the study is hoped to provide English teachers and learners with a number of pedagogical implications in light of the CDA viewpoint Specifically, it enriches English learners’ knowledge of the way to interpret the speaker’s intention underlying their statements and to explain their linguistic choice to convey such intention.
This study adopts the qualitative content analysis approach of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) CDA is implemented in the text analysis process to uncover hidden ideologies concerning the linguistic choices to construct philanthrocapitalism in pandemic discourse Data collected is synthesized and analyzed by means of the three-dimensional framework of Norman Fairclough (2001) in combination with Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar.
The study consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction This section presents the rationale, scope, aim and objectives, significance, research methodology and design of the study.
Chapter 2: Literature ReviewThis chapter explains the basic terminologies involved in the analysis process of the data and the theoretical framework The review of related research papers provides a general view of pandemic discourses and philanthrocapitalism.
Chapter 3: Methodology The second chapter provides background information on Bill Gates, TED Talk, and the immediate context of the interview An exhaustive description of the methodology of the study such as the data collection procedure and analysis framework is also included.
Chapter 4: Data analysis and discussion
LITERATURE REVIEẲW LH nghiệt 6 2.1 Critical Discourse AniaẽYS1S .- - - c 1 t1 11 11v 1 TH HH ng 6 2.1.1 OPI Si eee eecceeccenecesnecsceceseeeseeceeeceaeecsaecececeaeeceaeecsaeceaeeceaeeseaeceeeceeeceaeeseaeenaes 6 2.1.2 Defimition nh
Main tenets Of CDA 000107
- CDA focuses on social issues, using language analysis to address societal problems.- Power relations are established and exhibited through language use.- Discourse forms the basis of society and culture.- Discourse influences societal change and promotes ideologies.- Historical context is crucial for interpreting discourse.- Language mediates connections between text and society.- CDA interprets and explains discourse.- Discourse serves as a form of social action.- Distinct from other approaches, CDA targets social transformation, aiming to address inequality and power imbalances.
The dialectical-rational approach to discourse by Norman Fairclough (the three-stage CDA mO@Ì)) G5 1111639301991 311 910119010 9n kg 9 2.2 Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar and Martin and White’s Appraisal ÍTAI€WOKK Q9 HH Họ HH HH HH HH ng 12 2.2.1 Halliday’s systemic functional grammar <5 s5 5+ + *+svsxeereeeeres 12 2.2.2 Martin and White’s appraisal framework - + sksisrerrske 16 2.3 Metaphor and Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) .- ccc<scssssee 17 2.3.1 (or 0iiẢ.ỔdddỶ 17 2.3.2 Critical Metaphor Analysis (Charteris-Black, 2004) . -ôô++<<<++ 18
Fairclough is considered one of the most notable figures following the CDA approach with several contributions to this field His approach focuses on the dialectical notion in discourse, particularly dialectical reasoning, and relations between discourse and elements of the social process Fairclough believes that language is not only a tool for human communication, it can shape our perceptions of the world, construct one’s own identity, and change reality as a whole In other words, language and our perception of reality have a two-way relation, also known as a dialectical relation On this basis, Fairclough develops the three-dimensional framework of discourse analysis showing three levels of discourse including discourse-as-text, discourse-as-discursive-practice, and discourse-as-social-practice as below:
Based on the three dimensions/levels of discourse, Fairclough introduces the three stages/phases of conducting CDA, namely description, interpretation, and explanation The first stage is called description concerning the formal features of the text in use/discourse In this stage, Fairclough suggests ten questions and their sub- questions to implement in the textual analysis of discourse (the details are in Appendix 1) It is noted that the questions are not compulsory procedures to follow. The questions are divided into three types: vocabulary, grammar, and textual structures According to Fairclough (2015:131), the choices of language based on the three types are determined by three values: (1) experiential value — how the text producer’s experiential value is presented through the content in the form of personal knowledge and beliefs, (2) relational value — the social relationships enacted via such text and (3) expressive value — the evaluation and emotion of the text producer on a subject(s): an aspect of reality, social identity, etc.
The second stage of the model is explanation whose objective is to analyze discourse in terms of a social process, at a pragmatic level The stage is portrayed in the following figure (Fairclough, 2015):
Social orders ——————————> Eš7]—— Situational context
Phonology, grammar, vocabulary [= ]}— Surface of utterance
Semantics, 0 pee -+~————> Meaning of utteran pragmatics ea ——es
Cohesion, _ = esq MR institutional
Figure 2.3 Explanation (Fairclough, 2015) 2.2 Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar and Martin and White’s Appraisal framework
Halliday's systemic functional grammar stresses the idea that language is always contextual and shaped by the social and cultural context in which it is used It emphasizes the importance of understanding the social functions of language and the way these functions are expressed through grammatical choices and patterns in speech and writing.
Halliday's systemic functional grammar serves as a comprehensive framework for examining and comprehending the functions of language It elucidates how language serves as a tool for constructing meaning, facilitating social interactions, and delivering messages across diverse contexts Its strength lies in providing a structured approach to analyzing language, enabling a deeper understanding of its multifaceted roles in human communication and societal dynamics.
Michael Halliday, a prominent British functionalist, revolutionized the functional linguistics paradigm with the creation of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), also known as Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) SFG emerged during the late 1960s as a groundbreaking grammar analysis model designed to investigate language as a socially constructed resource used for communication in diverse contexts.
1960s SFG is a linguistic theory that emphasizes the social function of language and the way it is used in communication The theory proposes that language is a tool for making meaning and for expressing social relationships Halliday (1994) argues that
“SFG is a lexico-grammatical theory grounds upon the notion of choice where language and/or any other semiotic system for that matter, is interpreted as “network of interlocking options” In this sense, SFG focuses on the structure and content of grammar choices made by communicators Accordingly, linguistic cues are analyzed in three different strata: semantics, phonology, and lexico-grammar, in which, the last strata is considered as the center of the grammatical analysis model SFG is organized around three main functions (or metafunctions): the ideational function, the interpersonal function, and the textual function In particular, the ideational function refers to the way language is used to construct meanings related to the world around us, such as events, objects, and concepts It relates to the content or substance of language and includes the use of grammatical features such as tense, aspect, and modality Hence, this function allows speakers to communicate information, thus representing and constructing reality The interpersonal function, on the other hand, relates to the way language is used to establish and maintain social relationships between interlocutors (speakers and listeners), for instance, expressing attitudes, emotions, and intentions and making evaluations It consists of grammatical features such as voice, mood, and transitivity The third function - textual function refers to the way language is used to organize information and create coherent messages, such as through the use of cohesive devices, for example, conjunctions, referencing devices such as pronouns, and other grammatical features such as theme and rheme.
In other words, the final textual function acts as a connector and platform that enables the two mentioned functions In correspondence to the three meta-functions of language are three networks of grammatical system, including transitivity, mood and modality, and theme consisting of information (the information units are classified into two groups: theme — rheme and given — new) Anatomically, language possesses five dimensions as in the following table by Matthiessen & Halliday (2004):
Table 2.1 The dimensions (forms of order) in language and stratification realization semantics ~ lexicogrammar ~ phonology ~ phonetics instantiation instantiation potential ~ subpotential/ instance type ~ instance metafunction metafunction ideational [logical ~ experiential] ~ interpersonal ~ textual
The three networks of the grammatical system and their place is presented in the following figure by Matthiesen & Halliday (2004):
Context Semantics Lexicogrammar cụ _ System: TRANSITIVITY Impacting/effective
: Say Message Clause ơ—ơL L Trans role
Mode Hf nem) — (quantum of Unmarked
Figure 2.4 Lexicogrammar networks of language (Matthiesen & Halliday, 2004)
As presented in section 2.1.4, the first stage of Fairclough’s CDA model is description, focusing on the functional approach to textual analysis, taking into account the relationship between the text structure and its social context Hence, it is clear that SFG can considerably contribute to CDA’s process by its orientation of studying grammar and other aspects of language form.
This study utilizes the theory of the ideational metafunction of language with an aim to realize the identity of the characters presented in the interview as assumed by Gates Through the types of processes ascribed to each agent, Gates revealed his
14 ideological stance through the portrayal of said agents The ideational function of language can be considered a general social function of language that “expresses the
‘reflective’ as well as the ‘experiential’ aspect of meaning through the system of transitivity” (Van Van, 2018:5) According to Halliday (1985; 1994), transitivity system refers to the six different process types The three primary processes are named material, mental, and relational processes The remaining subtypes are existential, behavioral, and verbal processes Each process comprises three notions that act as the reference for what happens in the world: the process itself, the participant(s) in the process, and the circumstances associated with the process (such a notion can present or not in the clause) The following table provides the brief summary of each type of process:
Table 2.2 Summary of Halliday’s process types
Philanthrocapitalism and Bill Ciaf€S - 5 5 2c 132 £sEEseerseerrseeree 27 2.5 Related Studies
Bill Gates, who is considered “the poster child for the moral billionaire” (Rubtsova, 2019), has become one of the most prominent philanthrocapitalists in the world with the activities of the Gates Foundation Through his philanthropic foundation, Gates has donated billions of dollars to address a wide range of global issues such as disease eradication, education, and climate change As a philanthrocapitalist, Gates has embraced the tenets of using business principles in philanthropy, such as investing in high-potential projects, measuring outcomes, and
27 collaborating with other stakeholders He has often cited the importance of leveraging technology and innovation to find solutions to pressing global problems The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has proven to be instrumental in combating global poverty and improving global health In reality, Bill and Melinda Gates have pledged to give up
95% of their wealth and have already given grants of over $26 billion The Global
Health program of the Gates Foundation has been crucial to the work of eradicating diseases such as polio, malaria, and tuberculosis, and has taken on treating HIV/AIDS in the developing world (Rubtsova, 2019) Moreover, the partnership with Warren Buffett of the Gates Foundation established the Giving Pledge, the financial research company Wealth-X projects to be worth $600 billion by 2020, morally attracted and committed by numerous billionaires.
Howe4ver, Gates and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have faced criticism for their approach Some argue that Gates' wealth and influence allow him to have disproportionate influence over global social and environmental policies. Others point to concerns around the Foundation's prioritization of certain issues, such as education reform and climate change, at the expense of others As a matter of fact, the Gates Foundation's website indicates that in 2017 it granted $1.6 million as seed money 'to increase awareness, understanding, and acceptance of possible gene drive applications for public good purposes’ to Emerging Ag Inc., a PR firm for the agribusiness and biotech companies which is putting together a covert ‘advocacy coalition’ trying to bend the UN Forum to a particular view of what are 'public good purposes’ Consequently, the firm also assists in coordinating opposition to calls for a temporary moratorium on these unprecedented techniques until they can be better understood Such a rush to profits is seemingly trying to block oversight that could assure safety and prevent misuse (Bereano, 2017) Moreover, what makes Gates a typical philanthrocapitalist is his immense belief in the power of science and hi-tech.
His ideologies as well as worldview are immersed in his experience with technology, thus, he has the ultimate faith that sciences and technologies can provide “the preferred, if not, the only solution to social problems” (Bereano, 2017) Nevertheless, his so-called highly-scientific approach has been criticized to be counter-scientific.
In 2009, Gates and his associates challenged the findings of the World Bank and UN-funded IAASTD report, which advocated for agroecological farming practices to combat hunger Despite evidence of their sustainability and productivity, Gates opposed this approach, favoring technological interventions in agriculture He emphasized the role of private sector companies as the primary source of expertise, as he announced a $200 million donation to IFAD during its Governing Council meeting (Bereano).
The Green Revolution, launched in the 1960s, promoted a technological approach to agriculture that marginalized agroecological practices This shift emphasized the exclusive role of technology in farming, ignoring the potential of agroecology Furthermore, it transferred the responsibility for addressing social challenges in agriculture to the private sector, undermining the role of government and communities in shaping sustainable food systems.
Despite these criticisms, Gates continues to be a major figure in philanthropy and a champion of philanthrocapitalism He has also been vocal about the importance of wealthy individuals and foundations contributing to social and environmental causes, stating that “the idea of giving back has been incredibly important to me since
I started Microsoft, and even more so now that I have a lot of wealth.”
The pandemic has always been a highly relevant and familiar topic for discussion because of its profound impacts on various aspects of society, such as the economy, finance, public health, and everyday life In fact, pandemic discourses are an area of great interest to various researchers, especially when it comes to people’s perceptions and attitudes reflected in their statements on the pandemic situation The conceptualization of a pandemic is possibly linguistically realized in several ways, typically through the use of metaphors, grammar (quotation, rhetorical questions, verbs, etc.), and/or pragmatic elements (implicatures, speech act, relevance, etc.). Among the numerous studies on such a topic, metaphors tend to be chosen as the subject for analysis since they are the most used linguistic tool by the public and media along with powerful political figures due to their framing potency and flexibility The study of conceptual metaphors based on CMT or employing CMA
29 covered a wide range of discourse types Previous research investigating metaphors in media representations of severe diseases or pandemics discovered that the majority of their conceptualization is of militaristic metaphors, portraying the disease as an
“enemy of humanity” and the attempts to reduce mortality from the disease as a
“fight”, a “struggle” and “war” Such metaphors have not been restricted to media discourse but have commonly been widely implemented in other types of discourse including science, medicine, and policy (Larson, Nerlich, and Wallis, 2005) Sontag (1978; 1989) was among the first researchers to indicate a widespread, war-like, metaphoric depiction of cancer and AIDS Following Sontag’s research, several studies confirmed the prevalence of metaphors of war in the discourse on cancer (Clarke, 1992; Camus, 2009), AIDS (Patton, 1990; Sandahl, 2001), and other diseases, including foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and HINI (Larson, Nerlich and Wallis, 2005) Sontag criticized the use of such metaphors for demonizing the disease, which made patients feel ashamed and might lead to their stigmatization since the attribution of fault was inevitably extended to them As a result, a number of researchers have called for the use of less problematic alternative metaphoric framings (Larson, Nerlich, and Wallis, 2005) However, Sontag’s work has itself been criticized for basing conclusions primarily on the author’s personal experience, thus not providing empirical evidence proving that the employment of militaristic metaphors led to patients’ feelings of shame (Clow, 2001) In addition, various scholars have indicated positive implications of the metaphor of DISEASE IS WAR, such as its potential to serve as a source of empowerment if the patient is portrayed as a fighter (Reisfield and Wilson, 2004).
In addition to the military metaphor, other symbolic themes emerge in media representations of diseases Camus' (2009) analysis identified ten distinct metaphors employed in scientific popularization articles in the British press to describe cancer, highlighting the multidimensional perspectives through which diseases are framed.
AS A MACHINE, DIRT and A PUZZLE, and CANCER CELLS AS HUMAN BEINGS and ANIMALS The author explained the adoption of a multiplicity of metaphors as necessitated by the complexity of cancer Recently, Trékova (2015) research on the representations of Ebola and its victims revealed the flexibility in the
30 adoption of various conceptual metaphors belonging to different types of discourse. Focusing on analyzing two daily American liberal-oriented-newspapers: The New York Times and The New York Daily News, the researcher revealed the dominant use of the metaphors EBOLA AS WAR, EBOLA AS AN ANIMATE/ HUMAN BEING, and EBOLA AS A NATURAL CATASTROPHE All three metaphoric expressions assigned the role of a culprit solely to the virus, which stands in contrast to non- metaphoric discursive allocations of blame for the situation in Africa, assigning responsibility mainly to artificial notions African victims tended to be impersonalized and portrayed as voiceless and agentless, rarely occupying the role of a “fighter” in the disease war, which runs counter to the findings of recent studies detecting a change towards a more positive image of Africa in the media.
Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic's emergence in late 2019 and its devastating impact by early 2020, a surge in discussions arose, encompassing topics such as public health, global collaboration, economic ramifications, vaccine distribution, mental well-being, and future crisis preparedness This has significantly expanded the corpus of health-related discourses and research, with a noteworthy focus on the representation, management, and human response to the pandemic Metaphorical language has emerged as a prevalent research area within these studies, as seen in recent investigations on its role in legitimizing government actions.
Concluding (c7 e
This chapter aims to explain the procedures and techniques employed to answer the research questions stated in Chapter 1: Introduction The methodology of the research and data collection procedures are presented in the chapter.
This chapter discusses the analytical framework to deconstruct the evaluative conceptualization of the COVID-19 pandemic through Bill Gates’ statements in his interview with TED Such conceptualization is analyzed in terms of metaphors (or metaphorical language), transitivity, and appraisal.
In order to accommodate the presentation of the research methodology, it is essential to refer to the research questions mentioned in the first chapter as follows:
(i) How is the COVID-19 pandemic represented in Bill Gates’ statements in the interview?
()To what extent do these pandemic representations construct the philanthrocapitalist traces?
An integrated research approach has been implemented to deliver the answer to the two research questions.
The study essentially belongs to the aspect of critical discourse analysis The research employs an eclectic approach, which integrated the analytical frameworks of Critical Metaphor Analysis proposed by Charteris Black (2004), Systemic Functional Grammar established by Halliday (1994), and Martin and White’s (2005) Appraisal framework for three respecting notions of the discourse: metaphors, transitivity and appraisal/ evaluation The data opts for an eclectic approach due to the diversity of linguistic tactics that the speaker — Bill Gates, employed in his replies to TED interviewers The synergy among the three said approaches is essential as it responds to the limitations and highlights the strengths of each approach.
Firstly, although CMA has been proven to be effective in tackling political discourse for the large corpus of research on discourse by famous political figures, its
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY - - SẶcc-cSesssskes 39 3.1 Research ion
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The following figure summarizes the research approach system of the paper:
Evaluative conceptualization of the a pandemic Transitivity Systemic Functional Grammar
Figure 3.1 The research approach of the thesis The figure indicates that there are three approaches to the examined text, respectively metaphor, transitivity, and appraisal Corresponding to the approaches, there are three analytical frameworks text including CMA, SFG, and Appraisal framework.
In respect of deconstructing metaphorical language used in the excerpt, Charteris-Black’s (2004) three-staged-metaphorical analysis framework is implemented The metaphors in the data are processed according to three steps elaborated in Chapter 2: Literature Review, Section 3.2.4 summarized in the following figure:
RESEARCH QUESTIONS 3 METAPHOR fe Secon De INTERPRETATION
(AGENCY, RHETORICAL PURPOSE & IDENTIFYING MYTH & IDEOLOGY)
Figure 3.2 Stages of Critical Metaphor Analysis (Charteris-Black, 2013:500)
It is noted that the first two steps cannot be separated as they form the micro- analysis procedure Corresponding to the three steps of CMA, the data analysis includes two parts: micro-analysis and macro-analysis Micro-analysis initially involves the identification of expressions that represent the pandemic that contains the semantic tension caused by the ‘shift in domain use’ That is, the pandemic is not used in their denotations Specifically, the shift in domain use is described in a way that “offered a comprehensive profile of the potential source domains” (Salama, 2021:88) through which the target domains “the pandemic COVID-19” are conceptualized The second stage macro-analysis deals with the explanation of the broader socio-political context of the conceptual metaphors used by Gates that are associated with the pandemic In this stage, the social agency — the producer of the conceptual metaphor and the political and social values attached to such framing are taken into account to bring out the producer’s intentions.
After tackling metaphorical language employing CMA, Halliday’s (1985,
1994, 2004) SFL model and its extension of the Appraisal framework by Martin and
White (2005) are deployed for transitivity analysis and appraisal of the data The transitivity analysis and appraisal of attitude is presented in two separate parts, each of which represents different aspects of the discourse The appraisal framework of Martin and White (2005) was adopted in the analysis of attitude only The types of attitudes are classified as follows: ff Canmpines r4 = | item
APPRAISAL 4 ằ Graduation al - Totensification Í Quality
Figure 3.3 presents an overview of the Appraisal Framework, adapted from Martin and White (2005) by Xie (2017) This framework provides a tabular representation of semantic patterns related to the COVID-19 pandemic It includes sections for Agency, Process, Attitude, and Main themes The frequency of each semantic unit is indicated in the table.
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION eeiee 45 4.1 Analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic in Bill Gates’ statements employing
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This chapter outlines fundamental concepts for data analysis and ideological underpinnings for data interpretation The thesis employs philanthrocapitalism as an interpretive framework, informed by the background of Bill Gates It also reviews prior empirical research that used a similar approach to studying pandemic discourses These reviews inform the interpretation and explanation of data presented in the subsequent chapter.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) emerged in the late 1970s and 1980s as a reaction to traditional discourse analysis approaches that prioritized formal language aspects over communicative functions and social contexts CDA's foundation lies in the Frankfurt School's critical theory, which originated in the period between the two World Wars The Frankfurt School, a Marxist think tank based in Frankfurt, Germany, included influential scholars like Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and Walter Benjamin.
The orientation of CDA was developed by neo-Marxist and post-modernist approaches of social theorists and linguists with the key figures of Foucault (1972) and Pecheux (1975), who helped establish the relationship between ideology and discourse, that was, discourse acted as the primary mediator through which ideology was transmitted, enacted, and reproduced Initially, CDA aimed to explore the relationship between social philosophy and science with the significant contribution of social theorists, such as Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, Marx Horkheimer,Theodor W Adorno, and Jiirgen Habermas Other critical developments and influence of CDA could be traced back to Antonio Gramsci and his followers, especially Stuart Hall and the other members of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (Hall, 1981) In the mid-1980s, CDA’s approach to discourse analysis was steered in a new direction by the research of a group of linguists, notably Fairclough, van Dijk, and Wodak, leading to the publishing of several influential papers and two new important journals in the field of CDA, namely Critical Discourse Studies and the Journal of Language and Politics By this time, the field of research of CDA has been broadened with the incorporation of new concepts and theories relating to phenomena such as globalization and marketization, racism, gender issues, media discourses, political discourses, and dimensions of identity establishment and reproduction by discourse (Wodak, 2001a).
Fairclough (2012) considered critical discourse analysis as “a branch of critical social analysis” that contributes to critical social analysis with a focus on discourse, especially on relations between discourse and other social variables, for example, how discourse relates to ideologies and power relations In particular, the term
‘critical’ is rooted in the Frankfurt school of critical theory, particularly under the influence of the works of Jiirgen Habermas based on Horkheimer (Thompson, 1984).
In CDA, Adam Lodges and Chad Nilep (2007:4) explained what they mean by
CDA employs the term 'critical' to denote the careful analysis of data from a detached perspective, aligning with the Frankfurt School's notion of critical theory Additionally, 'discourse' in CDA encompasses the interactive process of communication and encompasses various aspects such as representation (discourse), interaction (genre), and identity (style) Central to CDA is the Marxist principle that research not only addresses societal injustices but also strives for social transformation.
‘discourse’ can be seen as a social practice as it is “socially constitutive as well as socially conditioned” (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997:258) Lastly, the term ‘analysis’ in CDA refers to the examination of discourse incorporating a range of various research approaches with a focus on power and ideology to disclose the ideological and persuasive functions of language in use Fairclough (1992a, 1995) argued that
‘critical’ means unsystematic in approach, that is, there does not exist a fixed systematic approach to talk and text in CDA CDA does not primarily aim to contribute to a specific discipline, paradigm, school, or discourse theory (Van Dijk, 1993; Fairclough, 2003; Weiss and Wodak, 2003) because it is not determined by individual choice, but it is determined by social structures and social differentiation (Fairclough, 1989) Due to the considerable complexity of social issues, it requires an inter/transdisciplinary approach to discourse and highly sophisticated theories (in Rhetoric, Text Linguistics, Pragmatics, Anthropology, Philosophy, Social Psychology, Sociolinguistics, Cognitive Science, Critical Social Theory, Political Economy, Applied Linguistics), which is a highly dynamic and flexible system of methods, to tackle and elaborate such sociopolitical phenomenon.
To be critical means attempting to unveil opaque ideologies and covert interconnectedness between properties of texts and social processes, and power relations produced by such texts CDA is critical because it not only describes but also interprets and explains the relationship between the formal features (grammar, morphology, semantics, syntax, etc.) and the functions (how people use language in different situations to achieve an aim) of language As a result, critical discourse analysts cannot occupy a neutral position since their main concern is to make ideological assumptions hidden in the form of language visible to assist in making social change and fighting against dominance and power abuse These principles guide the analysis of discourse in CDA and help to ensure that research is rigorous, reflexive, and socially relevant In this way, CDA can also be considered as a problem-oriented social research.
CDA's problem-oriented approach analyzes language to address social issues Language exerts power relations, creating and perpetuating societal norms and culture Discourse ideologies facilitate social transformation Historical context is crucial for understanding discourse Language mediates the connections between text and society CDA's interpretative and explanatory functions aim to expose hidden meanings and social actions within discourse Notably, CDA's focus on social change distinguishes it from other approaches, as it seeks to address societal inequalities and domination.
2.1.4 The dialectical-rational approach to discourse by Norman Fairclough (the three-stage CDA model)
Fairclough is considered one of the most notable figures following the CDA approach with several contributions to this field His approach focuses on the dialectical notion in discourse, particularly dialectical reasoning, and relations between discourse and elements of the social process Fairclough believes that language is not only a tool for human communication, it can shape our perceptions of the world, construct one’s own identity, and change reality as a whole In other words, language and our perception of reality have a two-way relation, also known as a dialectical relation On this basis, Fairclough develops the three-dimensional framework of discourse analysis showing three levels of discourse including discourse-as-text, discourse-as-discursive-practice, and discourse-as-social-practice as below:
Based on the three dimensions/levels of discourse, Fairclough introduces the three stages/phases of conducting CDA, namely description, interpretation, and explanation The first stage is called description concerning the formal features of the text in use/discourse In this stage, Fairclough suggests ten questions and their sub- questions to implement in the textual analysis of discourse (the details are in Appendix 1) It is noted that the questions are not compulsory procedures to follow. The questions are divided into three types: vocabulary, grammar, and textual structures According to Fairclough (2015:131), the choices of language based on the three types are determined by three values: (1) experiential value — how the text producer’s experiential value is presented through the content in the form of personal knowledge and beliefs, (2) relational value — the social relationships enacted via such text and (3) expressive value — the evaluation and emotion of the text producer on a subject(s): an aspect of reality, social identity, etc.
The second stage of the model is explanation whose objective is to analyze discourse in terms of a social process, at a pragmatic level The stage is portrayed in the following figure (Fairclough, 2015):
Social orders ——————————> Eš7]—— Situational context
Phonology, grammar, vocabulary [= ]}— Surface of utterance
Semantics, 0 pee -+~————> Meaning of utteran pragmatics ea ——es
Cohesion, _ = esq MR institutional
Figure 2.3 Explanation (Fairclough, 2015) 2.2 Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar and Martin and White’s Appraisal framework