giáo trình tiếng anh dành cho sinh viên ngành sinh học nxb khoa học kỹ thuật 1998 kiều hữu ảnh 237 trang

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

TRƯỜNG DẠI HỌC KHOA HỌC TỰ NHIÊN KHOA SINH HOC

Cover Picture :

Drawing of the structure of HIV, the virus that causes AIDS

Chịu trách nhiệm xuất bản : PGS.PTS TO DANG HAI

Nha xuat ban Khoa hoc va Ky thuat 70 Trần Hưng Đạo - Hà Nội

5 - 57

290 - 99 - 22/4/98 KHKT - 98

Giáo trình này được viết dựa trên các bài giảng môn tiếng Anh chuyên ngành dã được

giang dạy tại Khoa Sinh học, Trường Đại học Khoa học Tự nhiên, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội từ

nam 1998 dén nay cho sinh vién ngành Sim học thuộc giải đoạn H

Mục dích chính của các bài giảng này là tạo điểu kiện cho sònh viên làm quen với các thuật ngữ tiếng Anh về sinh học để họ có thể dân dân dọc liểu được các xách giáo khoa xinh

học bằng tiếng Anh và địch được các bài báo trên các tạp chỉ chuyền ngành từ tiếng Anh sang

tiếng Việt Bên cụnh đó, các sinh viên đã có kiến thức tốt về ngoại ngữ này muốn bat dau tap

viel ccc cau tiéng Anh don gidn mang néi dung khoa học và công nghệ cũng có thể tìm thấy

trong phản ngữ pháp của mỗi bài những sự hướng dân bổ ích

Chắc chấn cuốn sách còn mang nhiều thiếu sót Tác giả mong nhậu được nhiều sự phê

bình và góp Ý của các bạn đồng nghiệp và bạn đọc gần và để có thể ngày càng hoàn thiện hơn

nội chưng của cuốn xách Nhân đây tác giả cũng xin to lot cam ơn chân thành tới GŒS Nguyễn

Ba GS Neuvén Lan Dũng, PGS Phạm Văn TY, TS Vũ Công Quy và các bạn đồng nghiệp

D6 Lé Thang va Lé Thi Tha Wien dd cung cdp cho tac gid nhieu tai lieu quy giá trong quả trình

hoàn thành cuốn sách nay

Ha Nội, ngảy 16 tháng 3 năm 1998

os - 2

PTS Kiéu Huw Anh

Chủ nhiệm Bo mon Vi sinh vat hoc

KHOA SINH HOC

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC KHOA HỌC TƯ NHIÊN

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

Jiờt nhận xét

Ngoại ngữ là một môn học đóng với trò quan trọng không thể thiếu được trong chương

trình dào tạo sinh viên ở bậc đại học nói chủng và sinh viên ở giá đoạn HH nói rồng

Mục đích của việc dạy và học ngoại ngữ ở giải đoạn này là tiếp tục củng CỔ nhưng kiên

thức và KỸ năng ngôn ngữ dd dược hình thành ở giai đoạn l, đặc biệt nâng cao và thuần thu

một số kỹ năng nhằm giúp sinh viên nhanh chóng nắm lấy ngoại ngữ như một phương tiện hữu

hiệu trong quá trình trt đào tạo

Giai doan Hla yiai doan chuyên ngành, về vậy giáo trình ngoại ngữ dùng cho sith viên

giới doạn này phái mang tính chất chuyên ngành Hơn thế mữau, giải đoạn Hla giai doan noi

tiếp giải đoạn Ú nền việc vậy dựng một giáo trình ngoại ngữ cần phái dâm bảo tính liên tc và hệ thống về mặt ngôn ngữ

Xết về những yêu câu trên, giáo trình “Iiếng Anh dành cho xinh viên ngành Sinh học”

của PTS Sinh học Kiểu Hữu Ảnh là một tài liệu tốt về cơ bản đáp ứng được các yêu cẩu của

một giáo trình chuyên ngành

Giáo trình gồm 20 bài có nội dung chuyên nôn phong phú Mỗi bài có cậu trúc họp lý

ĐỒM :

I Bai doc (Text)

WM Cade thuat ngit sinh hoc (Biological Terms)

HW, Nett phap (Grammar)

NV Bat tap (Exercises)

V Tư mới (New Word)

Các bài đọc được chọn lọc công phú, báo gồm nhiéu khidi niém chuyén mon cơ bản và

có những bài chuyên môn sáu Tuy nhiên, xinh viên có khả năng hiểu được những khái niệm này bằng tiếng Anh vì, ngoài kiến thức chuyên ngành họ tích lũv dược họ dược hệ thống các thuật ngữ xinh học, phẩn ngữ pháp, bài tập và từ mới hỗ trợ đắc lực

Đôi với một giáo trình nàng cao các phẩn ngữ pháp, bài tập và Hừ ĐỚI Có một Ý nghĩa đặc biệt Nhận thức được dieu nay, tac gid cia giáo trùnh di tập trung vào phẩn củ pháp với

các kiểu loại câu dd dạng, thường được dùng trong văn phong khoa học Các loại bài tập khá

đa dụng, tạo cơ hội tốt cho người học áp dụng điều vữa bắt gặp trong bài khóa

Nhìn chủng dây là một giáo trình chuyên ngành được biên soạn khá công phú, thể

hiện vốn liểu biết Hẻng Anh sâu xác của một nhà sữnh học và lao đóng nghiém tic cia mot nha

Khoa hac

Ha ‘N61, ngảy 20 tháng 3 năm 1998

PTS Lê Thể Quê

Phá chủ nhiệm Khoa Quốc tế học

TRUONG BAI HOC KHOA HOC

XÃ HỘI VÀ NHÂN VĂN

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

The word ecology was coined in the last century from the Greek oikos (meaning

“house”) to designate the study of organisms in their natural homes, Specifically, it

means the study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with the physical

and chemical environment Although it includes the study of environmental problems

such as pollution, the science of ccology also encompasses research on the natural

world from many viewpoints, using many techniques Modern ecology relies heavily on experiments, both in the laboratory and in field settings, and on mathematical models These techniques have proven helpful in testing ecological theories and in arriving at

practical decisions in the management of natural resources

2 Populations, Communities, and Ecosystems

Organisms live in nature in association with other organisms, in assemblages which we call populations A population is a group of individuals of the same species

occupying a given area The place where a population Cor an individual) lives is called

HS habitat

In nature, populations rarely live alone Rather populations live in association

with other populations, in assemblages which are called communities Frequently,

populations in communities titeract, either in beneficial ways or in harmful ways Tf

two populations interact ina beneficial way, these populations will then maintain

themsefves better when together than when separate In such cases we speak of the cooperative nature of the populations

In other cases, two populations living in the same habitat may interact ina way

which is harmful to one of the populations Tf such harmful interaction occurs, the

population which is harmed will be reduced in number, or even replaced Tf the effect

is severe cnough, the population may be completely climinated

The living organisms ina habitat also interact with the physical and chemical

6 Lesson 0ne

environment of that habitat Habitats differ markedly in their physical aud chemical

characteristics, and a habitat which ts favorable for the growth of one organism may be

harmful for another organtsm, Thus, the community which we see in any given habitat

will be determined to a great extent by the physical and chemical characteristics of that

metabolism into the environment Therefore, as time progresses the environment ts

gradually changed through life processes Ecological studies take info account both the

biotic and abiotic components of an organism's environment The biotic factors

include any other living or once-living organisms such as symbionts shartng an

organisnys habitat, parasites, or food substrates The abiotic factors include any

nonliving surroundings such as the atmosphere, soil, water, temperature, and Tight A

collection of organisms together with its surrounding physical and chemical factors 1s

defined as an ecosystem

3 The Organization of Ecosystem

The Earth initially may seem like a random, chaotic place, but it is actually an

incredibly organized, well-tuned machine Scientists have identified and classified

more than 1.5 million different kinds of organisms All these organisms live ina region

of the Earth that stretehes from the ocean floor to about 8 km into the atmosphere Te

region of Earth that supports all living things is called the biosphere This: global

ecosystem is comprised of the hydrosphere , the lithosphere , and the atmosphere The

biosphere maintains or creates the conditions of temperature, light, gases, moisture, and

munerals required for the life processes The biosphere may be naturally subdivided into

terrestrial and aquatic realms The terrestrial realm is usually distributed into particular climatic regions called biomes, each of which is characterized by a dominant plant

form, altitude, and latitude Particular biomes include grassland, desert, mountain, and tropical rain forest The aquatic biosphere is generally divisible into freshwater and

marine realms,

Ecosystems are generally balanced, with cach organism existing in its particular habitat and niche The habitat is the physical location in the environment to which an organism has adapted The mice is the overall role that a species (or population)

serves ia community This includes such activiies as nutritional intake Qwhat a

eats), position in the community structure (what eats it) and rate of population growth A niche can be broad (such as scavengers that feed on nearly any organic food

source) or narrow (Microbes that decompose cellulose in forest litter),

4 Energy and Nutritional Flow in Ecosystem

English for Students of Biology 7

All living things must obtain nutrients and a usable form of energy from the

abiotie and biotic environments The energy and outritional relationships in ecosystems

may be described in a number of convenient ways A food chain or energy pyramid

provides a simple summary of the general trophic (feeding) levels, designated as producers, consumers, and decomposers, and traces the flow and quantity of available

energy from one level to another Tt 1s worth noting that microorganisms are the only

living things that exist at all three major trophic levels

Life would not be possible without producers, because they provide the

fundamental energy source for all levels of the trophic pyramid Producers are the only

organism man ecosystem that can produce organic carbon compounds like glucose by assimilating (fixing) Inorganic carbon (CO,) from the atmosphere Such organisms may also be termed autotrophs, Most producers are photosynthetic organisms such as plants

and cyanobacteria that convert the sun's energy into the energy of chemical bonds A

smalf but important amount of CO, assimilation is brought about by unusual bacteria

called chemolithotrophs The metabolism of these organisms derives energy from

oxidation-reduction reachons of simple inorganic compounds such as sulfides and

hydrogen,

Consumers cat the bodies of other living organisms and obtain cnergy from

bonds present in the organic substrates they contain The category includes animals,

protozoa, and a few bacteria and fungi Ao pyramid usually has several levels of consumers, ranging from primary consumers (erasers), which consume producers; to

secondary constmers (carnivores), which feed on primary consumers: to tertiary

consumers which feed on secondary consumers; and up to quaternary consumers

(usually the last level), which feed on tertiary consumers

Decomposers, primarily microbes inhabiting soil aud water, break down and

absorb the organic matter of dead organisms, including plants, animals, and other

microorganisms Because of their biological funchon, decomposers are active at all

levels of the food pyramid Without this mporlant autittonal class of saprobes, the

biosphere would stagnate and dic The work of decomposers is to reduce organic matter moo an inerganig form such as minerals and pases that can he cycled back into the

ecosystem, especially for the use of primary producets This) process is) termed

nuneralization

il BIOLOGICAL TERMS (CAC THUAT NGU SINH HOC)

1 Biosphere (sinh quyén) : All living organisms on earth which, together with thei Interactions with the global physical and chemical environment, maintain a system

OP cnerey use and material cycling This system runs on cnergy Mowing into it (from the sum) and it gives up cnergy (primarily as low-grade heat) to space

2 Ecosystem (hệ sinh thai) : A community and its physical and chemical

environment An ecosystem has living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components Soils, temperatures, rainfall, even organic matter are examples of the abiotic

component, The classes of organisms (producers, consumers, decomposers,

detritivores) form biotic component.

6 Community (quan x4) : The populations of a// species that occupy a habitat

Ecologists also use the term to refer to certain groups of organisms ina habitat - the

“bird community" or the "plant community”, for example Species in a community

play different roles

7, Biome (khu vue sinh hoc): A major community of living organisms 2 a complex

of climax communities (quan xã cao dinh) of plants and animals in a major region,

as tundra, forest, grassland, desert, mountain,

8 Producers (sinh vat san xual) : The “self-feeding” (autotrophic) organisms, which

include most plants and some microorganisms The producers synthesize their own

organic compounds from simple inorganic substances with the aid of enecrey from the sun (photosynthetic autotrophs) or from the inorganic substances — themselves

(chemosynthetic autotrophs)

9 Consumers (sinh vat tidu thu): All organisms that are “not self-feedine

(heterotrophic) and that ingest other (usually) living organisms tn whole or in part

lo obtain organic nutrients Thus the consumers called ferbivores cat) plats

carnivores cat animals, and parasites take in blood, sap, and other tissues from

living hosts

10 Decomposers (sinh vat phan huy) : Mostly heterotrophic bacteria and fungi thi:

obtain organic nutrients by breaking down the remains or products of organism:

The activity of decomposers allows simple compounds to be recycled back to thị autotrophs

MH Derritivores (sinh vat an can van) : Earthworms, nematodes, crabs, and othe

heterotrophs that feed on particles of organic matter, such as would be produced by

the partial decomposition of plant and animal tissues

Nl GRAMMAR : NORMAL SENTENCE PATTERN IN ENGLISH

(MAU CAU THONG THUONG TRONG TIENG ANH)

Một cầu đơn gián trong tiếng Anh có thể chỉ chứa hịn thành phần, đó là chú ngữ

(vuh/ecr) và động từ (ven), song thông thường nó chứa thêm Tân net) (complemenn

hoạc/ và từ bố nghĩa (»2///ier):

subject verb complement ĐC

English for Students of Biology Ụ

4 Your investigation must he finished by next week

(Nghiên cứu của bạn phải được kết thúc vào tuần tới)

5 We finished our last experiment yesterday (Hôm qua chúng tôi đã làm xong thí nghiệm cuối cùng)

Chủ ngữ:

Môi câu trong tiếng Anh bất buộc phải có một chú ngữ, tuy nhiên trong các bài

viết Khoa học, không phải lúc nào chủ ngữ cũng đơn giản và đễ nhận như trong năm ví dụ trên Hãy xem xét các chủ ngữ phức tạp (được pạch dưới) trong các câu sau đây :

6 The pollution caused by the factories was widespread in their effects

(Nan 6 nhiém từ các nhà máy ngày càng mở rộng về mặt hiệu quả)

7 The widespread Hooding of low-lying agricultural areas causes a great loss of

10 74 was a time of volcanoes, blasting enormous amounts of material skyward

(Đó là thời kỳ các núi lửa làm nổ tung những khối lượng vật chất khổng lồ vào

không trung)

TH 7hếre 1š nọ spevclal circulatory šystem in Amoebae

(Ô amip không có một hệ tuần hoàn miệng biệt)

12 There are many examples of natural selection as a result of environmental

change

(Có nhiều ví dụ về chọn lọc tự nhiên như là kết quả của sự biến đổi môi

trường)

Dong ur:

i sau chủ ngữ, động từ cũng là một thành phân bắt buộc của mỗi câu tiếng

Anh Động từ có thể là một từ đơn độc như trong các ví dụ l; 2; 3; 5; 7, nhưng cũng có thể là một cụm động từ (rerb plzaxe) chứa một hoặc nhiều đrợ động từ và một động từ

Chính như tron các câu 4: 6 hoặc trong các ví dụ sau :

13 These compounds would have been hydrogen sulfide (HS), ammonia (NH,),

and methane (CH,)

(Các hợp chất này phai la suntua hidro, amoniac va metan)

14 The light has been burning for ten hours,

10 Lesson One

(Ngon dén đã thấp được 10 giờ rồi)

Tân ngữ :

Tân ngữ là thành phần bổ nghĩa cho động từ Nó giếng như chủ ngữ ở chỗ cũng là môi

danh uc, dai ti hay một cụm danh từ (on phướse), song nói chúng nó đứng sau động

từ trong các câu chủ động Không phíi câu nào cũng cần có tân ngữ Tân ngữ không

được bất đầu bằng một giới từ Tân ngữ trả lei cho edu hoi what? hoặc 000012

Từ bố nghĩa :

Từ hổ nghĩa cho biết thời gian, địa điểm hay cách thức của hành động Từ bố

nghĩa rất hay được gặp dưới dạng cụm giới từ (reposifiondf phrase) Cum: gidt tee Li

một nhóm từ bắt đầu bằng một giới từ và kết thúc bàng một danh từ, chẳng han i the

morning, at the university, on the table Can luu y 1a tie bo nghia chi thei gian thudneg

ding cudi cring néu trong cau od trhai tir bo nghia trở lên

Từ bố nghĩa cũng có thể là một trạng từ hay một cụm trang ti, chang han /as7

year, hurriedly, next month, outdoors, yesterday, Khong phối câu nào cũng cần có từ bỏ

nghĩa Từ bổ nghĩa trả lei cho cau hoi when? where? hoac how?

IV EXERCISES

1 Gach dudi chu ngit (motgach) va dong tt (hai gach) trong cdc câu sau day:

1.) The location in the environment where a population lives is called the habitat of that

population,

The air in the garden was warm and fragrant

It is the beating of their flagella that produces the currents which bring i food

particles and oxygen

4 The community which we see in any given habitat will be determined to a great extent by the physical and chemical characteristics of that environment

5S A’ collection of organisms together with its surrounding physical and chemical factors is defined as an ecosystem

6 The most all-encompassing of these levels, the biosphere, includes the thin

envelope of life (about 14 miles deep)

7 The energy and nutritional relationships in ecosystems may be deseribed ina number of convenient ways

8 Decomposets, primarily microbes inhabiting soil and water, break down and absorb

the organic matter of dead organisms, including plants, animals and) other

Microorgahisms

9 A small but important amount of CO, assimilation is brought about by unusual

bacteria called chemolithotrophs

10 The metabolism of these organisms derives cnergy from) oxidation-reduction

reactions of simple inorganic compounds such as sulfides and hydrogen

11 The biosphere may be naturally subdivided into terrestrial and aquatic realms

English for Students of Biology 1

12 The terrestrial realm is usually distributed tito particular climatic regions called

biomes

2 Them mot chu ngit va/ hodec mot động từ de hoàn thành các câu sau đầy :

1 The cause of the children’s IÍÏnesses ¬ contaminated drinking water Do nen nh key "na the skin of some peopk

4, The búnch öŸ bananas on the table

+ The problems of water pollution eee for the conference next month

BS The irrigation project occ for the benefit: of the

Qo eee ¬¬ ceeeeeeteeeeeees very useful animals in SE Asia

}D beside that building over there the property of the Faculty of

Biology

+ Chữa các lôi sai trong các câu sau đây Trước tiên xác định dâu là chủ ngữ rồi

viết lạt từng cảu cho đúng :

| Each student typed their theses themselves

2 The socio-economic considerations in this project has been discussed +, Each student must put their best efforts into every piece of work,

4.) Not one person among all these scientists disagree with this theory

S The result of careless storage and disposal of wastes are the breeding of vectors of

) In Britain in 1970 there was over 1} cars for a population of 55 million

10 There must be a limits to the number of cars that can be allowed and they may be reached before the end of this century

4 Chita cde cau viet sai trong đoạn văn sau day :

Cars produce problems for people One of then are noise ; noise from engines

and blowing from horns, Noise is measured in decibels and it have been found that too

high a devel of noise can damage people's hearing and badly affect his nerves

Another problem is air pollution Car engines give out exhaust fumes that

contains many poisonous chemicals like lead and carbon monoxide gas In cities the air

becomes filled with these chemicals which is breathed in by many people and which can thus affect his health [can be especially dangerous to children

5 Hay sap xép moi dinh nghia o bén trai sao cho phủ hợp với một mục ở bên phái :

12 Lesson One

a) The largest land community region recognized by

ecologist, e.g grassland, desert, mountain, tropical forest

b) A group of individuals of a species living ina certain area,

c) The water on the earth's surface

d) The study of the interrelationships between organisms and

their environment and each other

#) An assemblage of populations that live in a defined area o1

habitat which can cither be very large or quite small

f) The entire zone of air, land and water at the surface of the

population earth that is occupied by living things biome g) The crust of the carth

community h) The decomposition in soils of organic matter by

ecology microorganisms with the release of mineral elements as

atmosphere i) The mixture of gases that surrounds the earth

lithosphere k) A natural unit of living and nontiving parts that interact to consumer produce a table system in which the exchange of materials producer hetween living and nonliving parts follows a circular path

food chain 1) The numerical relationship of a food chain, represented by ecosystem numbers of organisms at different levels

mineralization m) The locality or external environment in which a plant or

habitat animal lives

energy pyramid n) Sequence of organisms in which cach ts food of a later

hydrosphere member of the sequence

0) An autotrophic organism, usually a photosyathetc

green plant in an ecosystem, which synthesizes organic matter from inorganic materials

p) Grazers and carnivores

6 Gạch đưới chủ ngữ (một gạch) và động từ (hai gạch) trong các câu sau đây rồi

dịch đoạn văn ra tiếng Việt :

Tropical Forests - Disappearing Biomes ?

Tropical forests contain an incredible varicty of organisms Yet despite the diversity, they are one of the worst places to grow) crops Because of rapid

decomposition in the hot, humid climates where such forests occur, there is practically

no fitter on the forest floor and very little nutrient storage in the subsoil, Minerals released during decomposition are rapidly picked up by roots and) mycorrhiza concentrated in the top soil layers, and most become tied up in the standing biomass

ashes, then the ashes can be tilled into the soil Even then, heavy rains wash away most

English for Students of Biology 13

af the nutrients from the exposed clay soils After a few years, cleared plots become infertile and usually are abandoned Because nutricnts are so depleted, successional replacement is extremely slow

Developing countries in Central America, Africa and Southeast Asia have been clearing their tropical forests on a massive scale Human populations are growing

rapidly in) those countries; by some estimates, ninety percent of the total human

population growth is occurring there The land is being cleared for fuel and farmland At the present rate of clearing, most tropical rain forests will disappear by the year

2035

Clearing of the tropical forests means extinction for thousand of species

Consider that a very small number of crop and livestock species represent most of the

world's food supply However, that base of food production can be broardened and

made less vulnerable if we can develop new or hybrid crop plants Through genetic engineering, the diverse organisms of tropical rain forests can be tapped as genetic

resources for developing not only improved varicties of crop plants, but also new

antibiotics and vaccines,

Many tropical plants already provide alkaloids that are used in drug treatments

of cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and other illnesses Aspirin, provably the most

widely used drug in the world, was formulated by using a chemical “blueprints” of a

compound extracted from the leaves of tropical willow trees Coffee, bananas, cocea,

cinnamon and other spices, sweeteners, Brazil nuts, and many other foods we take for

eranted originated in the tropics So did latex, gums, resins, dyes, waxes, and many oils; these and other substances are used in such diverse products as ice cream,

loothpaste, shampoo, condoms, cosmetics, perfumes, records, ures, and shoes

Several international groups have been working together on a Comprehensive

plan to preserve tropical forests, and the plan is already being implemented A few

developing countries have been reevaluating ther agricultural policies Brazil has

designated) about 100,000 square kilometers of tropical rain forest as unsuitable for

agriculture The region has been set aside for ecological research and for recreation

How many other countries will Follow suit? V NEW WORDS

| abiotic (ad)) không sinh học 2 all-encompassing (adj) bảo quái

2 ASSOCHHIOH (71) sự kết hợp, sự liền hợp, quần hợp

10 atmosphere (aj khí quyền

TT amotroph (0) sinh vật tự đưỡng

21

“

22 23 24

25

26 27 28

20

30

31 32

33 34

35

36

37

38 19

40 4I 42 43 44 4S

46

47 48 49

SO 5] 52

balance (4)

beneficial (adj)

biomes (1, pl) biosphere (71)

decomposer (71) define (as) (9

thuộc hoá học, chất hoá học

sinh vật hoá đưỡng vô cơ khí hậu

English for Students of Biology

53 54 SS a6 S7

ecosystem (7)

energy (1) 64

65 66

67 OX

09 70

73 74 75,

#lucoZữ

đồng có

HƠI sôi

làm hại có hại

quan hệ tương hồ, tượng quan

mối tượng quan

l6 Lesson One

95 location (7) 96 maintain (9)

112.intake (0)

113.organic (adj)

114.organism (7)

11S organization (7) 116.orpanize (19)

tháp

bậc bốn, tứ cấp

ngẫu nhiên đao động

phản ứng

English for Students of Biology

loài

ứ đọng

chia nhỏ

cơ chất liên tiếp

LESS0N TW0

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

| TEXT

L Introduction :

There are about 10 million species of living organisms in the world The need to

make order out of this great number and varicty of organisms is characteristic of the

human mind Scientists thus attempt to place them into groups based on the

similarities

The science of tavonomy includes the classification (arrangement), nomenclature (naming), and identification (description and characterization) of living organisms Biologists place organisms that share certain common characteristics into

taxonomic groups called tava (singular, favor) The basic taxon is the species, which is

a collection of strains with similar characteristics - especially similarity ins then hereditary material A strainis made up of the descendants of a single colony from a

pure culture Other features used to place organisms into species include morphology

and nutritional requirements Closely related species are grouped into genera (singular, genus ), genera into families, families into orders, orders into clayses, classes into

phyla (singular, phylum) or divisions , and phyla or divisions into Ajgdoms,

During the mid-cighteenth century, all living organisms were placed into one of two kingdoms, Plantae or Animalia, by Carolus Linnacus, a Swedish physician and botanist He developed the binomial system of species names Although —Linnacus’ pioneering work was a great scientific contribution, his and other early systems of classification often were misleading or just plain wrong because they were based on

Inaccurate information Today, systems of classification, particularly those of microorganisms, are still evolving as researchers discover more about the physical and chemical characteristics of organisms

1k

English for Students of Biology J9

kingdom must be established to solve the dilemma This kingdom, called Protista ,

included those microorganisms having features of both plants and animals According to Haeckel, tt included bacteria, algae, yeasts, molds, and protozoa But as more

information became available about the internal structures of microbes, the validity of

the kingdom Protista was questioned

3 Procaryotic and Eucaryotic Organisms :

Advances in electron microscopy in the 1940s exposed much more of the

internal structure of cells than possible with light microscopes A particularly important

discovery in terms of taxonomy was that microbial cells could be divided into two categories based on how the nuclear substance exist within the cell: evkarvortic cells have a nucleus separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane, where

prokaryotic cells have nuclear material not cnelosed within a membrane — This

difference is the basis for separation of bacteria from other kinds of microorganisms

and from all other cells, plant) or animal Bacteria have a prokaryotic cell structure and

are prokaryotes, Other cells, including algae, fungi, protozoa, and cells of plants and

animals, have a cukaryotic cell structure and are eukaryotes,

4 The Five-Kingdom Concept of Classification :

Ways in which organisms obtain nutrition from their food are the basis of a five-kingdom system of classification proposed in 19Y69 by Robert H Whittaker He expanded Hacckel's system of classification and suggested that three levels of cellular

organization have evolved to accommodate three principal modes of nutrition 2 (1) photosyathesis, the process whereby light supplics energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugars, (2) absorption, the uptake of Chemical nutrients dissolved in water: and (3) ingestion, the intake of undissolved particles of food

According to Whittaker, prokaryotes form the kingdom Monera, which until recently was considered the most primitive kingdom and thought to be the ancestors of the cukaryotes Prokaryotes normally obtain nutricnts oaly by absorption , and cannot ingest or photosynthesize food The kingdom Protista includes the unicellular eukaryotes microorganisms, which represent all three nutritional types : algae are photosynthetic, protozoa can ingest their food and the slime molds (the lower fungi)

only absorb nutrients Higher cukaryotic organisms are placed in the kingdom Plantae

(photosynthetic green plants and higher algae) Animalia (animals, which ingest food), and Fungi , organisms that have cell wally but lack the photosynthetic pigment

chlorophyll found in other plants and thus absorb their food

Thus microorganisms were placed in three of the five kingdoms > Monera

(bacteria), Protista (protozoa and microscopic algae), and Fungi (the microscopic fungi

called yeasts and molds) Whittaker's system puts all bacteria in the kingdom Moncra

20 Lesson Two

and suggests a common ancestry for all members of this kingdom However, results of extensive research during recent decades sugesst a different ancestral pattern among

microoganisms, as described in the following section

5 Archaeobacteria, Eubacteria, and Eukaryotes :

Before 1977 scientists thought prokaryotes were the most primitive of all organisms The prefix pro- , meaning “earlier than" implicd that these organisms,

because of their simple structure, were the ancestors of the more complex cukaryotes

Then Carl Woese and his co-investigators at the University of Ilinois discovered that neither group had developed from the other They found instead that prokaryotes and eukaryotes apparently had evolved by completely different pathways from a common

ancestral form

Evidence to support this idea came from studies of ribosomal ribonucleic acid

or rRNA which is essential for protein synthesis and thus cell survival Found in

ribosomes of all living organisms, rRNA is composed of many smaller units called

ribonucleotides There are four kinds of ribonucleotides, arranged in various

combinations to form a single, long chain of several hundred units The rRNA from any particular organism has a distinctive arrangement of ribonucleotides, or a specific

nucleotide sequence

The genes that control the nucleotide sequence of rRNA slowly change during

millions of years of evolution Because one can compare these changes in different

organisms, rRNA can serve as an indicator of how closely organisms are related Some

portions of the rRNA molecules of all living organisms have remained almost the same, despite 3.5 to 4 billion years of evolution This constancy supports the idea that all

organisms have developed from) a common ancestral form

At the same time, the amount of difference among the other portions of rRNA

can be used to measure the degree of relatedness between organisms For example, if

the nucleotide sequences of two kinds of organisms differ greatly, they are only

distantly related : that is the organisms diverged a long time ago from a common ancestor However, if sequences show much more similarity, organisms are closely related and have a relatively recent common ancestor

Using these techniques, Woese found that rRNA molecules in groups of

organisms differ in the arrangement, or sequence, of their nucleotides Eukaryotes

possess one general type of sequence and prokaryotes a second type But he also

discovered that some procaryotes have a third kind of rRNA This rRNA = arrangement

differs as much from that of other procaryotes as it does from that of cucaryotes fn

other words, there are two major kinds of bacteria Wt is now clear that these two kinds

of bacteria, designated archaeobacteria and enbacteria , are as different from: each

other as they are from the cucaryotes,

I! BIOLOGICAL TERMS (CAC THUAT NGU SINH HỌC)

1 Strain (chang, noi): A variant group within a species, often breeding true and maintained in culture or cultivation, with more or less distinct morphological,

physiological or cultural characteristics (The term is not used in formal

English for Students of Biology 21

laxonomy.)

2 Species (loài, viết tất sO it sp., s6 nhiéu spp.): A group of individuals that (1)

actually or potentially interbreed with each othr but not with other such

group, (2) show continuous morphological variation within the group but

which is distinct from other such group Taxonomically, species are grouped

into genera and divided into subspecies and varieties

3 Genus (chi, gidng, s6 nhiéu genera): A taxonomic rank of closely related

forms, which is further subdivided into species and therefore below family and

above species

4 Family (ho): A group of similar genera of taxonomic rank below order and

above gents; with plants, the names usually end in -aceae

5 Order (bd): Taxonomic rank below class and above family ; for plants, the

names usually end in -oles

6 Class (lp): A taxonomic group into which a phylum or division is divided,

and which is itself divided into orders

7 Phylum (nganh) : A primary division consisting of plants or animals constructed

ona similar general plan, and thought to be related; in plants, also called a division

8 Kingdom (gici) : The largest taxonomic group, such as the plant kingdom and

animal kingdom

9 Taxonomy (phép phan loai) : The science of classification as applied to living

organisms, including study of means of formation of species etc

10 Nomenclature (su dinh tén) : The making and giving distinguishing names to

all groups of plants and animals

11 Classification (su phan loai) : The arrangement of plants and animals in groups,

based ‘on some or all of their similarities and differences

12 Tavon (taxon) : Any group of organisms to which any rank of taxonomic name

Trong các ví dụ 3 và 7 của bài một chúng ta đã để cập tới các dạng chủ ngữ

phép được tạo nên nhờ các cụm danh từ (0o phước), tức là một tính từ + một đanh từ

Hãy xem xét một ví dụ khác : Ta có câu đơn giản :

1 The bridge collapsed (Cái cầu đổ sập)

Nay muốn thêm các thông tin :

Lam bang nguyên liệu gì ? reinforced conerete— (bêtông cot sat)

Nó đã bị sập như thể nào 2 unexpectedly (một cách bất ngờ) Từ dó có thê viết một cầu có nội dung phong phú hơn :

22 Lesson Two

2 The new, reinforced concrete bridge collapsed unexpectedly

*(Cái cầu bêtông cốt sắt mới xây đã đổ sập một cách bất ngờ)

Tính từ gặp trong các cụm danh từ có thể có nhiều dạng, hay gặp nhất là các tính từ

phép (compound adjectivếs) và các tính từ có đuôi -likc Tính từ phép

Có năm loại tính từ ghép chính được cấu tạo như sau :

a) Danh từ + phân từ quá khứ của động từ, như wind-driven (chạy bằng sức gió),

storm-damagcd (bị bão làm hỏng), steel-reinforced (bằng bêtông cốt thép), factory-

made (do nha may sản xuất) ;

Vi du: Wind-driven ships are again becoming popular

(Tàu thủy chạy bằng sức gió nay lại trở nên phổ biến.)

b) Trang tir + phân từ quá khứ, như well-organized (được tổ chức tốt, badly-arraneed (được sắp xếp tồi), cfficiently-run (hoạt động có hiệu quả), easily-forgotten (dễ bị

Vi du: An efficiently-run factory does not waste energy, materials or manpower

(Một nhà máy hoạt động có hiệu quả không lãng phí năng lượng, nguyên

liệu và nhân công.)

c) Tính từ + danh từ có thêm đuôi "cd”, như broard-lecaved (lá hình bản), threc-

storeyed (ba ting), four-wheeled (bốn bánh), rubhcr-tyred (bánh caosu) ;

Vi du: It was a broard-leaved tree (Đó là một cây có lá hình hản.)

Parallel-veined leaves occur in mosf monocotyledons, net-veined leaves In dicotyledons

(Lá có gân song song gặp ở phần lớn các cây một lá mầm, còn lá có gân

hình mạng lưới gặp ở các cây hai lá mầm.)

đ) Danh từ + dạng “-ing” của động từ, như grass-cuttinp (dùng để cất có), tỉme-

consuming (tiêu tốn thời gian), rice-planting (để trồng Ida), energy-saving (tiết

kiệm năng lượng) ;

Vi du: Clostridium is a spore-forming anacrobe

(Clostridium VA mot vi khudn ky khí tạo thành bào tử.);

Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria have various shapes

(Các vi khuẩn oxi hóa amoniac có nhiều hình dạng khác nhau.)

c) Tính từ/ trạng từ + dạng "-ing"” của động từ , như slow-drying (lầu khô), quick-

prowing (mọc nhanh), free-livine (sống tự do) ;

Vidu: Free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria are found in particular high

concentrations in the rhizospherg, the region where the soil and roots

make contact

(Các ví khuẩn cố định nitơ sống tự do được tìm thấy ở nồng độ đặc

biệt cao trong vùng rễ là nơi đất và rễ tiếp xúc với nhau.)

Tính từ có đuôi -likc

Trong phần bài khóa chúng ta đã gặp các tính từ có đuôi -like như plant-like (giống

thực vật), anmal-like ( giống động vật), sau đây là một số ví dụ khác :

3 The pollen of a flower is a yellow, powder-like substance

(Phân hoa là một chất màu vàng giống như bội)

4 This animal has a cat-like appearance

( Con thú này có hình dạng giống như mèo).

English for Students of Biology 23

5 Snow crystals are delicate and flower-like

(Các hạt tuyết mỏng manh trông như hoa)

6 The banana plant ts a tree-like member of the grass family

(Chuối là một thực vật có đạng cây thuộc họ hòa thảo)

7 The members of the phylum have a general worm-like appearance (Các thành viên của ngành có hình dang bên ngoài giếng như giun.)

2 Bo sung thông tín vào câu đơn giản nhờ cụm giới tư (Adding information to simple sentences with prepositional phrases)

Cũng trong ví dụ 7 cla bai mot (The widespread flooding of low-lying

agricultural areas causes a great loss of crops) chting ta thay chủ ngữ của câu đã được cấu tạo từ một cụm danh từ của "flooding”" trong đó thông tin không những được bổ

sung bảng một tính từ (widesprcad) mà còn bằng cả một cụm giới từ (of low-lyine apricultural areas) nữa Câu này chúng ta đã dịch là : Lụt lội tràn lan ở những vùng

nông nghiệp trũng đang eây nên một sự tổn thất lớn về mùa màng

1 Chuyển các từ gạch dưới trong các câu sau dày thành môi tính từ kép rồi đặt đúng

vi tri cua né trong cau :

| This type of rice is a type which grow quickly

2 How can people in cities breathe the air which has been polluted by

exhausts

3.) You could see by the leaves that had been eaten by insects how badly the crops Were damaged

4 A tripot is a stand that has three legs

5 Sugar is a substance that tastes sweet

6 Every leaf on the plant had on ita stain that was a brown colour

7 To speed up the irrigation works they used a machine which digs ditches,

8 Electricity generators which are powered by water are in use in some rural

communities

9 This engine is driven by petrol

10 That building with the square shape is a pump house,

2 Điển vào chỗ trống một từ năm trong thành phần của tính từ ghép:

1 Bacteria are the most minute ðẼ -celled organisms.

24 Lesson Two

2 The -fixing bacteria living in the nodules of the roots of

leguminous plants are able to change free nitrogen of the air into nitrates

useful to green plants

3 Most of the space between the upper and lower layers of the leaf epidermis

is filled with -walled cells, called mesophyll

4 Fishes are -blood since they possess no mechanism to maintain a

constant body temperature,

5 Mammals are -blood, -breathing, hairy Vertebrates

3 Chuyển phần gạch dưới của mỗi câu sau đây thành một tinh tt don cé dudi -like:

1 Parts of certain nerve cells in the body are called dendrites because they have a pattern that resemble a tree

2 The gorilla and the orangutan belong to the class of animals_that resemble

At the conclusion of the experiment a substance resembling glue remained

in the bottom of the flask

7 The baboon is a type of monkey with a facial appearance resembling that of

a dog

8 The body of the fish was long and _similar to that of a cigar

9 Some tropical trees have a bark resembling paper that is used to make a type

of cloth,

10 The large trees which resembled an umbrella cast a wide area ef shade

Anas

4 [dy bé sung thong tin vào các câu dưới đây để Tạo nên các câu đài hơn, cần chủ ý

tới vị trí thích hợp của các từ bổ nghĩa (modifiers):

1 The crops were ruined (last month/ in the low-lying districts/ by the floods)

2 The records are kept (in the Central Plains area/ in Bangkok/ for the past ten years/ of temperature and rainfall/ in the Central Meteorological Office)

3 The biogas plants are very economical (of Asia/ for rural communities/ in many

areas/ In use/ with low incomes)

4 Drinking water should be uncontaminated (from any source whatsoever/ by sewage, effluent or other agents/ in this modern age/ for all urban and rural

communities)

Gases are polluting the atmosphere (at the present moment/ of cities/ with

inefficient exhaust mechanisms/ all over the world/ from hundreds of thousands of

vehicles)

6 The structure is a solar rice dryer (of this village/ on your right/ for the farmers/

with the plastic chimney)

7 A rice-planting machine has been produced (of Japan/ of high quality/ over the last

few years/ by Mitsubishi/ and with a reliable performance)

8 The machine is on sale (for the average farmers/ in this country/ al present/ at a

sufficiently reasonable price/ with a limited income)

English for Students of Biology 25

9 Experiments need to be carried out (as a support or otherwise/ of natural happenings/ of a simple nature/ for the child's explanation/ in his environment)

10 A child observes the rapid growth (under the influence/ for example/ of rain and

sun/ in certain seasons/ of the farmer's crops)

5 Từ nhiều câu đơn giản dưới dây, viết lại thành một câu đơn giản có nội dung

phong phú hơn, sau đó gạch dưới chủ ngữ và động từ Cần chú ý câu đơn giản là cau chỉ có một động tt Khi cần, phải dùng tính từ ghép

1

a) The laboratory is used

b) Students use the laboratory

c) The laboratory is equipped fully (tinh tt ghép)

d) It is a microbiological laboratory

e) The use of the laboratory is frequent

f) The students are from the Faculty of Biology

5

a) The farmers used a pump

b) The pump was small

c) The pump was inexpensive

d) The punp was driven by petrol (tinh ti ghép)

e) The pump was for pumping water from the river

f) The river was nearby

g) The water was for their rice fields

3

a) Cars produce problems

b) There are many problems

c) The problems are for people

d) The people are in cities

e) The cities have a heavy population (tinh tir ghép)

a) Another problem is the atmosphere

b) The atmosphere is laden with poisons (tinh tt phép)

¢) The atmosphere is full of chemicals

d) The atmosphere ts full of gases

ở) The gases are harmful

f) These are from the exhausts of vehicles

a) The third problem is the number of deaths

b) This number is increasing

v} The deaths are of peple of all ages

d) The people are also from all walks of life ở) These deaths occur in accidents

f) The accidents are terrible

g) The accidents are also often senseless.

26 Lesson Two

4 Dựa vào bài khóa để trả lời các câu hơi san đây :

1 What is the function of each of the three branches of taxonomy ?

2 What is the basic taxonomic unit?

3 What is the relation between strain, species, genus, family, order, class, phylum ði

division, and kingdom ?

How do you do write the scientific name of an organism ?

Into what two kingdoms did Linnacus classify organisms ?

Into what three kingdoms did Haeckel classify organisms ? Which one contained

microorganisms ?

7 What is the difference between eucaryotic and procaryotic organisms ? Into which

kingdom did Whittaker place procaryolic’ microorganisms?

8 What is the basis for distinguishing cubacteria from archacobacterta

S Hoan thành cde cau sau day :

1 The basic taxonomic group in the classification of living organisms 1s thẻ

2 The highest level of taxonomic group, representing one of the categories into which

all forms of life are divided, ts called a(n) ce ceeeeeece eee eeeeees A group of related strains ts called a(n) 2.2 co chào

The system for naming microorpamsmws 1s called a(n) microbiall cc

6 Đọc doạn văn sau đây rồi trẻ lời năm câu hỏi ở phản dưới :

Finish-born botanist William Nylander taught at the University of Helsinki for a number of years -and later moved to Paris, where he ved until his death at the end of

the nineteenth century During the second half of the last: century, he became a prominent figure in the field of lichenology

Botanists from all over the world sent samples to his laboratory to be analyzed

and classified Ht can be said without exaggeration that four out of five lichens bear his

name

He was the first to realize the importance of using chemical reagents in) the taxonomy of lichens He selected the most common reagents used by the chemists of

his time Lichenologists all over the world still use these reagents, including tincture of

iodine and hypochlorite, in their laboratories During the first half of the twenticth century, a Japanese named Arahina added only one chemical product p-phenol

diamines

Nylander was also responsible for discovering that the atmosphere of big cities

hindered the lichens’ development and caused them to disappear Now they are used to

detect atmospheric pollution

Nevertheless, he considered lichens to be simple plants and vehemently opposed

the widely accepted modern theories that lichens are a compound species formed by two discordant elements : algae and fungi

1 Internationally renowned scientists sent lichen samples to Nylander because

A) he considered them to be simple plants

R) he used reagents to determine their use C) he analyzed and classified them

English for Students of Biology 25

9 Experiments need to be carried out (as a support or otherwise/ of natural happenings/ of a simple nature/ for the child's explanation/ in his environment)

10 A child observes the rapid growth (under the influence/ for example/ of rain and sun/ in certain seasons/ of the farmer's crops)

$ Từ nhiều câu dơnu giản dưới đây, viết lại thành một câu đơn giản có nội dung

phong phú hơn, sau đó gạch dưới chủ ngữ và động từ Cần chú ý câu đơn giản là

cán chỉ có một động từ Khi cán, phải dàng tính từ ghép 1

a) The laboratory is used

b) Students use the laboratory

c) The laboratory is equipped fully (tinh tty ghép)

d) Itis a microbiological laboratory

ở) The use of the laboratory is frequent

f) The students are from the Faculty of Biology 2

a) The farmers used a pump

b) The pump was small

c) The pump was inexpensive

d) The pump was driven by petrol (tinh ti phép)

e) The pump was for pumping water from the river

f) The river was nearby

g) The water was for their rice fields

a) Cars produce problems

b) There are many problems

c) The problems are for people

d) The people are in cities

e) The cities have a heavy population (tinh tir ghép)

a) Another problem is the atmosphere

b) The atmosphere is laden with poisons (tinh ttr ghép)

c) The atmosphere is full of chemicals

d) The atmosphere is full of gases ©) The gases are harmful

f) These are from the exhausts of vehicles

a) The third problem is the number of deaths

hb) This number is increasing

c) The deaths are of peple of all ages

d) The people are also from all walks of life

¢) These deaths occur in accidents f) The accidents are terrible

g) The accidents are also often senseless.

26 Lesson Two

4 Dựa vào hài khóa để trả lời các câu hơi sau đáy :

1 What is the function of each of the three branches of taxonomy 2 2 What is the basic taxonomic unit?

3 What is the relation between strain, species, genus, family, order, class, phylum oi division, and kingdom ?

How do you do write the scientific name of an organism ?

Into what two kingdoms did Linnaeus classify organisms ?

6 Into what three kingdoms did Haeckel classify organisms ?? Which one contained microorganisms ”?

7 What is the difference between cucaryolic and procaryotic organisms ? Into which

kingdom did Whittaker place procaryotie microorganisms?

8 What is the basis for distinguishing eubacteria from archaeobacteria ?

5 Hoàn thành cdc cau sau day:

1 The basic taxonomic group in the classification of living organisms is” the

2 The highest level of taxonomic group, representing one of the categories into which

A group of related strains is called a(n) c che

4 The system for naming microorganisms 1s caled a(n) microbial ~

6 Đọc đoạn văn san đây rồi trả lòi năm cân hỏi ở phần dưới :

Finish-born botanist William Nylander taught at the University of Helsinkt fora

number of years -and later moved to Paris, where he lived until his death at the end of

the nineteenth century During the second half of the last century, he became a prominent figure in the field of lichenology

Botanists from all over the world sent samples to his laboratory to be analyzed and classified It can be said without exaggeration that four out of five lichens bear his

name

He was the first to realize the importance of using chemical reagents 1n the

taxonomy of lichens He selected the most common reagents used by the chemists of

his time Lichenologists all over the world still use these reagents, including tincture of

iodine and hypochlorite, in their laboratories During the first half of the twentieth

century, a Japanese named Arahina added only one chemical product p-phenol

diamines

Nylander was also responsible for discovering that the atmosphere of big cities

hindered the lichens’ development and caused them to disappear Now they are used to detect atmospheric pollution

Nevertheless, he considered lichens to be simple plants and vehemently opposed

the widely accepted modern theories that lichens are a compound species formed by two discordant elements : algae and fungi

1 Internationally renowned scientists sent lichen samples to Nylander because

A) he considered them to be simple plants

B) he used reagents to determine their use C) he analyzed and classified them

English for Students of Biology 27

D) he collected and preserved them

2.Which of the fGllowing is vor true?

A) Nylander accepted his colleagues’ theories on the composition of lichens B) Eighty percent of lichens bear Nylander’s name

C) Today lichens are used to detect atmospheric pollution

D) Most botanists consider lichens to be a compound species 3 All of the following are true about Nylander except

A) he was the first to use chemical reagents in the taxonomy of lichens

B) he believed that lichens were simple plants

C) he was an esteemed lichenologist

D) he taught botany at the University of Paris

4 According to accepted nineteenth-century theories, which two elements form the composition of lichens ?

A) iodine and chemical reagents

B) algae and fungi

C) hypochlorite and iodine

Db) chemical reagents and atmospheric chemicals

S How could William Nylander best be described ?

A) degenerate

B) domineering

C) ingenious

D) anxious

7 Dùng các cum tit dark-staining, free-living, benthic-dwelling, well-aerated dé dich

cde cau sau ra tiếng Anh :

1 Cae vi khuan lam song tudo cé thé cé dinh nhing lugng nito ding ké trong dat sa

mac sau các trận mưa và trên bể mặt của đất đồng rêu Bắc Cực

Một dòng sông đang chảy, được thông khí tốt sẽ có khả năng đáng kể đối với sự tự

làm sạch

3 Nhiều vị khuẩn là bọn phát quang, và một số đã thiết lập mối quan hệ cộng sinh với

bọn cá sống ở đáy

4 Bên trong tế bào chất của các tế bào động vật, nằm gần nhân là một thể vùi nhỏ, bất

màu tối, được gọi là hạt trung tâm

to

& Đọc doan văn sau đây rồi trình bày bằng tiếng Anh năm phương thức qua đó nấm

lac dong len con ngitoi :

Fungi help humans in many ways In the food industry, yeast causes bread to

rise Aspergillus , an imperfect fungus, is used in making citric acid and in fermenting

soy sauce Penicifliut mold provides the turquoise streaks in Roquefort and blue

cheese Other molds are used to create the distinct flavors, aromas, and tastes of many

cheese variches The common button mushroom, Agaricus campestris, is a popular

28 Lesson Two

ingredient in many sauces and salads More than 70,000 metric tons ef button

mushroom are harvested from mushroom farms in the United States each year Mushroom farming is a $ 15 billion industry in the United States

Many fungi can, however, cause disease Most parasitic species cause diseases in plants The effects of plant diseases are serious In some parts of the world, disease

and spoilage caused by fungi destroy over half the harvest of food crops each year

Fungi also damage property For example, during the American Revolution

(1776-1783), the British lost more ships to wood rotted by fungi than to enemy attacks

The best way to protect substances against decay by fungi is wo keep them dry

Some fungi can infect humans Athlete's foot, ringworm, and yeast infections in moist body areas are common, but not usually serious, fungal diseases in humans Fungal infections can, however, become life-threatening in people with weakened

immune systems, such as people with AIDS In general, however, the impact of fungal

disease on food crops and forests is of greater importance to humans than the direct effect of fungal diseases in human

IV NEW WORDS

2 absorption (7) sự hấp thụ

3 accommodate (t) làm cho phù hợp

S alga (algac) (1) tảo

11 available (adj) có thể nhận được

12 binominal (adj) hai tén

English for Students of Biology

28 descripuion (1)

29, dilemma (7) 30, dioxide (a) 31 discover (v)

tiếng Latinh

nguyên liệu, vật chất thành viên

màng

kính hiển vi

làm sai hướng, đánh lạc đường

cải biến, thay đối

nấm mốc

phân tử

9

30 Lesson Two

72 molecule (7) 73 Monera (1)

97 Protista (7) 98 pure (adj)

nguyên thủy

sinh vật nhân nguyên thủy

thuộc sinh vật nhân nguyên thủy

thuộc riboxom riboxom

English for Students of Biology

LESSON THREE

THE CARBON CYCLE

| TEXT

I Introduction

Ecosystems are open with regard to energy because the sun ts constantly

infusing them with a renewable source In contrast, the bioelements and nutrients that

are essential components of protoplasm are supplicd exclusively by sources somewhere

in the biosphere and are not being continually replenished from outside the earth In fact, the lack of a required nutrient in the immediate habitat is one of the chief factors limiting organismic and population growth Because of the finite source of life's

building blocks, the long-term = sustenance of the biosphere requires continuous

recycling of clements and nutrients Essential elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur,

phosphorus, oxygen, and iron are cycled through biologic, geologic and chemical

mechanisms called biogeochemical cycles 2 The Carbon Cycle

Because carbon ts the fundamental atom in all biomolecules and accounts for at

least one-half of the dry weight of protoplasm, some form of carbon must be constantls

available to living things As a result, the carbon cycle is more intimately associated

with the chergy transfers and trophic pattern in the biosphere than are other elements

Besides the enormous organic reservoir in the bodies of organisms, carbon also exists

in the gaseous state as carbon dioxide (CO3) and methane (CH,) and in the mineral state as carbonate (CO,”) In general, carbon is recycled through ccosystems vit photosynthesis (carbon fixation), respiration and fermentation of organic molecules,

limestone decomposition, and methane production A convenient starting point from which to trace the movement of carbon is with carbon dioxide, which occupies a central

position in the cycle and represents a large common pool that diffuses into all parts of

the ecosystem As a general rule, the cycles of oxygen and hydrogen are closely allied

to the carbon cycle

12

English for Students of Biology 33

The principal users of the atmospheric carbon dioxide pool are photosynthetic

aulotrophs (phototrophs) such as plants, algae, and cyanobacteria An estimated 165

billion tons of organic material per year are produced by terrestrial and aquatic

photosynthesis A smaller amount of CO, is used by chemosynthetic autotrophs such as methane bacteria A review of the general equation for photosynthesis :

CO, + H,O > Glucose + O, TF

will reveal that phototrophs use energy from the sun to fix CO, into organic compounds

such as glucose that can be used in synthesis and respiration Photosynthesis is also the

primary means by which the atmospheric supply of O, is regenerated

Just as photosynthesis removes CO, from the atmosphere, other modes of generating energy, such as respiration and fermentation, return it Recall in the general equation for aerobic respiration that, in the presence of O, , organic compounds such as

glucose are degraded completely to CO) and HO, with the release of energy Carbon

dioxide is also released by anaerobic respiration and certain types of fermentation

reacHons, Heterotrophic organisms, including consumers and decomposers, release

CO), as do most phototrophs, which must respire in the absence of light

A small but important phase of the carbon cycle involves certain limestone deposits composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO,) Limestone is produced

When marine organisms like molluscs, corals, protozoans, and algae form hardened

shells by combining carbon dioxide and calcium ions from the surrounding water When these organisms die, the durable skeletal components accumulate in marine

deposits As these immense deposits are gradually exposed by geologic upheavals or receding ocean levels, various decomposing agents liberate CO, and return it to the CQ) pool of the water and atmosphere

The complementary actions of photosynthesis and respiration along with other natural CO)-releasing processes such as limestone erosion and volcanic activity have

maintained a relatively stable atmospheric pool of carbon dioxide Recent figures show

that this balance is being disturbed as humans burn fossil fuels and other organic

carbon sources Fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, were formed over millions of years through the combined actions of microbes and geologic forces, and so

are actually a part of the carbon cycle Humans are so dependent upon this energy

source that within the past 25 years, the proportion of CO, in the atmosphere has

steadily increased from 0.032% to 0.035% Although this increase may seem slight and

insignificant, many experts now Teel it has the potential to profoundly disrupt the

delicate temperature balance of the biosphere

Compared to carbon dioxide, methane (CH ) plays a secondary part in the

carbon cycle, though it can be a significant product in anaerobic ecosystems dominated by methanogens (methane producers) In general, when methanogens reduce CO, by

means of various oxidizable substrates, they give off CHy Lithotrophic methanogens

use H) as an oxidizing agent, and heterotrophic ones use organic acids such as formate or acetate, Typical habitats for methanogens are black muds, marshes, sewage sludge,

and gastrointestinal sites of various animals,

34 Lesson Three

3 The Greenhouse Effect

The sun's rftiant energy does more than drive photosynthesis; it also helps

maintain the stability of the earth's temperature and climatic conditions As radiation

impinges on the earth's surface, much of it absorbed, but a large amount of the infrared

(heat) radiation bounces back into the upper levels of the atmosphere For billions of

years, the atmosphere has been insulated by a layer of gases (primarily CO), CH,, water vapor, and nitrous oxide) formed by natural processes such as respiration, decomposition, and biogeochemical cycles This layer traps a certain amount of the reflected heat, yet also allows some of it to escape into space As long as the amounts of heat entering and leaving are balanced, the mean temperature of the earth will not rise or fall in an erratic or life-threatening way Although this phenomenon, called the

greenhouse effect, is popularly viewed in a negative light, it must be emphasized that its function for cons has been primarily to foster life

The greenhouse effect has recently been a matter of concern because greenhouse gases appear to be increasing at a rate that could disrupt the temperature

balance In effect, a denser insulation layer will trap more heat energy and gradually

heat the earth In recent times, 3.5 x 10") tons per year of CO), have been released collectively by respiration, anaerobic microbial activity, fuel combustion, and volcanic activity By far the greatest increase in CO, production results from human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels, burning forests to clear agricultural land, and manufacturing Deforestation has the added impact of removing large areas of photosynthesizing plants that would otherwise use some of the CO,

Originally, experts on the greenhouse effect were concerned primarily about

increasing CQO, levels, but it now appears that the other greenhouse gases combined

may have a slightly greater contribution than CO, , and they, too, are increasing One

of these gases, CH, , is released from the gastrointestinal tract of ruminant animals such as cattle, goats, and sheep Anaerobic bacteria in a part of the stomach called the rumen produce large amounts) of this gas as they sequentially digest cellulose, a major

component of the animal's dict The gut of termites also harbors wood-digesting and

methane-producing bacteria Although humans cannot digest) cellulose, intestinal

microenvironments also support methanogens Other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide (N,Q) and sulfur dioxide (SO,) are also increasing through automobile and industrial pollution

So far there is no complete agreement as to the extent and effects of global warning It has been documented that the mean temperature of the carth has increased

by 0.5°C since the beginning of the century In one proposed scenario, by the next

century, a rise in the average temperature of 4 to 5°C will begin to melt the polar ice

caps and raise the levels of the ocean 2 to 3 feet, but some experts predict more serious

effects, including massive flooding of coastal regions, changes in rainfall patterns,

expansion of deserts, and long-term climatic disruptions.

English for Students of Biology 35

ll BIOLOGICAL TERMS (CAC THUAT NGU SINH HOC)

1 Respiration (ho fap) :

The term can be applied to events which occur af the level of the whole

organism or its constituent cells The former usage relates to the exchange of

oxygen and carbon dioxide between the the organism and its environment,

“breathing” Small organisms can exchange gases across their body surface but

larger animals require a richly vascularized respiratory surface, such as gills or

lungs, and mechanisms for the movement of water or air over the respiratory

surface

Respiration at the cellular level consists of the metabolic processes which

degrade foodstuffs with the synthesis of ATP This of (wo major types : aerobic, which requires oxygen as a terminal electron receptor and anacrobic, where

some other terminal acceptor is used

Acrobic respiration of glucose consists of its total oxidative degradation by

glycolysiv and the tricarboxytic acid cycle to carbon dioxide and water with the

generation of 36 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule, made up of 2

molecules by substrate level phosphorylation and 34 molecules by oxidative

Phosphorylation

In some Microorganisms, an extensive oxidative anacrobic respiration is

possible, analogous to aerobic respiration but using terminal electron

aeceplors such as vitrafe which is reduced to gaseous nitrogen, sulphate which

is reduced to hydrogen sulphide or carbonate reduced to methane

2 Fermentation (en men) :

During respiration of 6-carbon glucose the molecule ts cleaved to 3-carbon

pyruvic acid by glycolysis with the net production of 2 molecules of ATP by

substrate level phosphorylation and the reduction of one molecule of NAD

Subsequent metabolism can follow several routes but in all cases the NAD must

he regenarated by the reoxydation of NADH? before glycolysis can continue In

the absence of oxygen a less efficient means must be employed to regenerate

NAD at the expense of the reduction of some other metabolite Such a balanced

reduction and oxidatian of the cocnzyme by pairs of metabolites is known to

biochemists as fermentation

Fermentation ts also used as aterm for an industrial process in which large

numbers of microorganisms or isolated cells from higher organisms are grown

under controlled conditions, both acrobie and anacrobic, ina large fermentor to

obtain biochemicals synthesized by the cells 3 Rumen (da co):

The first division of the stomach in ruminants and Cetacea, being an

expansion of the lower end of the oesophagus used for storage of food 4.7/fycofyaix (đường phân) :

The sequence of reactions which converts glucose to pyruvate with the

concomitant net synthesis of two molecules of ATP Under aerobic conditions

36 Lesson Three

it is the prelude to the complete oxidation of glucose via the tricarboxylic

cycle

§ Tricarboxylic cycle (chu trinh tricacboxilic) :

A cyclical series of metabolic interconversions of di- and tricarboxylic

acids which brings about the oxidative degradation of acetyl-CoA The

electrons released generate reductive power which is exploited during their

passage along the electron transfer chain to generate ATP

6 Pollution (su 6 nhiém) :

Modification of the environment by release of noxious materials,

rendering it harmful or unpleasant to life

7 Aerobe (sinh vật hiếu khí) :

An organism which can live and grow only in the presence of free

oxygen; an organism which uses aerobic respiration

8 Anaerobe (sinh vat ky khi) :

An organism which can grow in the absence or near absence of oxygen

Facultative anaerobes can utilize free oxygen; obligate anaerobes are poisoned by it

9, Erosion (Sự ăn mịn, sự xĩi mịn) :

Decay which usually starts at apex of many gastropod shells ; wearing away of soil due to the action of wind, water or gravity

10 Heterotrophic (thudc di dưỡng) :

Said of organisms which require carbon inorganic form, as do all

animals, fungi, some algae, parasitic plants and most bacteria

Il GRAMMAR : ADDING INFORMATION TO SIMPLE SENTENCES WITH PARTICIPLES

(BO SUNG THONG TIN VAO CÁC CÂU ĐƠN GIẢN BẰNG CÁCH

DUNG PHAN TU)

Thơng tín cũng cĩ thể được bổ sung vào các câu đơn giản bằng cách sử dụng các thành

phan của động từ gọi là phân từ Một động từ trong tiếng Anh cĩ ba loại phân từ (hai

loại phân từ hiện tại và một loại phân từ quá khứ) 1 Các phân từ hiện tại :

a) chủ động : ví dụ coming, dọng, arrIVing ;

b) bị động : vi du being sent, being examined

Các phân từ hiện tại hồn thành :

a) cht dong : vi du having come, having gone ;

h) bị động : ví dụ having been delayed, haing been examined

3 Phân từ quá khứ : jumped, walked, repaired (thường tận cùng bằng -cd hoặc -en song cũng cĩ các dạng bất quy tắc như made, got, bought, v.v

to

English for Students of Biology 35

II BIOLOGICAL TERMS (CAC THUAT NGU SINH HOC)

1 Respiration (ho wap) :

The term can be applied to events which occur at the level of the whole

organism or its constituent cells The former usage relates to the exchange of

oxygen and carbon dioxide between the the organism and its environment,

“breathing” Small organisms can exchange gases across their body surface but

larger animals require a richly vascularized respiratory surface, such as gills or lunes, and mechanisms for the movement of water or air over the respiratory

surface

Respiration at the cellular level consists of the metabolic processes which

degrade foodstuffs with the synthesis of ATP [tis of two major types : aerobic, Which requires oxygen as a terminal electron receptor and anaerobic, where

some other terminal acceptor ts used,

Acrobic respiration of glucose consists of its total oxidative degradation by

edyvcolysis and the tricarboxvlic acid cycle , to carbon dioxide and water with the

generation of 36 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule, made up of 2

molecules by sabytrate level phosphorylation and 34 molecules by oxidative

phosphorylation

In some Microorganisms, an extensive oxidative anacrobie respiration is

possible, analogous to aerobic respiration but using terminal electron

veceptors such as aitrate Which is reduced to gaseous nitrogen, sa/phate which

is reduced to hydrogen sulphide or carbonate reduced to methane 2 Fermentation (én men) :

During respiration of 6-carbon glucose the molecule is cleaved to 3-carbon

pyruvic acid by glycolysis with the net production of 2 molecules of ATP by

substrate level phosphorylation and the reduction of one molecule of NAD

Subsequent metabolism can follow several routes but in all cases the NAD must be regenarated by the reoxydation of NADH” before glycolysis can continue In

the absence of oxygen a less efficient means must be employed to regenerate

NAD at the expense of the reduction of some other metabolite Such a balanced reduction and oxidation of the coenzyme by pairs of metabolites is known to

hiochemists as fermentation

Fermentation is also used as aterm for an industrial process in which large

numbers of microorganisms or isolated cells from higher organisms are grown

under controlled conditions, both aerobic and anacrobic, ina large fermentor to

obtain biochemicals synthesized by the cells,

3 Rumen (da cd) :

The first division of the stomach in ruminants and Cetacea, being an

expansion of the lower end of the oesophagus used for storage of food 4 Glycolysis (đường phân) :

The sequence of reactions which converts glucose to pyruvate with the

concomitant net synthesis of two molecules of ATP Under aerobic conditions