The impact of policy change on the teaching of spoken english in primary schools in the north mountains region of viet nam

Trang 1 THE IMPACT OF POLICY CHANGE ON THE TEACHING OF SPOKEN ENGLISH IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH MOUNTAINOUS REGION OF VIETNAM Tram Quynh Dang This thesis is presented in fulfilmen

THE IMPACT OF POLICY CHANGE ON THE TEACHING

OF SPOKEN ENGLISH IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN THE NORTH MOUNTAINOUS REGION OF VIETNAM

Tram Quynh Dang

This thesis is presented in fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Education Edith Cowan University

2020

Abstract

In response to the pressing demand for English as an international lingua franca for socio-economic development, the Vietnamese government has recently undertaken the reform of foreign language education through the National Foreign Language 2020 Project As part of this reform, English classes have been made compulsory from year 3 of primary school and a new English syllabus was

introduced An English textbook series for primary education was developed, based

on a communicative language teaching approach, focussed on developing speaking and listening components and featured tasks reflecting child-focussed methods Given training courses and seminars on the new curriculum and textbooks, primary English language teachers were put under pressure to implement the new syllabus and pedagogy, so that ELT changes would happen in primary schools across

Vietnam

This multiple case study investigated how primary language teachers enacted the new English curriculum and its suggested pedagogy to develop learners’ oral English competence Five English language teachers from three teaching contexts were involved as the cases of the study The three research sites included one city school, one outskirts school, and two remote schools located in three provinces in the north mountainous region of Vietnam At each site, data were collected through structured observations, analysis of teaching materials, and interviews with teachers and their students A case-by-case analysis was undertaken, then findings were compared through a cross-case analysis to answer the research questions

Findings of the study indicated surface changes of English language teaching, but critical issues remaining at the deep level of the enactment of the pedagogies required At the surface level, the primary language teachers across the three

teaching contexts gained some knowledge of the new curriculum and teaching

methods required after professional training courses The study also found that primary ELT content and materials were consistent and child-focused across the different contexts of the case studies This might have been a result of the teachers’ strong assumption that textbooks should drive the teaching However, there was little evidence that teachers fully understood the intentions of the new curriculum and textbooks; and enacted the materials with pedagogical changes as expected Analysis

of classroom data showed that the quality of CLT practice and child-focused tasks promoted by the English language textbooks was generally poor The study findings indicate that this lack of quality was related to the teachers’ lack of understanding of

a CLT approach in practice and how to apply appropriate methods to teach ESL to young learners It was also evident that the spoken English competence of the

participating teachers, despite some improvement because of the reform process, remained inadequate to support teaching in English and conducting highly interactive CLT activities Finally, the study identified factors that would support teachers in the implementation process including in-service training courses, new child-friendly textbook and electronic materials, and a few teaching facilities in schools Those constraining teachers’ practice of the new pedagogies included the preservation of educational norms on language classes, such as teacher-centred approach, textbook driven teaching, centralising classroom management and noise intolerance The

teachers also reported other restraints, such as lack of ELT expertise supports, or lack

of teaching aids to assist the teaching of English communicatively to young learners

The study identified core competences which would enable EFL teachers to implement a CLT syllabus These are presented as a model which highlights the importance of a high level of spoken English language competence for EFL teachers The other three areas of competence are knowledge of the subject, of the learners, and about the teaching method proposed by ESL literature

The study is significant in providing suggestions for Vietnamese ELT reform based on research evidence of classroom teaching practice It is also worth presenting voices from teacher-implementers to Vietnamese top-down policy makers of what worked and what needed further actions

Declaration

I certify that this thesis does not, to the best of my knowledge and belief:

i incorporate without acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a

degree or diploma in any institution of higher education

ii contain any material previously published or written by another person except

where due reference is made in the text; or

iii contain any defamatory material

I also grant permission for the Library at Edith Cowan University to make duplicate

copies of my thesis as required

Acknowledgements

PhD study is a journey with bumps but also excessive joys, explorations and the winning of self-procrastination I could not have completed this dissertation without guidance, supports and enormous encouragement from the wonderful people I have met along the journey I would like to send my sincere thanks to my three supervisors for their guidance at different stages of my journey I gained and grew with the expertise knowledge they shared and led me through I am grateful to Dr Janet Hunter for her overall guidance, expertise and instructions to handle the complicated data process of my multiple case study I would like to express my special thanks to her for her encouragement and emotional support during this journey I would also love to express my gratitude to Dr Rosemary J Allen for her dedicated instructions on my thesis, from the data processing through the thesis shaping and completion I appreciate the countless hours she has spent on my thesis edition, through which I have learnt and improved my academic writing I am also indebted to Dr Yvonne Haig for her guidance in my project initiation and my discussion chapter, particularly her constructive comments on my research model with her ESL expertise I owe them all the knowledge, the dedication, and empathy for difficulties facing an international student

For my PhD to happen, I am grateful to VIED-ECU Joint Scholarship for its valuable grant for my course During the journey, I was lucky to receive assistance and encouragement from kind-hearted academia of ECU I would like to thank Dr Bill Allen and Dr Jo McFarlane for instructing and giving me self-confidence to continue the journey at some of my down moments Thank Bev Lurie for her

professional edition of my thesis I am also grateful to dedicating ECU staff of

School of Education, School of Postgraduate, Library, and Student Success for creating a professional and supportive environment for my study and research

I am also indebted to Thai Nguyen University and the School of Foreign Languages to send me to the course I would also like to thank the schools,

particularly the teachers and students from the three research sites in Vietnam, who gave their time, willingness and optimism for the project I also acknowledge my PhD colleagues for sharing the up and down moments of the PhD journey

Particularly, thank you Thinh and Diem, for being patient and listening, helping to clarify my thoughts, and give valuable comments I would like to leave my final special thanks to my husband, Tuy, for inspiring me to take the PhD road, and providing your support during the years Thank you, my sons and Little Bear for giving me strength to overcome this harsh challenge

Table of Contents

Abstract … i

Declaration iiv

Acknowledgements iv

Table of Contents vi

List of Figures xv

List of Tables xvi

Abbreviations xvii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose of the Study 3

Statement of the Problem 5

Significance of the Study 6

Research Questions 8

Overview of the Study 8

Organisation of the Thesis 9

CHAPTER 2: CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 11

Vietnamese Educational Change: An Historical View 11

Influence of Chinese Ideologies 11

Foreign Language Learning in the Past 14

Doi Moi 1986 and the Prominence of English Language Learning 15

Structure of the Mainstream Vietnamese Educational System 16

Primary English Language Education Prior to 2008 17

Development of the 2003 English Curriculum 17

Teaching Material Constraints Prior to 2008 19

Primary English Teaching Staff Constraints Prior to 2008 20

Primary English Teaching Pedagogy Constraints Prior to 2008 21

Language Policy Changes to Primary Education Since 2008 22

Overview of National Foreign Language Educational Innovation 23

Aims of the 2020 Project 23

Key Changes in the Primary School English Curriculum 24

2010 English Curriculum 24

Textbook Development 26

Teaching Content in Textbooks 27

Accreditation System 29

Human Resources: Teachers 30

Information Communication Technology in EFL 32

Chapter Summary 32

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW 33

First and Second Language Theories 33

Operant Conditioning, Behaviourist Theory and EFL 33

Nativist Theory and Links to EFL 35

Cognitivist Theory and Links to EAL 38

Interactionist Theory and Links to EAL 39

Pragmatist Theory and Links to EAL 44

Approaches Informing the Current Vietnamese Primary English Syllabus 46

Communicative Language Teaching 47

Functional-Notional Approach 50

Task-Based Language Teaching and Collaborative Learning Strategies 50

Techniques for Teaching Speaking to Young EFL Learners 53

Young Learner Characteristics 53

Teaching Techniques for Children 55

Research on Pedagogy Used in Vietnamese Primary Schools 56

Differences Between ESL and EFL Teaching and Learning Contexts 59

Professional Support and Training for Teachers of Primary English 60

Chapter Summary 63

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 64

Research Design 64

Recruiting Schools and Participants 65

Gaining Official Consent 67

Preparing for the Research Project: A Pilot Case Study 67

Timing of Data Collection 68

Data Collection Methods and Instruments 68

Document Analysis 69

Semi-Structured Interviews 69

Interviews with Teachers 69

Focus Groups with Students 70

Establishing Rapport with Interview Participants 71

Classroom Observations 71

Triangulation of the Data and Analysis Strategies 72

Trustworthiness Considerations 73

Validation Strategies 73

Member Checking 74

Avoiding Researcher Bias 74

Chapter Summary 75

CHAPTER 5: THE CITY CASES 76

Teaching Context of Hoa Ban Primary School 76

General Setting 76

Linguistic Background of Hoa Ban Students 76

ELT in Hoa Ban Primary School 77

English Programs 78

Local ELT Community 79

Demographic Information of Teacher Participants 79

Hong’s Professional Background 79

Lam’s Professional Background 80

City Teacher 1: Hong – Findings on the Research Questions 82

Hong’s Curricular and Pedagogical Perceptions 82

Perceptions of Teaching English to Primary EFL Learners 82

Interpretation of Teaching Content and Goal 83

Hong’s Pedagogical Practise and Use of Resources 84

Tasks and Teaching Materials 84

Practising the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 85

Teaching Language Knowledge with a CLT Approach 85

Practising Language with a CLT Approach 86

Practising the Project-Based Learning Technique 89

Practising Child-Focused Teaching Techniques 89

Teaching with Songs and Chants 90

Teaching with Stories and Comics 90

Language Used for Instruction 91

Managing Phonics-Experienced Learners 92

Teacher’s Role 93

Pedagogical Impacts from Learners’ Reflections 93

Summary of Hong’s Pedagogy 95

City Teacher 2: Lam – Findings on the Research Questions 95

Lam’s Perceptions of the Curriculum and Pedagogy 95

Perceptions of Teaching English to Primary EFL Learners 96

Interpretation of the Teaching Content and Goal 97

Lam’s Pedagogical Practise and Use of Resources 98

Tasks and Teaching Materials 98

Practising the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 98

Teaching Language Knowledge with a CLT Approach 98

Practising Language with a CLT Approach 99

Error Correction and Feedback 101

Practising Project-Based Learning Techniques 101

Practising Child-Focused Teaching Techniques 103

Teaching with Games 103

Teaching with Songs and Chants 103

Teaching with Comics and Stories 104

Visual Aids, Role Play and Imagination 104

Language Used for Instruction 105

Managing Phonics-Experienced Learners 105

Pedagogical Impacts on Learners and their Attitudes to Error Correction 106

Summary of Case Studies 1 and 2 and Factors Impacting Pedagogical Choice 107 CHAPTER 6: THE OUTSKIRTS CASE 110

Teaching Context of Viet Bac Primary School 110

General Setting 110

Linguistic Background of Viet Bac Students 111

ELT at Viet Bac Primary School 111

The English Program 111

Outskirts Teacher 3: Vy – Findings to the Research Questions 112

Vy’s Professional Background 112

Vy’s Perceptions of the Curriculum and Pedagogy 114

Perceptions of Teaching English to Primary EFL Learners 114

Interpretation of Teaching Content and Goal 115

Understanding Curricular Outcomes 116

Perceptions of the CLT Approach for Teaching the Oral Component 116

Vy’s Pedagogical Practise and Use of Resources 118

Tasks and Teaching Materials 118

Practising the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 120

Teaching Language Knowledge 120

Teaching Focus on Language Practise 122

Conducting Practice 122

Inconsistent Attention to Meaning of Language Practice 124

Practising the Project-Based Learning Technique 125

Practising Child-Focused Teaching Techniques 126

Integrating Speaking Activities to Support Other Learning 127

Language of Instruction 128

Teacher’s Role 130

Pedagogical Impact from Learner Reflection 130

Summary of Case Study 3 and Factors Impacting Pedagogical Choice 131

CHAPTER 7: THE REMOTE CASES 133

Teaching Context of Huong Son and Khuoi Nam Primary Schools 133

Location and Population 133

Huong Son and Khuoi Nam Primary Schools 134

Multilingual Background of Students 134

ELT in Huong Son and Khuoi Nam Schools 136

English Curricula and Extra-Curricular Activities 138

ELT Administration and Professional Support 138

Demographic Information on Teacher Participants 138

Nuong’s Professional Background 138

Khanh’s Professional Background 140

Remote Teacher 4: Nuong from Huong Son Primary School 141

Nuong’s Perceptions of the Curricular and Pedagogy 141

Perceptions of Teaching English to Primary EFL Learners 141

Interpretation of Teaching Content and Goal 142

Perceptions of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 143

Nuong’s Pedagogical Practise and Use of Resources 143

Tasks and Teaching Materials 143

Practising Communicative Language Teaching 144

Teaching Language Knowledge with a CLT Approach 144

Conducting Language Practice in a CLT Approach 145

Practising the Project-Based Learning Technique 146

Practising Child-Focused Teaching Techniques 147

Teaching with Games 147

Teaching with Songs and Chants 147

Teaching with Stories and Comics 148

Teaching with Visual Aids 148

Class Management Techniques for Young Learners 148

Language Used for Instruction 149

Teacher’s Roles 1

Foundational Teaching Skills Needing Improvement 150

Managing Learners in a Remote Context 151

Pedagogical Impacts from Learners’ Reflections 153

Remote Teacher 5: Khanh from Khuoi Nam Primary-Secondary School 154

Khanh’s Perceptions of the Curricular and Pedagogy 155

Perceptions of Teaching English to Primary EFL Learners 155

Interpretation of Teaching Content and Goal 155

Perceptions of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 157

Observations of Khanh’s Pedagogical Practise and Use of Resources 157

Tasks and Teaching Materials 158

Practising the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 159

Teaching Language Knowledge with a CLT Approach 159

Language Practise with a CLT Approach 160

Practising Project-Based Learning Techniques 161

Practising Child-Focused Teaching Techniques 162

Using Visual Aids 162

Teaching with Games 162

Teaching with Songs and Chants 163

Classroom Management Techniques and Encouragement 163

Language Used for Instruction 164

Teacher’s Roles 165

Using Speaking to Teach Other Skills 166

Managing Learners in a Remote Context 167

Pedagogical Impacts from Learners’ Reflections 168

Summary of Case Studies 4 and 5 and Factors Impacting Pedagogical Choice 169

CHAPTER 8: CROSS CASE FINDINGS 172

Three Research Contexts and Demographic Information on the Case Studies 172

Geographic Location 174

English Language Teaching in the School Context 176

Demographic Information on Participating Teachers 176

Teachers’ Interpretation of the Curriculum and Supportive Textbooks 179

Knowledge of the Curriculum 179

Textbooks and “Textbook-is-the-Bible” Assumption 180

Teachers’ Opinions of the Syllabus Goal 182

Teachers’ Enactment of the Pedagogy Mandated by the New Syllabus 183

Perceptions of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 183

Enactment of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach 184

Teaching Language Knowledge 184

Discourse Practise 186

Organising Projects for Uncontrolled Practise 189

Teachers’ Roles 190

Language of Instruction 190

Translation Method 193

Teachers’ Enactment of Pedagogy to Assist Young Learners 194

Inspiration for English Study Pivotal for Young Learners 194

Children Learn EFL with Multiple Senses 195

Enactment of Teaching Strategies to Assist Young Learners 196

Games 196

Songs and Chants 197

Storytelling 197

Visual Support 198

Management Techniques 199

Factors Influencing Teachers’ Pedagogical Practise 200

2020 Project Teacher Preparation 200

Professional Support for Implementing the New Syllabus 202

Facilities and Traditional Values Hampering English Education 203

Personnel Policy for English Teachers 205

The EFL Context 205

Chapter Summary 206

CHAPTER 9: DISCUSSION 207

Issue 1: Teacher Preparation for English Curricular Reform 208

Issue 2: Curriculum, Textbooks and Teachers’ Interpretations 211

Issue 3: Teachers’ Knowledge of the New Pedagogy Mandated by the Syllabus 217

Issue 4: Teachers’ Knowledge of Young Language Learners and Mandated TEYL Methods 222

Issue 5: Teachers’ Spoken English Proficiency 226

Issue 6: Teaching Conditions for English Language Teachers 228

Model of Influences EFL Curriculum Reform in Vietnam… 232

Chapter Summary 234

CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 236

Study Justification 236

Value of the Study 242

Implications of the Study 244

Implications for Authorities and Textbooks 244

Syllabus 244

Textbooks 244

Teaching Aids 245

Implications for Teacher Trainers 246

Training of Teaching Methodology 246

Improvement of Spoken English 247

Implications for ELT Administrators 247

Class Size, Classroom Settings and Facilities 247

Personnel Policy and Professional Support 248

Implications for Teachers 249

Limitations of the Study 249

Recommendations for Further Studies 250

Researcher’s Reflections 251

References 252

Appendix A: Information Letter and Consent to School Principals 263

Information Letter and Consent to English Language Teachers 266

Information Letter and Consent to Guardians 269

Appendix B: Sample of a Unit from Vietnamese English Textbook 272

Appendix C: Observational Transcription Conventions 274

Appendix D: Observational Evidence from the City Case Studies 275

Lesson Extracts from Hong’s Class 275

Lesson Extracts from Lam’s Class 280

Appendix E: Observational Evidence from the Outskirts Case Study 286

Lesson Extracts from Vy’s Class 286

Appendix F: Observational Evidence from the Remote Case Studies 292

Lesson Extracts from Nuong’s Class 292

Lesson Extracts from Khanh’s Class 298

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework of the Study 9 Figure 3.1 Context Embedded Model 44 Figure 9.1 Influences on EFL Curriculum Implementation in Vietnam 233

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Framework for Language in Education Goals 25

Table 3.1 Framework for Designing a Task 53

Table 3.2 Guiding Principles for EAL Teaching and Learning 54

Table 3.3 Differences Between ESL and EFL Teaching and Learning Contexts 61

Table 5.1 Sequence of a Dialogue Lesson by Hong 88

Table 5.2 Sequence of a Dialogue Lesson by Lam 100

Table 6.1 Sequence of a Dialogue Lesson by Vy 124

Table 7.1 Khanh’s Modification of the Textbook Conversation Sample 161

Table 8.1 Cross-Case Comparison of ELT Contexts 173

Table 8.2 Demographic Information on Participating Teachers 177

Table 8.3 Teachers' English Competence and Language Use for Teaching 191

Abbreviations

Learning, Teaching, Assessment

DOET Department of Education and Training

(of a province or a district)

EAL English as an Additional Language

EFL English as a Foreign Language

ESL English as a Second Language

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

By the close of the twentieth century, one of the major changes brought about

by globalisation was the widespread use of English as a foreign language in both developed and developing countries In Vietnam, this led to changes in educational policy, innovative syllabus developments based on new pedagogical approaches and the need for additional trained EFL teachers This thesis explores how EFL teachers

in three different remote areas of Vietnam reacted to these changes and investigated their perceptions and interpretations of the new syllabus regarding the teaching of spoken English

Globalisation and rapid development of the internet was accompanied by an integration of world economies and changes to international relationships through trade, education, politics, science and popular culture (Crystal, 2012; Held, McGrew, Goldblatt, & Perraton, 1999) To support the expansion of companies that had moved offshore to non-English speaking environments, the need for a common business language was imperative As the second most spoken language in the world and the language in which most of the world’s digital information is stored and published, English became the choice for many countries (Broughton, Brumfit, Pincas, & Wilde, 2002) Their decision was influenced by political, economic and educational forces, with the objective of improving national competitiveness, facilitating

economic expansion and enhancing people’s international language proficiency for study and work (Bolton, 2008; Graddol, 2006; Hayes, 2007; T T H Phan, 2009)

Although globalisation is mostly defined in economic terms, it follows that there will be implications for educational change in countries where English is not the primary language Historically, Vietnam has experienced a long tradition of additional language learning Including the Vietnamese language and regional

dialects, the four most common foreign languages are Mandarin, French, Russian and English, each of these having dominated an era in Vietnamese history due to political and socio-economic factors (H T M Nguyen & Bui, 2016; T G Nguyen, 2006; T T H Phan, 2009; Wright, 2002) Despite this complication, the Vietnamese government’s decision was to prioritise the learning of English over other foreign languages owing to a stronger historical influence

People in many Asian countries believe that “a degree of proficiency in English is seen as a desirable skill and is used to differentiate between candidates applying for a job” (Hayes, 2007, p 25) Another common belief is that the earlier students begin to learn English, the more likely they are to achieve native-like

language competence (Enever, 2011) For these reasons, English language has been made compulsory at primary school level

Commencing instruction of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) at primary school level is common in many Asian countries, including Vietnam (Garton,

Copland, & Burns, 2011) To support English Language Teaching (ELT), the

Vietnamese government introduced a new policy in 2008 – Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System, Period 2008-2020 Project – also named the NFL 2020 Project (T D Nguyen, 2008, September) Originally planned for the period 2008 to 2020, the project was later extended to 2025 to

provide more time for innovation and reform of English language education (X P Nguyen, 2017)

As part of this ongoing reform, English was made a compulsory subject from Year 3 onwards A new English curriculum was developed and approved for the primary level, known as the 2010 Curriculum The new curriculum was intended to

be introduced gradually, with approximately 20% of Year 3 students participating in the 2010-2011 school year (phase 1), expanding to approximately 70% by 2015-2016 (phase 2) and 100% by 2018-2019 (phase 3) (T D Nguyen, 2008, September)

At the heart of the NFL 2020 project was curricula change, and accordingly a new English curriculum and accompanying textbooks were introduced for

implementation in schools A communicative language teaching (CLT) approach was the key methodology, placing emphasis on oral interaction and practice (MOET, 2010) The success of primary English education was to be measured by means of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) The goal for primary school students was to achieve English language competence equivalent

to A1 level of the CEFR by the end of Year 5

Teachers were recognised by MOET as critical agents in both curriculum and pedagogical change (Hayes, 2007) Several ministerial documents were issued to guide pre-service education, in-service training and teachers’ professional self-

development In addition, in-service teacher development has been undertaken throughout the country since 2011 International experts assisted with development

of the training programs, and university and college lecturers were involved as teacher trainers

Numerous challenges were encountered with changing the English

curriculum in Vietnam Two of these related to expected levels of achievement for primary school students and the best methods of teaching English to young learners International experience shows that, even in developed European countries with better learning conditions, achieving an A1 competency level in a foreign language within a limited time is not an easy task (Enever, 2007) Additionally, research by Djigunovic and Vilke (2001) in Croatia revealed that progress in an EFL context is dependent upon the frequency of English classes, the language proficiency of the teacher and the number of students in a class This was supported by research in China, where class sizes of 40-50 students were common in the introductory phase of EFL at primary school level in big cities Enever (2007) showed that teachers were inclined to rely on choral work rather than encouraging student interaction in such large class sizes, and rather than building students’ confidence and abilities to

communicate meaningfully in English, were more likely to focus on accurate

pronunciation He also cautioned that by focusing on municipal schools in the initial phase, Chinese reform risked leaving rural areas behind

Purpose of the Study

Given the above experiences in other countries, the main purpose of this study is to identify how English primary school teachers have responded

pedagogically to the changes they were expected to implement Innovation in the English curricula subjected teachers to challenges associated with a communicative approach that emphasised oral interaction and achievement of A1 spoken English for primary students Despite additional material resources, implementation of the new curriculum was not anticipated to be easy in practice Primary school teachers were likely to resist the introduction of communicative language teaching techniques, since their level of English language proficiency was generally low, many at mere beginner level themselves (T T Tran and Le, 2015), and most of them were used to traditional, adult-oriented methods of teaching (Bock, 2000; V C Le, 2011; Ngoc & Iwashita, 2012; H H Pham, 2007) Furthermore, they had limited access to English

classes (3 x 40 minutes per week according to the 2010 Curriculum), taught large classes and had only been exposed to Confucian educational values, some of which conflicted with the theoretical underpinnings of CLT Such a context was highly likely to be stressful for primary teachers as they endeavoured to develop students’ spoken language competence, introduce new materials and implement classroom practices that ensured young learners’ motivation for learning English

Therefore, a second purpose of this study was to identify how EFL teachers responded to government efforts to upgrade their qualifications so that they could accomplish the goals of the NFL 2020 project Action had been taken at ministerial and provincial levels, including the issuance of guiding documents and provision for teacher preparation, but to date ELT teachers’ training and skills for implementing the curriculum in primary schools has not been explored The lessons that emerged from foreign language education European and Asian primary schools indicated that higher numbers of teachers completing in-service courses and well-designed teacher training courses did not necessarily lead to improvements in practice (Hayes, 2007) Instead, this type of change “depended on what teachers do and think – it’s as simple and complex as that” (Fullan, 1991, p 117) Rather than simply introducing the curriculum and teaching techniques, changes need to be “deep, striking at the core of teachers’ beliefs, philosophy and conceptions of education and learning skills” (O'Sullivan, 2001, p 111) Thus, how teachers interpret and perceive the changes required of them is vital for successful implementation of the pedagogy Yet, agents

of change frequently ignore the needs of teachers and their abilities to manage

curricular reforms

In response to this, a third purpose of this study was to ascertain the extent

to which teachers in various areas succeeded in adopting the communicative

approach in their classrooms Despite introducing the communicative approach in Vietnam’s previous English language curriculum, Nguyen’s (2011) and Moon’s (2007) observations of primary English language classrooms in two big cities in Vietnam revealed that teachers lacked understanding of communicative approaches and pedagogies recommended for young learners Those studies also inferred that the situation was worse in rural and remote regions of Vietnam, where foreign language teachers have to deal with “more traditional values” in teaching and learning (Phelps,

Ha, Graham, & Geeves, 2012, p 33) In a similar EFL context, the Chinese lesson of

rural areas “lagging behind” in primary English curriculum reform (Y Hu, 2007) served as a reminder to Vietnamese innovators to pay attention to areas with less advantageous conditions and little access to English education In recognition of the additional challenges inherent in implementing a new curriculum in such contexts, this study was undertaken in three locations in the mountainous regions of Vietnam

Statement of the Problem

The early attempts mentioned above provided only brief guidelines for

primary English language teaching Some years later, research on the program

highlighted major issues (Moon, 2007; Trinh, 2007), including graduate teacher qualifications, lack of understanding to teach young learners and their commitment

to the job Additionally, the 2003 curriculum did not provide clear aims and expected outcomes for the English program or recommend suitable textbooks Most of the teachers at that time graduated from universities or colleges that offered English courses to adolescents and adults rather than children (Moon, 2007; H T M Nguyen, 2011)

Prior to 2008, no Vietnamese universities provided training that particularly focused on young learners of English (V Le, Do, Spolsky, & Moon, 2012; H T M Nguyen, 2011) In the absence of specialised pre-service and in-service training courses, primary English teachers lacked any knowledge of developmental, cognitive and linguistic aspects of teaching young learners They tended to teach in the ways they had been trained (Moon, 2007), that is, they emphasised accuracy and form rather than fluency, and focused on vocabulary, grammar and written skills in the early stages of English learning Instead of communicative activities they used drills and whole-class chorus work as foremost teaching techniques Many had difficulty creating authentic communicative activities and did not take advantage of the natural ways in which children learn language (Halliwell, 1992)

As a result, teachers and educational administrators were uncertain about what to teach, how to teach and how to assess children’s English achievement The school administrators and teachers who participated in Moon’s (2007) study

reportedly observed the aim of primary English education to be “as narrow as to memorize the words and patterns in textbooks they had selected themselves” (p 49)

The teaching practices observed in a study by H T M Nguyen (2011) concurred with this viewpoint

The requirements of communicative teaching created a further problem Many teachers reported that it was difficult to manage children while they were actively involved in pair work or group work However, according to Moon (2007), the substitute activities they designed did not motivate children to use their

imagination Given these circumstances, it is not surprising that the English speaking and listening skills of Vietnamese students were unsatisfactory

There is strong evidence to support the crucial need for speaking and

listening skills in the early stages of learning a new language Listening is the main source of language input, particularly when young children have not yet learned to read the language (Scott & Ytreberg, 1990) Further, children possess the “instinct for interaction and talk” (Halliwell, 1992, p 8) and learn to express their ideas through meaningful interaction Thus, limited communicative opportunities in an environment with high levels of anxiety about making mistakes and teachers’

dominant use of L1 all contribute to failure of these early attempts to teach English

(Moon, 2007; H T M Nguyen, 2011)

It is, therefore, an opportune time to investigate whether more recent

innovations in curriculum, guidelines, teacher training, in-service training and

materials development had a positive outcome on teaching EFL in primary English

classrooms in Vietnam

Significance of the Study

The NFLP 2020 Project has now been in progress for nearly ten years, but research suggests that a range of factors have inhibited pedagogical change in the less favourable conditions of the mountainous and rural regions in Vietnam (V Le,

Do, Spolsky, & Moon, 2012; H T M Nguyen & Bui, 2016; Trinh, 2007)

The government is currently completing the second phase of the 2020 Project that has been extended to 70% of schools in Vietnam Many of the schools involved

in phase 2 are in mountainous and isolated areas where educational conditions differ greatly from those in the cities (Phelps et al., 2012) Despite these differences, it has been difficult to identify research that has examined the impact of the project on teachers, especially primary teachers responsible for implementing the changes Nor

has there been any research that investigates how teachers in these contexts can be supported in implementing pedagogical reform

Moreover, research to date has not investigated the perceptions of teachers involved in curricular change or sought their views on how they might be further supported to implement them Teachers’ perceptions and subjective understandings

of their needs are important, particularly considering their key role in the change process, as acknowledged in previous research and project documents (Fullan, 1993; Project, 2012) When teachers’ abilities and needs are ignored “attempts to enforce a centrally determined blueprint will be sowing the seeds of failure” (Hayes, 2007, p 26) However, the voices of teachers are rarely heard in Vietnam with its

authoritative education system and strong centralised government control over most aspects of education

For all these reasons, this research provides a timely contribution to enable successful implementation of the NFL Project, especially in its final stage when all schools in Vietnam must fully implement the new EFL curriculum Seeking the views of teachers who are key agents of implementation gives them a voice in the change process so that their needs can be understood and made explicit Moreover,

by addressing their issues the outcomes are likely to be more positive than those reported in previous research This is particularly important for teachers working in the mountainous regions of Vietnam and on whom this research focuses, since educational conditions are not as favourable in these regions as they are in large cities and teachers may need different forms of support to engage in the change process

The core of the innovation lies in the implementation of a new 10-year curriculum that reinforces a communicative approach For the primary curriculum, speaking and listening skills have been identified as needing more attention than written skills The textbooks developed to support implementation of the curriculum contain techniques that are more child-centred, such as chants, songs and games However, how the curriculum and national textbooks are being used by teachers and the impact they are having on classroom practice in developing oral skills need further investigation in the more challenging context of the mountainous regions of Vietnam

The findings from this research can potentially provide the NFL Project Management Board, policy makers and educational administrators with information

to refine phase 3 of the program, particularly in regard to primary schools in remote areas Successful implementation of the 2020 Project in these regions will contribute

to narrowing the gap in English language achievement between isolated areas and more economically and educationally advantaged urban areas

Finally, the findings from this study will contribute to the broader field of EFL teaching and learning, particularly as there is currently limited research on primary school children learning English in an EFL context

2 How do the teachers enact the curriculum and pedagogy to develop speaking competence?

3 What supports and constraints influence the pedagogical enactment to teach the speaking component to young learners?

Overview of the Study

The framework shown in Figure 1.1 conceptualises and illustrates the key components involved in shaping innovation in foreign language teaching and

learning in Vietnam The support provided by the Vietnamese government is

represented in the three boxes on the left The figure also includes elements that make up teachers’ backgrounds, and in combination, provide insights into their professional identities as English language teachers and pedagogical practices

Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework of the Study

Organisation of the Thesis

This thesis consists of ten chapters Chapter 1, the introduction, provides a background to the educational change that led to the study and examines the

significance of the problems and their effect on the success of educational change in Vietnam The questions that directed the research are presented, together with the potential contribution of the research to Vietnamese education and EFL education more broadly Chapter 2 provides an historical context in order to understand

inherent difficulties that could affect the planned changes to English language

teaching in Vietnam It also presents an overview of the NFL 2020 Project policy changes and an in-depth description of the supports that accompanied these changes Chapter 3 provides an overview of seminal theories that underpin first- and second-language acquisition and learning It also reviews the factors that inform suitable teaching techniques for young learners

Chapter 4 includes features of the research design and the reasons for their selection, including the processes involved in recruiting participants; gathering evidence; analysing and synthesising the data; ethical factors; and mitigating issues

of trustworthiness Chapters 5, 6 and 7 present case studies from each of the three chosen regions, while Chapter 8 offers a cross-case analysis of the findings to inform

the discussion Findings from the triangulated data are constructed around how the participating teachers enact the new curriculum and what key factors influence their teaching practice Chapter 9 offers a discussion of five significant findings presented

in the previous chapters, around the teacher preparation for the curriculum change, teachers’ interpretation of the curriculum and their pedagogical knowledge for implementing it, teachers’ spoken English proficiency, and teaching conditions they were provided with Finally, Chapter 10 concludes the study and provides some recommendations for more focussed supports at all levels to facilitate Vietnamese EFL teachers to make ELT changes happen in classrooms

CHAPTER 2 THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

This chapter describes the changes to Vietnamese education that prompted the current research and led to compulsory teaching of English language in

Vietnamese schools It also provides an historical context to show how Vietnam’s past has inhibited the change process The context of English language teaching in Vietnamese primary schools is described in two sections: the period prior to the advent of the Vietnamese language policy in 2008 and the years following the release

of the policy In addition, the chapter provides details of the support provided by the Vietnamese government to implement these changes, with a focus on educational change in primary schools

Vietnamese Educational Change: An Historical View

Research shows that educational change involving curriculum innovation is a difficult and long-term process, since it requires new knowledge, skills and attitudes (Bell & Ritchie, 2002; Robbins, Decenzo, & Coulter, 2001; Shen, 2008) Constraints that influence educational change are complex in that they involve both external and internal factors and pressures that include political, technological and cultural

adjustments Driven by economic motives, globalisation has exerted a major external influence on educational change in Asian countries From a cultural perspective, this has led to deviations from social norms and forced teachers to change traditional teaching methods with which they have long been confident and comfortable

To fully understand the complexity of educational change in Vietnam and the factors that impede teachers from embracing change, it is necessary to consider Vietnamese culture from an historical viewpoint As discussed in the next section, Vietnamese education has been influenced by Chinese philosophies for many

centuries, making change extremely difficult for educators

Influence of Chinese Ideologies

Chinese ideologies have had a great impact on Vietnamese society and

education due to China’s geographical proximity, and more importantly, a long period during which China ruled Vietnam from 111 BC until 938 AD During this time, there were four periods of Chinese colonisation, each marked by fairly short-lived rebellions and periods of independence in between Although these periods of

occupation did not correspond with current Vietnamese borders, and Chinese

colonisation continues to have a significant effect on cultural identity across the entire country

Historically, education in Vietnam has been influenced by the teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism that form the fundamental nature of Chinese culture (G Ellis, 1994; H V Nguyen, 2002) “Throughout the thousand-year-long history of Vietnam, these three doctrines were intertwined, simplified and assimilated into Vietnamese animistic beliefs” (V C Le, 2011, p 10) However, Confucian philosophy, in particular, contributed to shaping beliefs and practices in teaching and learning, often referred to as educational traditions or traditional methods in foreign language teaching (G Ellis, 1994; V C Le, 2011) In Vietnamese education,

Confucian-influenced beliefs are clearly evident in the importance attributed to examinations, teacher-student relationships and adherence to a central curriculum through the use of textbooks

The first of these, the importance of examinations, places particular attention

on the perfection of written skills (G Ellis, 1994) This emphasis impacts learning and teaching practices in schools, especially in English language education Moon (2007) found testing prevalent in primary schools despite the young age of students who were at the beginning stage of English language learning and lacked mastery in writing

The second Confucian core belief is reflected in teacher-student relationships that shape the nature of teaching and learning styles in Vietnam According to Q T

N Nguyen (2016), students are traditionally expected to afford their teachers the same respect as they would a ruler (the king) or their father As a native speaker of English in Vietnam, G Ellis (1994) observed that obedient students who reserved their opinions and unquestioningly accepted the information provided by their

teachers were considered good students Even when the student is aware that the teacher is wrong, questioning their knowledge will cause the teacher embarrassment and result in “loss of face” Although this belief results in well-behaved children and well-controlled classes, it encourages student passivity, discourages critical

engagement with knowledge and limits creativity in learning On the other hand,

teachers are influenced by the Tien hoc le, hau hoc van belief, which means: “learn

morality first, learn knowledge later” Accordingly, teachers are expected to be good

models of moral behaviour and knowledge providers for their students to copy or imitate (X T Nguyen, 1988) This is most likely the reason for the teacher-

centeredness and rote learning that dominate teaching styles in Vietnamese schools Despite MOET’s promotion of student-centred approaches and learner-friendly environments in schools since the 1990s, Aikman and Pridmore (2001) found that traditional values persisted and not much had changed across a decade

The third Chinese educational ideology concerns how Vietnamese educators and teachers strictly adhere to a central curriculum and textbooks as opposed to modified teacher-produced materials to suit the ability of their students In Vietnam, development of curricula, syllabuses and textbooks is a top-down process mandated

by MOET As reported by V C Le (2011), these centralised syllabuses and

accompanying course books prescribe general teaching goals, methodologies and course content, and recommend activities, teaching techniques and even time

allocations for each lesson Research in the Vietnamese context shows that education

is completely driven by textbooks Teachers typically adhere strictly to their content and experience enormous pressure to complete all lessons within the allotted time to avoid criticism from administrators and colleagues (Saito, Tsukui, & Tanaka, 2008)

As a result, many teachers are inflexible and reluctant to adapt the syllabus to their local teaching contexts and the ability levels of their students (Duggan, 2001)

The above factors could reflect a strong belief in the value of centralisation that has lasted for centuries in Vietnamese society (V C Le, 2011) or it could reflect

a common tendency towards passivity in Vietnamese people, including educators (G Ellis, 1994) In education, teachers have learned to “follow the rules established by the ministry and organize their behaviour accordingly” (Saito et al., 2008, p 98) As a product of these values, Vietnamese teachers understandably follow Confucian beliefs, and teachers of English are no exception

In summary, the above factors are deeply rooted in Vietnamese society and education Therefore, educational innovation based on a very different belief system

is likely to meet with resistance from teachers, and the clash of values and beliefs can become a barrier This may well be the case with the 2010 Curriculum that required increased authentic communication and diverse patterns of interaction in English classes

Foreign Language Learning in the Past

Despite its universal importance as a lingua franca, English in Vietnam was

just one of several foreign languages taught in schools Therefore, to fully understand the impact of the changes, it is necessary to provide a general background and

historical context of foreign language education in Vietnam prior to 2008

Vietnam has a long tradition of additional language learning, with the four most common languages being Mandarin, French, Russian and English Each foreign language dominated a particular era of Vietnamese history due to political and socio-economic factors (H T M Nguyen & Bui, 2016; T G Nguyen, 2006; T T H Phan, 2009; Wright, 2002)

Mandarin was introduced in Vietnam early in the 2nd century Throughout one thousand years of Chinese domination it was the official language used for administration, literature, rituals and academic activities (National Social Sciences and Humanity, 2007) Vietnam gained independence in the 10th century, and while

Vietnamese Mandarin (Nom) was commonly used in public communication and

literature, Chinese Mandarin remained the language used in administration and education (T G Nguyen, 2006) Together with its linguistic influence, Chinese ideologies became deeply rooted in Vietnamese society after such a long period of Chinese reign (T T H Phan, 2009), and the influence of Confucianism is still

evident today in Vietnamese families, social behaviours and education

In 1859, Vietnam became a French colony, lasting over a century, during which time French was taught in the educational system to facilitate direct

interaction with the colonial government During the American war, from 1954 to

1975, Russian and English learning took place simultaneously in two parts of the country Russian became popular in the north where the Communist party aligned with the USSR; and English flourished in the south, due to a need to work for the American army and provide services to the soldiers Since 1971, English has been embedded in the official school curriculum in the south (Denham, 1992) After the American forces withdrew in 1975, Vietnam was reunified and during the period of reconstruction that followed Vietnam adhered to the USSR’s centralised model, aligned to the USSR and Eastern European countries Russian was, therefore, the main foreign language used throughout the country in the following two decades

Doi Moi 1986 and the Prominence of English Language Learning

In the post-war construction period in December 1986, the government

mandated the policy of Doimoi, representing a shift from central planning to a

market-oriented economy In addition to relationships with the Soviet Union and its allies, the new “open door” policy promoted Vietnamese relationships with important organisations and countries in the Asian region and the world The resulting

prominence of English language learning reflected Vietnam’s willingness to become part of the globalisation movement that favoured English as the language of business The need for English in employment and study increased significantly among

Vietnamese people in the context of rapid industrialisation and international

integration of Vietnam in the 21st century

For Vietnamese people the “open door” policy, with its facilitation of foreign investment and exchange dramatically increased job opportunities in foreign

businesses and enabled Vietnamese scholars to study abroad As a result, the number

of Vietnamese students studying abroad in English-speaking countries increased exponentially through both sponsored and self-funded programs By 2005,

approximately 20,000 Vietnamese students had completed studies in English-

speaking countries, such as the US, Australia, Canada, the UK and New Zealand (Ashwill & Thai, 2005) Since then, the number of Vietnamese students travelling to these destinations has continued to rise According to the regional manager of New Zealand Education for Southeast Asia, New Zealand alone recorded more than 25,000 Vietnamese students in 2016, and in 2017, the number of visas granted to secondary and tertiary students increased by 36% and 14% respectively compared to the previous year (Ha, 2018)

Despite the number of Vietnamese students studying abroad and regardless of the importance the government placed on English language competence for

economic growth, graduates were failing to meet the standards necessary to promote Vietnam’s development (L Nguyen, 2005; V K Nguyen, 2015) Although English has been taught in mainstream primary and secondary education, with most students studying it for at least three years and some for as many as seven, the English

competency of Vietnamese graduates has proved inadequate to support further study, enter international academe or join the globalised workforce in the 21st century (L Nguyen, 2005) For example, among 1, 000 candidates who sat for a postgraduate

exam at Da Nang University in 2010, 80% scored below the required Vietnamese level, equivalent to B1 on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Q H Tran, 2011) In 2008, prompted by concerns about the state of English language education, the Vietnamese government developed a new education policy to address this issue by including EFL as a subject in the

mainstream Vietnamese Education Curriculum

Structure of the Mainstream Vietnamese Education System

Since the country’s reunification in 1975, the educational system in Vietnam has encompassed five levels: pre-school; primary; lower secondary; upper secondary, and tertiary The aim of primary education is to assist young learners build an initial foundation in terms of moral values, intelligence and physical development

(Education Law, 2005) Figure 2.1 shows that primary education is the first level of general education and extends from Years 1-5

Primary schooling concludes at the age of 11 years, after which students can choose to enter secondary school for four years or opt for professional training that takes two years to complete Primary education is divided into two phases Six subjects are studied in phase 1 mainstream classes, consisting of Years 1, 2 and 3 These include Vietnamese, mathematics, morality, nature and society, arts and physical education Phase 2 mainstream classes cater for Years 4 and 5 and nine subjects are studied: Vietnamese, mathematics, morality, science, history,

geography, basic techniques, music, arts and physical education English language

is an optional subject in primary school, but compulsory at higher public

educational levels, i.e., junior and senior secondary schooling, and the most popular optional foreign language selected by students at tertiary levels

Research and documents about primary school ELT in Vietnam prior to 2008 indicated some issues worth noting These include the development of an English curriculum and textbooks for primary schools, and English teaching staff and

pedagogy used by Vietnamese teachers for teaching primary students

Figure 2.1 Levels of the Vietnamese Education System By C Runckel, President

of Runckel & Associates Business-in-Asia.com No copyright details available

Primary English Language Education prior to 2008

Development of the 2003 English Curriculum

To cater for the socio-economic changes in Vietnam after the introduction of

Doi Moi, English language education was introduced in secondary schools in the

1990s, and in primary schools in cities in the early 2000s However, research on ELT

in primary schools prior to 2010 revealed some serious concerns According to the findings, Primary English Language Teaching (PELT) was judged as being

unsatisfactory (Moon, 2007; H T M Nguyen, 2011) for several reasons, including the optional role of English as a subject in the national curriculum for primary

schools; inadequate guidelines provided by MOET; unsatisfactory English

proficiency of ELT staff; and ineffectual adoption of pedagogy by teachers

In big cities, such as Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, some optional English courses were provided for children in the late 1990s in response to social trends and parents’ wishes; initially by language centres and then by primary schools (Hoang, 2012; H T M Nguyen & Nguyen, 2007) To manage these courses, MOET

introduced guidelines for English Language Teaching (ELT) in primary schools in

2003 through the English Curriculum for Primary Schools (commonly referred to as the 2003 Curriculum) (Decision 50/2003/QD-BGDDT) This document provided the very first guidelines for ELT in primary schools, but was criticised for being

ambiguous and lacking detail for those who had to implement it (Moon, 2007; H T

M Nguyen, 2011; H T M Nguyen & Nguyen, 2007) The guidelines officially declared English an optional subject in the primary curriculum, to be taught from Year 3 onwards Students who chose to study English attended two sessions a week for three years, totalling 210 sessions for primary English education The 2003

Curriculum was founded on the principles of communicative and theme-based

teaching approaches Although reading, writing, listening and speaking were

included, speaking and listening were the central foci The aims of the curriculum were threefold:

• Inculcating basic English communicative skills in listening, speaking,

reading and writing to enable students to communicate in English at school,

at home and in familiar social environments

• Providing students with a fundamental knowledge of English to enable them

to gain primary understanding of the country, the people and the culture of

some English-speaking countries

• Building positive attitudes towards English and a better understanding and

love for Vietnamese through learning English

(MOET, 2003 Cited and translated into English in H T M Nguyen, 2011) The document also provided a brief description of expected student outcomes and teaching content for each of Years 3 to 5 Nevertheless, the guidelines were judged by those who had to implement them as insufficiently detailed and unclear In her research report on Primary English Language Teaching in Vietnam, Moon

(2007), a British Council expert in ELT for children, concurred that the 2003

Curriculum’s aims and outcomes for PELT were unclear DOETs administration staff, school principals, teachers and teacher training institutions needed further

guidance on what and how to teach EFL, as well as how to assess children’s English language to gauge whether expected outcomes had been attained According to Moon (2007, p 49), rather than promoting communicative ability, they “seemed to view the aim of ELT as narrow as to memorize the words and patterns in the

textbook”, potentially leading to ineffective implementation of the curriculum in some regions, as inferred by H T M Nguyen and Nguyen (2007) Other scholars also reported that the optional status of English resulted in inconsistent teaching content and ELT being viewed as a low priority subject that led to lowered status for English teachers (H T M Nguyen & Nguyen, 2007; Trinh, 2007)

Teaching Material Constraints Prior to 2008

Prior to 2010, research on primary English teaching identified inconsistencies

in PELT teaching materials and teaching practices across schools and cities

Teachers were able to apply their preferred teaching methods and there was no national system for evaluating student achievement (Moon, 2007) Since no

textbooks were recommended for the national curriculum, DOETs and schools chose different textbook series, based more on their availability and price rather than on learner needs and characteristics By 2005, three textbook series were used in

primary schools throughout the country, including an imported series, Let’s Go

(Oxford University Press), and two locally produced series Although the OUP program received enthusiastic and positive comments from teachers, the series was not as widely accepted by schools as the local series due to cost (Trinh, 2007) This was despite negative comments by some teachers about the local series that were judged “not fully suited to children’s needs in terms of their focus, types of input and activities” Le V C (2007, p 4) Apart from their unappealing appearance, the materials focused mainly on grammar rather than communication (V C Le, 2007) There was also a lack of games and pronunciation practice for young learners (Trinh, 2007), and some of the language content proved too demanding for primary school EFL learners (H T M Nguyen, 2011)

As a consequence of the reliance on different textbooks, inconsistent teaching content, methods and assessments existed across the schools in different provinces Noting the lack of expertise in teaching English to young learners (TEYL) and the practice of using textbooks as a syllabus, researchers called for urgent clarification of

curricular guidelines and new textbooks grounded in knowledge of children’s

language learning (V C Le, 2007; Moon, 2007; Trinh, 2007)

Primary English Teaching Staff Constraints Prior to 2008

Following the launch of the 2003 English Curriculum, English instruction in city schools increased substantially, and later also in other areas of Vietnam Over the following decade, contemporary research highlighted an extremely problematic situation for primary English teachers and dire concerns about the quality of ELT staff (Moon, 2009; H T M Nguyen & Nguyen, 2007)

The optional status of English language in the curriculum had diminished the status and salaries of primary English teachers compared to other subject teachers English teachers were recruited by schools instead of DOETs and offered only short-term contracts Their salaries, which were minimal compared to other teachers, fluctuated because they were paid from the school budget, subsidised by parents who were prepared to pay for their children’s English studies (Trinh, 2007) Additionally, opportunities for promotion and permanency were limited because there were hardly any staffing quotas for teachers of optional subjects Furthermore, in an exam-

oriented society like Vietnam, students and parents were more concerned about passing compulsory subjects rather than excelling in English, and MOET required no assessment or record of English learning at the primary level With such low

expectations of EFL and teachers of EFL, it was not surprising that many teachers reported low levels of motivation and commitment to their profession

According to H T M Nguyen (2011), a decade of inadequate administration and unspecified English competency levels and pedagogical knowledge resulted in inadequately trained specialist primary school teachers Primary schools recruited teachers based on MOET’s benchmark for English teachers in all levels of public education, most of whom possessed only institutional certificates of English

language learning and some ELT pedagogy

Classroom observations by Moon (2007) and H T M Nguyen (2011) exposed further problems Many of the English teachers they observed proved to be poor models of English language because they lacked spoken language fluency and

pronunciation, particularly with word endings In addition, they were inclined to

overuse Vietnamese in EFL classrooms, and those with reasonable English fluency had difficulty adjusting their language to suit young learners

Moon (2009) and H T M Nguyen (2011) found that existing primary teachers were trained to teach adolescents and adult learners and were therefore unfamiliar with pedagogy for teaching English to young learners Many (five out of 10) teachers interviewed by Moon (2009) became primary English teachers by accident or

necessity Access to professional training and support from primary education

experts was extremely limited Even in big cities, such as Ha Noi and Da Nang, where Moon (2007, p 54) conducted her investigation, “there did not seem to be any specialized or dedicated preservice or in-service training courses available to

teachers wanting to teach at primary levels” In circumstances like these, Moon noted that teachers tended to teach in the way they were trained; that is, with very little understanding of the characteristics of young learners and their needs, or methods of teaching EFL to this special age group This too, negatively affected the commitment and enthusiasm of primary English teachers for their profession and competency

Primary English Teaching Pedagogy Constraints Prior to 2008

A British Council report (Garton, Copland, & Burns, 2011) identified that many governments cited Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Learning and Teaching (TBLT) as the two most popular approaches for primary school teaching, particularly for improving English communicative competence In Vietnam, CLT became the compulsory approach in the 2003 primary English

curriculum, supported by the local textbooks However, as noted in studies by Moon (2007) and H T M Nguyen (2011), school practices incorporated some features of teaching pedagogy that did not align with CLT principles and were substantially different from those recommended for teaching language to young learners

Firstly, the classes observed by the researchers reflected adult-oriented

teaching methodology rather than pedagogy for teaching children They were teacher dominated and focused on grammar and written forms early in the English program rather than promoting oral communicative skills; possibly because of the strong influence of Confucianism and exam orientation Moon (2007) noted the negative motivational and attitudinal effects of this inappropriate methodology on primary children, particularly their attitudes towards later study of the language