Subsea pipeline engineering

Subsea Pipeline Engineering 2nd Edition Andrew C Palmer and Roger A King Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Disclaimer: The recommendations, advice, descriptions, and the methods in this book are presented solely for educational purposes The author and publisher assume no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage that results from the use of any of the material in this book Use of the material in this book is solely at the risk of the user Copyright © 2008 by PennWell Corporation 1421 South Sheridan Road Tulsa, Oklahoma 74112-6600 USA 800.752.9764 +1.918.831.9421 sales@pennwell.com www.pennwellbooks.com www.pennwell.com Marketing Manager: Julie Simmons National Account Executive: Barbara McGee Director: Mary McGee Managing Editor: Marla Patterson Production Manager: Sheila Brock Production Editor: Tony Quinn Book Designer: Susan E Ormston Cover Designer / Book Layout: Alan McCuller Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Palmer, Andrew C (Andrew Clennel), 1938– Subsea pipeline engineering / Andrew C Palmer and Roger A King 2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-1-59370-133-8 Underwater pipelines Design and construction I King, Roger A., 1945– II Title TC1800.P35 2008 621.8’672 dc22 2007050317 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without the prior written permission of the publisher Printed in the United States of America 12 11 10 09 08 List of Figures Chapter 2–1 Strait of Georgia between the mainland and Vancouver Island 21 2–2 Strait of Gibraltar 23 Chapter 3–1 3–2 3–3 3–4 3–5 3–6 3–7 3–8 3–9 3–10 3–11 Application of strengthening mechanisms to pipeline steels 36 Relation between stress and strain in a tensile test 45 Basic oxygen steelmaking and secondary processing 56 Continuous casting of steel slab 57 Hot-rolling steel plate and strip production processes 62 Alternative TMCP processes 63 Seamless pipe-manufacturing processes 68 Manufacture of ERW and continuous butt-welded pipe 70 High-frequency concentration of current density at surface 71 U-O-E process 74 Manufacture of helical-welded pipe 75 Chapter 4–1 4–2 4–3 Effect of chromium and nickel content on the corrosion resistance of steel 88 Pitting and crevice corrosion rates as a function of PRE number 92 Stress corrosion cracking 94 Palmer-King.indb 13 6/23/08 10:05:51 AM xiv Subsea Pipeline Engineering –4 4–5 4–6 4–7 4–8 4–9 Comparison of stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of steels 95 Schaeffler diagram 97 Fabrication of hot-bonded, internally clad seamless pipe 108 Fabrication of hot-bonded, internally clad U-O-E pipe 110 Explosive cladding of steel plate for internally clad U-O-E pipe 111 Fabrication of internally clad TFP (tight-fit pipe) 112 Chapter 5–1 5–2 5–3 5–4 5–5 5–6 5–7 5–8 5–9 5–10 5–11 5–12 Submerged arc welding 124 Manual metal arc welding 125 Gas metal arc welding 125 Tungsten inert gas welding 126 Bevels for manual arc welding 128 Bevels for semiautomatic and automatic welding 129 Requirement for preheating for cellulosic electrodes 131 Girth weld fabrication 132 S-lay barge-welding practice 132 The heat-affected zone (HAZ) 139 Underwater welding 159 Girth welding by explosive expansion of a jointing ring 165 Chapter 6–1 6–2 6–3 6–4 Flexible pipelines and risers 170 Fabrication of flexible pipelines and risers 171 Sheath pressure relief systems for flexible pipelines 176 Sacrificial cathodic protection of flexible pipe 178 Chapter 7–1 7–2 7–3 7–4 7–5 7–6 7–7 7–8 Generalized view of electrochemical corrosion 193 Sweet corrosion mechanism 194 Corrosion morphologies 195 Sweet corrosion morphology 204 Water entrainment in oil pipelines 207 Sulfide-related cracking morphologies 221 Mechanism of sulfide stress cracking (SSC) 224 NACE MR-0175 domains of SSC 226 Palmer-King.indb 14 6/23/08 10:05:51 AM List of Figures –9 7–10 7–11 7–12 ISO 15156 domains of SSC 227 Morphology of hydrogen-induced cracking 230 Conditions in which HIC is important (schematic) 231 Corrosion mechanism of sulfate-reducing bacteria 240 Chapter 8–1 8–2 8–3 8–4 8–5 8–6 Flood coatings 253 Application of extruded coatings 255 Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) application 256 Holiday detection: (a) wet sponge, (b) sparking with wire brush, (c) sparking with ring jeeper 262 Concrete impingement 294 Field joint corrosion protection and infill 297 Chapter 9–1 9–2 9–3 9–4 9–5 Fluid element in steady horizontal flow 306 Relationship among Reynolds number, friction factor, and roughness 309 Fluid element in steady inclined flow 309 Phase equilibrium of hydrates 320 Flow regime map 323 xv Chapter 10 10–1 Forces in a pressurized pipeline 329 10–2 Circumferential stress in a pipeline pressurized internally and externally 329 10–3 Minimum D/t ratio as a function of p/2Y 340 10–4 Histogram of measured collapse pressures 341 10–5 Relation between curvature and bending moment 347 10–6 Relation between D/t and buckling strain KR 349 10–7 Ovalization during bending: (a) forces on elements below and above neutral surface, (b) resultant forces transferred to cross section 353 10–8 Indentation of 32-in pipeline 356 Palmer-King.indb 15 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM xvi Subsea Pipeline Engineering Chapter 11 11–1 Water flow across seabed pipelines: (a) pipeline on bottom, (b) pipeline above bottom, (c) pipeline in trench 370 11–2 Relation between drag coefficient and Reynolds number Re (redrawn from Littlejohns) 372 11–3 Relation between lift coefficient and Reynolds number Re (redrawn from Littlejohns) 373 11–4 Horizontal and vertical reactions between pipeline and seabed: (a) monotonically increasing water velocity, (b) oscillatory water velocity 381 11–5 Onset of seabed instability 388 Chapter 12 12–1 Lay-barge production Courtesy of London, C.J 395 12–2 S-Lay lay-barge pipelaying schematic (not to scale) 396 12–3 Tog Mor lay barge (photograph courtesy of Allseas) 397 12–4 Lorelay lay barge (photograph courtesy of Allseas) 400 12–5 J-lay lay-barge pipelaying schematic (not to scale) 402 12–6 S-7000 lay barge (photograph courtesy of Saipem) 405 12–7 Balder lay barge (photograph courtesy of Heerema) 406 12–8 Solitaire lay barge (photograph courtesy of Allseas) 406 12–9 Chickasaw reel barge (photograph courtesy of Global Industries) 409 12–10 Hercules reel barge (photograph courtesy of Global Industries) 410 12–11 Deep Blue reel ship (photograph courtesy of Technip-Coflexip) 411 Chapter 13 13–1 Shore pull 433 Chapter 14 14–1 Upheaval buckling (schematic) 447 14–2 Upheaval buckle of 1,020-mm onshore pipeline in Uzbekistan 447 14–3 Buckle shown in figure 14–2, profile of pipeline axis and ground surface 448 Palmer-King.indb 16 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM List of Figures 4–4 14–5 14–6 14–7 14–8 xvii Design chart 452 Element of pipeline 453 Pipeline laterally moved on sleeper 459 Observed relationship between reduced velocity and oscillation amplitude 463 Span lengths and span assessment 466 Chapter 15 15–1 Corrosion decision tree 480 15–2 Pigs 487 15–3 Weight loss and electrical-resistance probes 492 15–4 Corrosion-monitoring access fitting 499 15–5 Installation and retrieval of monitoring devices 500 Chapter 16 16–1 Age dependence of incidence of failure 508 Appendix B B–1 Test scheme for supplementary requirement U 581 Palmer-King.indb 17 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM List of Tables Chapter 3–1 3–2 3–3 3–4 3–5 3–6 Standard strength grades and yield-to-tensile ratios 31 Typical compositions of pipeline steels 32 Percentage effect of strengthening mechanisms 35 Solid solution strengthening 37 Composition limits before weldability trials required EEMUA Document 166 40 Effect of alloying elements on steel properties 58 Chapter 4–1 4–2 4–3 4–4 4–5 4–6 4–7 Compositions of corrosion-resistant alloys: (a) martensitic stainless steels, (b) austenitic stainless steels, (c) high-molybdenum-chromium-nickel stainless steels, (d) duplex stainless steels, (e) high-nickel alloys 86 Mechanical and corrosion properties of corrosion-resistant alloys 90 Critical crevice corrosion temperatures: Tests in 10% FeCl3.6H2O at pH for 24-hour exposure 93 Relative costs of solid corrosion-resistant alloys 99 Examples of submarine duplex pipelines 102 Examples of internally clad pipelines and risers 107 Relative cost comparison of pipeline material options 118 Palmer-King.indb 19 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM xx Subsea Pipeline Engineering Chapter 5–1 5–2 5–3 5–4 Comparison of welding costs 136 Solubility of hydrogen in iron at atmospheric pressure 142 Diffusion coefficients for hydrogen in iron, steel, and stainless steels 142 Diffusivity of hydrogen 142 Chapter 6–1 6–2 6–3 6–4 Properties of thermoplastic liner materials 174 Permeability of liner materials to methane at 50°C 175 Continuous lengths of Coflexip flexible pipe 179 Resistance of thermoplastic materials 182 Chapter 7–1 7–2 7–3 7–4 7–5 7–6 Comparisons between onshore and offshore pipelines failure statistics 190 Relative occurrence of internal corrosion 191 Corrosiveness of iron sulfides 222 Stress corrosion cracking environments 224 Prandtl numbers for calculation of corrosion rates in seawater injection pipelines 235 Growth limitations for sulfate-reducing bacteria 238 Chapter 8–1 8–2 8–3 8–4 8–5 8–6 8–7 8–8 8–9 8–10 8–11 8–12 Potential corrosion rates of steel in seawater 248 Reference electrode potentials 267 Evaluation of microbial activity of sediments 269 Protection potentials ranges for steel 270 Under- and overprotection potentials for steel pipelines 272 Sacrificial anode materials 273 CP current requirements, according to NACE RP-0176 273 CP current requirements, according to DNV RP-B401 274 CP current requirements, according to DNV RP-F103 274 Coating breakdown values, according to DNV RP-F103 276 Field joint coating breakdown values, according to DNV RP-F103 276 Resistivity design values for anodes 282 Palmer-King.indb 20 6/23/08 10:05:52 AM List of Tables xxi Chapter 15 15–1 Inspection and monitoring techniques 481 15–2 Operating parameters linked to corrosion 504 Appendix B B–1 Limit states, safety classes, and failure probabilities 579 Palmer-King.indb 21 6/23/08 10:05:53 AM Index Terms Submarines Submerged arc welding (SAW) hydrogen-induced cracking and of U-O-E pipe Links 17 123 565 557 60 73 123 362 385 Submerged weight construction and 541 mid-depth tow and 415 stability and 361 Submerged zone 568 Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) 238 568 cathodic protection and 267 chlorine for 234 corrosion by 240 growth limitations for 238 microbiological counts for 504 water-injection pipelines and 192 234 Sulfide corrosion 220 239 Sulfide films 223 Sulfide pitting corrosion 221 249 Sulfide stress corrosion cracking (SSCC) 88 223 568 Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) 65 94 96 568 flexible and composite pipe and 183 initiation and propagation stages of 226 martensitic stainless steels and tests 98 100 116 Sulfides bacterial production of 239 disposal of 222 Sulfur cracking 143 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 223 Index Terms Super-alloys Links 90 Superficial velocities 322 Superwaves 368 Supplementary requirement U Surf zones failure incident 114 32 520 581 429 432 440 511 Surface cleanliness with external coatings application 258 standards for 259 Surface film passivity and sweet corrosion and 88 99 197 Surface profile 260 Surface tow 412 Surveys autonomous underwater vehicle 455 cathodic protection 287 current-meter 363 by divers 455 for route selection site investigation and 12 431 Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider method 365 Swamp weights 361 Sweet corrosion carbon dioxide and 192 196 corrosion mechanism 194 196 corrosion morphology 203 internal corrosion 192 pH effect 202 sour v 196 201 196 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Systéme Internationale (SI) 566 583 T Tafel slope Tanks, for moving fluids 568 Tape wrap coatings 251 Tasman Sea 403 Telluric currents 162 252 288 291 Temperature cathodic protection, effects on 277 flow, heat transfer and 311 318 longitudinal stress and 344 537 576 thermal insulation and 298 321 424 49 552 446 455 transition upheaval buckling, pressure and water 52 Temperature-scaling factor 202 Temperbead welding 154 Tempering 38 See also Quench and temper Tensile strength characteristic grain refinement and tensile stress and 31 37 43 580 41 335 Tensile stress 335 Tensile tests 477 Tension failure 510 Tensioners 395 Terrain/seabed profile 209 Tethered pigs 489 568 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Thermal insulation Links 172 178 298 319 bundled pipelines for 300 coatings 258 from composites 537 heat tracing and 299 polymers for 298 319 temperature and 298 321 Thermite welding 283 Thermodynamic inhibitors 321 Thermomechanical control process (TMCP) 424 61 hot-rolling 61 normalization reheating 61 options 44 quench and temper 61 reworking 62 roughing stage 62 64 Thermoplastic extrusion coatings 254 568 Thermoplastic pipe 171 174 Thermosetting 568 Thick-walled analysis 342 Thin layer activation (TLA) irradiated spools 502 Thin-film coatings 255 257 Thin-walled shell approach 343 344 348 448 348 3LPE, 3LPP (three-layer polyethylene, threelayer polypropylene) multilayer pipeline coatings 298 545 Three-phase flow 306 Threshold hydrate inhibitor (THI) 321 Throwing power 568 Tidal flats 442 510 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 448 Index Terms Links Tides/tidal current 362 coastal environment and 429 Tie coat 568 Time of flight testing (TOFT) 152 Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) 484 39 Titanium 101 Top-of-the-line corrosion (TOLC) 214 569 428 429 Topography coastal environment and route selection and 14 Total-Fina-Elf model 203 Touchdown point 569 Toughness 49 defined 33 ductility, brittleness and 49 fracture 49 impact loads and 49 quality assurance/quality control 51 solid solution strengthening and 37 testing 49 transition temperature 49 Trailing wire technique Transformation strengthening Transformer/rectifier (T/R) 288 289 35 38 43 271 Transition temperature ductile-brittle 49 nonductile 50 toughness and 49 Transpassive 569 Transponders 288 552 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Trawlboards 469 Treatment for microbiological corrosion 242 solution heat 567 Trenching 418 backfilling with 437 529 with beach crossings 432 435 437 burial and 424 471 529 chains with 422 failure incident 510 lateral resistance and 382 long v short 418 objectives 418 ploughing 438 455 374 reasons for in rocky coasts route selection and 440 14 site investigation and 431 of spans 472 stabilization and 361 in tidal flats 442 upheaval buckling prevention through 455 Trenching systems 16 528 420 backhoe 424 bucket dredgers 423 cutter-suction dredging 423 dragline 424 jet barge 420 jetting machines 420 mechanical cutting machines 421 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Trenching systems (Cont.) plows 422 Trestle 437 Tuberculation 569 Tundish 57 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding 104 123 126 150 Tunnels 441 306 323 325 UK Department of Energy 462 515 Ultimate limit state (ULS) 579 Two-phase flow U Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) 44 177 332 535 Ultrasonic (U/S) inspection 73 129 151 483 129 569 569 pigs 488 for welds 151 Ultrasonic (U/S) probes, fixed Ultrasonic (U/S) testing 503 73 Ultrasound 483 Underfilm corrosion 569 Undermatching weld composition 136 Underwater welding 159 atmospheric welding 163 explosive welding 160 164 hyperbaric welding 160 162 options 159 wet welding 159 United Kingdom trenching in 161 412 419 420 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links United Nations Law of the Sea 527 Units of measurement 583 density 586 force 585 length 584 pressure 586 volume 585 Unsteady flow 371 375 60 73 U-O-E (or SAW) longitudinally welded pipe UPBUCK program 452 Uphand welding 131 Upheaval buckling 78 123 446 analysis of 451 corrective action for 457 driving force for 448 introduction to 445 measures to prevent 455 pipe flexural rigidity and 452 route selection and 455 seabed profile and 451 455 Uplift resistance 425 452 456 Urethane 569 Usage/utilization factor 332 Uzbekistan 446 454 V Vacuum cells 481 Vacuum shields 502 van Veen power law 363 Vancouver Island (Canada) 20 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Veritec 384 386 Vickers hardness number (VHN) 225 569 Viscosity 306 VLCC (very large crude carrier) Voids 569 Volume 585 von Mises equivalent stress 344 von Mises yield condition 341 576 Vortex shedding 461 463 467 461 569 373 377 77 478 471 569 Vortex-induced vibration (VIV) 446 W Wacker WDS 319 Wake, hydrodynamic forces and 370 Wall thickness collapse and 340 construction and 541 corrosion and internal pressure and loading and nominal 330 561 selection of 76 yield strength and 33 Water See also Deep water pipelines; Seawater acidification of 234 condensation, gas pipelines and 84 213 231 density of 16 24 52 outfalls, for sewage pH effect on sweet corrosion 202 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 542 Index Terms Links Water (Cont.) sea ice v freshwater in Arctic seas 15 separation, in oil pipelines 206 set-up 429 shallow 19 significant production of, shut in wells with 28 temperature 52 Water depth 513 currents varying with waves and 363 15 388 Water-injection pipelines corrosion rates in 234 internal corrosion in 192 microbiological counts in 504 oxygen and 192 Reynolds number and 234 sulfate-reducing bacteria and 192 233 496 234 497 234 Wave(s) Airy small-amplitude linear theory 368 breakers 429 coastal environment influenced by 428 extreme 366 hydrodynamic forces and 377 429 maximum 384 389 434 pore pressure, cyclic shear stresses and 389 with pull and tow 413 refraction analysis of on rocky coasts route selection and 15 440 15 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Wave(s) (Cont.) spans and 466 theories 368 water depth and wind and 15 364 Wave staffs 364 Wave-rider buoys 364 Waves, design 364 Wear plate 570 Wear/fretting failure 184 Weight loss coupons 491 Weld composition 136 Weld corrosion, preferential 154 Weld decay 570 Weld imperfections 140 cold cracking and 141 defects and 144 hot cracking and 143 inspection for 140 porosity and 140 slag and 143 Weld inspection 388 140 dye penetrant inspection 153 eddy current testing 153 magnetic particle inspection 152 ultrasonic examination for 151 X-ray radiography 150 Weld overlay 166 Weld spatter 148 150 570 150 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Weld strength undermatching v overmatching and 136 weld-strengthening mechanisms 137 Weldability 39 145 alloying elements and 37 39 defined 33 International formula for 39 Ito-Bessyo formula for 39 Welding 88 121 acetylene gas 123 atmospheric 160 automatic and semiautomatic 135 carbon dioxide for 141 of clad pipe 115 149 34 130 consumable composition and coating 146 149 corrosion-resistant alloys 126 costs of 135 downhand 131 downstream corrosion, at welds 155 of duplex stainless steel 104 126 future development/techniques for 156 537 girth 104 123 132 habitat 162 33 101 138 hyperbaric 160 162 523 incomplete penetration and 155 in-service pipelines 165 of internally clad pipe 115 introduction to 121 cold cracking and heat-affected zone and 163 147 147 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 99 Index Terms Links Welding (Cont.) manual 77 78 stick 34 537 temperbead 154 thermite 283 underwater 159 uphand 131 wet 159 Welding bevel slag and 121 135 161 127 144 Welding machines, alternating and direct current Welding operations preparation 123 127 line-up for welding 129 pipe preparation 127 preheating 130 welding bevel 127 Welding Procedure Specifications (WPSs) 165 Welding processes 122 codes for 121 141 165 cold-hot wire feed welding 135 contact 538 deep penetration 158 electron-beam 158 538 explosive 157 158 160 164 flash butt 122 123 156 158 135 150 538 flux-cored arc welding 135 friction 156 158 gas metal arc welding 123 124 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Welding processes (Cont.) gas tungsten arc welding 126 heat input for 122 heat input rate for 122 heli-arc welding 126 homopolar 157 158 laser 123 158 magnetic impelled arc butt 157 metal active gas welding 124 metal inert gas 124 shielded active gas forge 158 shielded metal arc welding 124 shielding from atmosphere with 123 speed for 122 submerged arc welding 60 135 538 539 73 123 557 123 126 150 135 565 tungsten inert gas welding Welding sequence 104 131 cap/cover pass 134 filler passes 134 hot pass 133 root pass 131 Wells drilling shut in 28 shutdown 318 West Africa 404 408 Westhaven accident 420 Wet welding 159 161 Wicks and Fraser method 206 209 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation Index Terms Links Wierzbicki and Suh method 355 Winds coastal environment influenced by 428 waves and 364 Work hardening 43 228 World War II Wytch Farm field, England 439 441 542 73 150 482 570 30 47 315 331 X X-ray radiography Y Yield strength characteristic 580 grain refinement and 41 wall thickness and 33 Yield stress 32 45 338 351 343 348 Zener diodes 291 292 Zero-resistance ammetry (ZRA) 496 Zinc-coated steel 294 Young’s modulus 449 Z This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation