Materials science and engineering  an introduction

MATERIALS SCIENCE and ENGINEERING An Introduction 9E William D Callister, Jr David G Rethwisch Characteristics of Selected Elements Element Symbol Atomic Number Aluminum Argon Barium Beryllium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Carbon Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluorine Gallium Germanium Gold Helium Hydrogen Iodine Iron Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Neon Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Platinum Potassium Silicon Silver Sodium Sulfur Tin Titanium Tungsten Vanadium Zinc Zirconium Al Ar Ba Be B Br Cd Ca C Cs Cl Cr Co Cu F Ga Ge Au He H I Fe Pb Li Mg Mn Hg Mo Ne Ni Nb N O P Pt K Si Ag Na S Sn Ti W V Zn Zr 13 18 56 35 48 20 55 17 24 27 29 31 32 79 53 26 82 12 25 80 42 10 28 41 15 78 19 14 47 11 16 50 22 74 23 30 40 Atomic Weight (amu) Density of Solid, 20ⴗC (g/cm3) Crystal Structure, 20ⴗC Atomic Radius (nm) Ionic Radius (nm) Most Common Valence Melting Point (ⴗC) 26.98 39.95 137.33 9.012 10.81 79.90 112.41 40.08 12.011 132.91 35.45 52.00 58.93 63.55 19.00 69.72 72.64 196.97 4.003 1.008 126.91 55.85 207.2 6.94 24.31 54.94 200.59 95.94 20.18 58.69 92.91 14.007 16.00 30.97 195.08 39.10 28.09 107.87 22.99 32.06 118.71 47.87 183.84 50.94 65.41 91.22 2.71 — 3.5 1.85 2.34 — 8.65 1.55 2.25 1.87 — 7.19 8.9 8.94 — 5.90 5.32 19.32 — — 4.93 7.87 11.35 0.534 1.74 7.44 — 10.22 — 8.90 8.57 — — 1.82 21.45 0.862 2.33 10.49 0.971 2.07 7.27 4.51 19.3 6.1 7.13 6.51 FCC — BCC HCP Rhomb — HCP FCC Hex BCC — BCC HCP FCC — Ortho Dia cubic FCC — — Ortho BCC FCC BCC HCP Cubic — BCC — FCC BCC — — Ortho FCC BCC Dia cubic FCC BCC Ortho Tetra HCP BCC BCC HCP HCP 0.143 — 0.217 0.114 — — 0.149 0.197 0.071 0.265 — 0.125 0.125 0.128 — 0.122 0.122 0.144 — — 0.136 0.124 0.175 0.152 0.160 0.112 — 0.136 — 0.125 0.143 — — 0.109 0.139 0.231 0.118 0.144 0.186 0.106 0.151 0.145 0.137 0.132 0.133 0.159 0.053 — 0.136 0.035 0.023 0.196 0.095 0.100 ⬃0.016 0.170 0.181 0.063 0.072 0.096 0.133 0.062 0.053 0.137 — 0.154 0.220 0.077 0.120 0.068 0.072 0.067 0.110 0.070 — 0.069 0.069 0.01–0.02 0.140 0.035 0.080 0.138 0.040 0.126 0.102 0.184 0.071 0.068 0.070 0.059 0.074 0.079 3⫹ Inert 2⫹ 2⫹ 3⫹ 1⫺ 2⫹ 2⫹ 4⫹ 1⫹ 1⫺ 3⫹ 2⫹ 1⫹ 1⫺ 3⫹ 4⫹ 1⫹ Inert 1⫹ 1⫺ 2⫹ 2⫹ 1⫹ 2⫹ 2⫹ 2⫹ 4⫹ Inert 2⫹ 5⫹ 5⫹ 2⫺ 5⫹ 2⫹ 1⫹ 4⫹ 1⫹ 1⫹ 2⫺ 4⫹ 4⫹ 4⫹ 5⫹ 2⫹ 4⫹ 660.4 ⫺189.2 725 1278 2300 ⫺7.2 321 839 (sublimes at 3367) 28.4 ⫺101 1875 1495 1085 ⫺220 29.8 937 1064 ⫺272 (at 26 atm) ⫺259 114 1538 327 181 649 1244 ⫺38.8 2617 ⫺248.7 1455 2468 ⫺209.9 ⫺218.4 44.1 1772 63 1410 962 98 113 232 1668 3410 1890 420 1852 Values of Selected Physical Constants Quantity Symbol SI Units cgs Units Avogadro’s number NA Boltzmann’s constant k 6.022 ⫻ 10 molecules/mol 1.38 ⫻ 10⫺23 J/atom # K Bohr magneton Electron charge Electron mass Gas constant Permeability of a vacuum Permittivity of a vacuum Planck’s constant mB e — R m0 ⑀0 h 9.27 ⫻ 10⫺24 A # m2 1.602 ⫻ 10⫺19 C 9.11 ⫻ 10⫺31 kg 8.31 J/mol # K 1.257 ⫻ 10⫺6 henry/m 8.85 ⫻ 10⫺12 farad/m 6.63 ⫻ 10⫺34 J # s Velocity of light in a vacuum c ⫻ 108 m/s 6.022 ⫻ 1023 molecules/mol 1.38 ⫻ 10⫺16 erg/atom # K 8.62 ⫻ 10⫺5 eV/atom # K 9.27 ⫻ 10⫺21 erg/gaussa 4.8 ⫻ 10⫺10 statcoulb 9.11 ⫻ 10⫺28 g 1.987 cal/mol # K unitya unityb 6.63 ⫻ 10⫺27 erg # s 4.13 ⫻ 10⫺15 eV # s ⫻ 1010 cm/s a b 23 In cgs-emu units In cgs-esu units Unit Abbreviations A ⫽ ampere in ⫽ J⫽ K⫽ kg ⫽ lbf ⫽ lbm ⫽ m⫽ Mg ⫽ mm ⫽ mol ⫽ MPa ⫽ Å ⫽ angstrom Btu ⫽ British thermal unit C ⫽ Coulomb ⬚C ⫽ degrees Celsius cal ⫽ calorie (gram) cm ⫽ centimeter eV ⫽ electron volt ⬚F ⫽ degrees Fahrenheit ft ⫽ foot g ⫽ gram inch joule degrees Kelvin kilogram pound force pound mass meter megagram millimeter mole megapascal N nm P Pa s T ␮m newton nanometer poise Pascal second temperature micrometer (micron) W ⫽ watt psi ⫽ pounds per square inch SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes Factor by Which Multiplied 10 106 103 10⫺2 10⫺3 10⫺6 10⫺9 10⫺12 a Avoided when possible ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ Prefix Symbol giga mega kilo centia milli micro nano pico G M k c m ␮ n p WileyPLUS is a research-based online environment for effective teaching and 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chat, and phone support www.wileyplus.com/support © Courtney Keating/iStockphoto Your WileyPLUS Account Manager, providing personal training and support 9th Edition Materials Science and Engineering AN INTRODUCTION WILLIAM D CALLISTER, JR Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah DAVID G RETHWISCH Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering The University of Iowa Front Cover: Depiction of a unit cell for iron carbide (Fe3C) from three different perspectives Brown and blue spheres represent iron and carbon atoms, respectively Back Cover: Three representations of the unit cell for body-centered cubic iron (a-ferrite); each unit cell contains an interstitial carbon atom VICE PRESIDENT AND EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER EXECUTIVE EDITOR EDITORIAL PROGRAM ASSISTANT SENIOR CONTENT MANAGER PRODUCTION EDITOR EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER DESIGN DIRECTOR SENIOR DESIGNER SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR COVER ART Donald Fowley Daniel Sayre Jessica Knecht Kevin Holm James Metzger Christopher Ruel Harry Nolan Madelyn Lesure MaryAnn Price Roy Wiemann and William D Callister, Jr This book was set in 9.5/11.5 Times Ten LT Std by Aptara, Inc., and printed and bound by Quad Graphics/Versailles The cover was printed by Quad Graphics/Versailles This book is printed on acid-free paper q Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007, 2003, 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, website www.wiley.com/go/permissions Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative ISBN: 978-1-118-32457-8 Wiley Binder Version ISBN: 978-1-118-47770-0 Printed in the United States of America 10 Dedicated to Bill Stenquist, editor and friend 942 • Index Cobalt: atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 Curie temperature, 815 as ferromagnetic material, 810 magnetization curves (single crystal), 819 Coercivity (coercive force), 817, 922 Cold work, percent, 232 Cold working See Strain hardening Collector, 753–754 Color, 922 metals, 844 nonmetals, 851 Colorants, 619, 922 Compacted graphite iron, 410, 418, 420–422 Compact fluorescence lights, 853 Compliance, creep, 588 Component, 298, 331, 922 Composites: aramid fiber-reinforced polymer, 655–656 carbon-carbon, 662 carbon fiber-reinforced polymer, 654–655 ceramic-matrix, 660–662 classification scheme, 637 costs, 915 definition, 11, 636 dispersion-strengthened, 637, 641 elastic behavior: longitudinal, 645–646 transverse, 647–648 fiber-reinforced See Fiber-reinforced composites glass fiber-reinforced polymer, 653–654 hybrid, 662–663, 926 laminar, 651, 665–667 large-particle, 637–641 metal-matrix, 659–660 particle-reinforced, 637–641 production processes, 663–665 properties, glass-, carbon-, aramidfiber reinforced, 656 rule of mixtures expressions, 638, 650, 658 strength: longitudinal, 649 transverse, 649 stress-strain behavior, 643–644 structural, 637, 665–668 Composition, 922 conversion equations, 112–114 specification of, 111–115 Compressibility, 800 Compression molding, plastics, 620–621 Compression tests, 173 Compressive deformation, 171, 191 Computers, semiconductors in, 755 magnetic drives in, 803, 827 Concentration, 111, 922 See also Composition Concentration cells, 701 Concentration gradient, 144, 922 Concentration polarization, 693–695, 922 Concentration profile, 144, 922 Concept maps, 15 glass-ceramics, 97, 504, 540, 541, 542 summary, 542 polymer fibers, 47, 576, 627, 628 summary, 628 silicon semiconductors, 134, 160, 161, 775, 776, 777 steels, 96, 134, 161, 206, 245, 246, 348, 400, 401 summaries, 461–462 Concrete, 639–641, 922 electrical conductivity, 757 plane strain fracture toughness, 262 Condensation polymerization, 617–618, 922 Conducting polymers, 758–759 Conduction: electronic, 728 ionic, 728, 758 Conduction band, 730, 923 Conductivity See Electrical conductivity; Thermal conductivity Configuration, molecular, 559–562 Conformation, molecular, 556 Congruent phase transformations, 329, 923 Constitutional diagrams See Phase diagrams Continuous casting, 437 Continuous-cooling transformation diagrams, 381–384, 923 4340 steel, 379 0.35 wt% C steel, 405 0.76 wt% C steel, 381 for glass-ceramic, 513 Continuous fibers, 642 Conventional hard magnetic materials, 823 Conversion factors, magnetic units, 807 Cooling rate, of cylindrical rounds, 447 Coordinates, point, 64–66 Coordination numbers, 55, 58, 469–471, 923 Copolymers, 551, 563–564, 923 styrenic block, 614 Copper: atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 elastic and shear moduli, 174 electrical conductivity, 733 OFHC, 736 Poisson’s ratio, 174 recrystallization, 238, 368 slip systems, 222 thermal properties, 789 yield and tensile strengths, ductility, 185 Copper alloys, 423–424 properties and applications of, 424 Copper-aluminum phase diagram, 455 Copper-beryllium alloys, 423, 424 phase diagram, 466 Copper-nickel alloys: ductility vs composition, 231, 313 electrical conductivity, 735 phase diagram, 303, 304 tensile strength vs composition, 231, 313 yield strength vs composition, 231 Copper-silver phase diagram, 312–314 Copper-zinc alloys, 423 electrical resistivity vs composition, 779 Coring, 312 CorningWare (glass-ceramic), 513 Corrosion, 923 of beverage cans, 868 ceramic materials, 712 electrochemistry of, 683–689 environmental effects, 699 environments, 707 forms of, 699–706 galvanic series, 689, 690 overview of, 682 passivity, 698–699 rates, 689, 690–691 prediction of, 691–697 Corrosion fatigue, 281, 923 Corrosion inhibitors, 707 Corrosion penetration rate, 690, 923 Corrosion prevention, 707–709 Corundum, 516 See also Aluminum oxide crystal structure, 506 Cost of various materials, 911–915 Coulombic force, 32, 923 Covalency, degree of, 43 Covalent bonding, 35–36, 468, 546–547, 923 Crack configurations, in ceramics, 493 Crack critical velocity, 493 Crack formation, 253 in ceramics, 493 fatigue and, 276–278 glass, 530 Crack propagation, 253 See also Fracture mechanics in brittle fracture, 255–257 in ceramics, 491–495 in ductile fracture, 253–254 fatigue and, 276–277 Cracks: stable vs unstable, 253 Crack surface displacement modes, 261 Index • 943 Crazing, 589 Creep, 281–287, 923 ceramics, 501 influence of temperature and stress on, 282–285 mechanisms, 285 in polymers, 588 stages of, 281–282 steady-state rate, 282 viscoelastic, 588 Creep compliance, 588 Creep modulus, 588 Creep rupture tests, 282 data extrapolation, 285–286 Crevice corrosion, 701–702, 923 Cristobalite, 478, 479, 490 Critical cooling rate: ferrous alloys, 383 glass-ceramics, 512–513 Critical fiber length, 642 Critical resolved shear stress, 224, 923 as related to dislocation density, 249 Critical stress (fracture), 259 Critical temperature, superconductivity, 828, 830 Critical velocity (crack), 493 Crosslinking, 558–559, 923 elastomers, 597–599 influence on viscoelastic behavior, 587 thermosetting polymers, 563 Cross-ply, laminar composite, 666 Crystalline materials, 52, 84, 923 defects, 106–122 single crystals, 84, 930 Crystallinity, polymers, 564–569, 923 influence on mechanical properties, 595 Crystallites, 568, 923 Crystallization, polymers, 600–601 Crystallographic directions, 67–74 easy and hard magnetization, 819 families, 69–70 hexagonal crystals, 70–74 Crystallographic planes, 75–81 atomic arrangements, 78–79 close-packed, ceramics, 474–475 close-packed, metals, 82–84 diffraction by, 87–88 families, 78–79 hexagonal crystals, 79–80 Crystallographic point coordinates, 64–66 Crystal structures, 52–63, 923 See also Body-centered cubic structure; Close-packed crystal structures; Face-centered cubic structure; Hexagonal close-packed structure ceramics, 469–477 close-packed, ceramics, 474–475 close-packed, metals, 82–84 determination by x-ray diffraction, 87–91 selected metals, 54 types, ceramics, 469–477 types, metals, 54–59, 82–84 Crystallization (ceramics), 512, 530–531, 923 Crystal systems, 62–63, 923 Cubic crystal system, 62, 63 Cubic ferrites, 811–814 Cunife, 823, 824 Cup-and-cone fracture, 254 Curie temperature, 815, 923 ferroelectric, 768 ferromagnetic, 789 Curing, plastics, 620 Current density, 727 Cyclic stresses, 270–271 D Damping capacity, steel vs cast iron, 421 Data scatter, 198–199 Debye temperature, 788 Decarburization, 163 Defects, see also Dislocations atomic vibrations and, 122 dependence of properties on, 106 in ceramics, 482–486 interfacial, 118–122 point, 106–115, 482–485, 929 in polymers, 570–571 surface, 121 volume, 122 Defect structure, 482, 923 Deformation: elastic, see Elastic deformation elastomers, 597–598 plastic, see Plastic deformation Deformation mechanism maps (creep), 285 Deformation mechanisms (semicrystalline polymers), elastic deformation, 591–593 plastic deformation, 593, 594 Degradation of polymers, 713–716, 923 Degree of polymerization, 555, 923 Degrees of freedom, 330–332 Delayed fracture, 491 Density: computation for ceramics, 476–477 computation for metal alloys, 113 computation for metals, 60 computation for polymers, 567 of dislocations, 219 linear atomic, 81 planar atomic, 82 polymers (values for), 583, 884–885 ranges for material types (bar chart), relation to percent crystallinity for polymers, 566 values for various materials, 882–885 Desiccants, 41 Design, component, 870 Design examples: cold work and recrystallization, 239–240 conductivity of a p-type semiconductor, 748–749 cubic mixed-ferrite magnet, 814 creep rupture lifetime for an S-590 steel, 286 nonsteady-state diffusion, 153–154 pressurized cylindrical tube, 201–202 spherical pressure vessel, failure of, 263–265 steel shaft, alloy/heat treatment of, 450–451 tensile-testing apparatus, 200–201 tubular composite shaft, 657–659 Design factor, 199 Design stress, 199, 923 Dezincification, of brass, 703–704 Diamagnetism, 808, 923 Diamond, 481–482 as abrasive, 516 bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 cost, 913 hardness, 500 properties and applications, 518, 519 thermal conductivity value, 519, 902 Diamond cubic structure, 482 Die casting, 436 Dielectric breakdown, 753, 767 Dielectric constant, 760, 923 frequency dependence, 766–767 relationship to refractive index, 845 selected ceramics and polymers, 761 Dielectric displacement, 762, 923 Dielectric loss, 767 Dielectric materials, 759, 767, 923 Dielectric strength, 767, 923 selected ceramics and polymers, 761 Diffraction (x-ray), 51, 87–92, 923 Diffraction angle, 90 Diffractometers, 90 Diffusion, 141–142, 923 drive-in, 155 grain growth and, 240, 241 in ionic materials, 486–487 in integrated circuit interconnects, 157–158 in Si of Cu, Au, Ag, and Al, 158 interstitial, 142–143, 926 mechanisms, 142–143 and microstructure development, 309–312, 321–322 nonsteady-state, 145–149, 928 944 • Index Diffusion (Contd.) in polymers, 571–573 predeposition, semiconductors, 154 in semiconductors, 154–157 short-circuit, 158 steady-state, 144, 931 vacancy, 142, 143, 486, 932 Diffusion coefficient, 144, 923 data (tabulation), various metal systems, 150 relation to ionic mobility, 758 temperature dependence, 149–154 Diffusion couples, 141, 163 Diffusion flux, 143, 923 for polymers, 571 Diffusivity, thermal, 801 Digital camera, 725 Digitization of information/signals, 826, 860, 861 Dimethyl ether, 548 Dimethylsiloxane, 565 See also Silicones; Silicone rubber melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 Dimethyl terephthalate (structure), 618 Diode, 751, 923 Diode lasers, 859 Dipole moment, 761 Dipoles: electric, 39, 923 induced, 40 magnetic, 804–805 permanent, 41 Directional solidification, 287 Directions, see Crystallographic directions Discontinuous fibers, 642–643 Dislocation density, 219, 249, 923 Dislocation line, 115, 116, 117, 923 Dislocation motion, 217, 218–219 caterpillar locomotion analogy, 219 in ceramics, 497–498 at grain boundaries, 229–231 influence on strength, 229–230 recovery and, 235–236 Dislocations, 115–118, 923 in ceramics, 118, 219 characteristics of, 220–221 interactions, 220 multiplication, 220 at phase boundaries, 386, 389 pile-ups, 230 plastic deformation and, 180, 217–228 in polymers, 118, 570 strain fields, 220, 221 Dispersed phase, 636, 923 definition, 636 geometry, 636 Dispersion (optical), 844–845 white light through a prism, 845 Dispersion-strengthened composites, 641, 923 Disposal of materials, 871–872 Domain growth, 817 iron single crystal, 817 Domains (magnetic), 810, 816–818, 924 photograph of, 817 Domain walls, 816 Donors, 741, 924 Doping, 744, 746, 747, 924 Double bonds, 547 Drain casting, 532, 533 Drawing: glass, 528, 529 influence on polymer properties, 595–596 metals, 434–436, 924 polymer fibers, 623, 924 Dreamliner (Boeing 787), case study, 669–670 Drift velocity, electron, 732 Drive-in diffusion, 155 Driving force, 144, 924 electrochemical reactions, 686 grain growth, 240 recrystallization, 236 sintering, 537 steady-state diffusion, 144 Dry corrosion, 709 Dry ice, 356 Drying, clay products, 533 Ductile fracture, 185, 253–254, 924 Ductile iron, 418, 420, 924 compositions, mechanical properties, and applications, 419 Ductile-to-brittle transition, 266–269, 924 failure of Liberty ships, polymers, 588 and temper embrittlement, 391 Ductility, 184–185, 924 bainite, pearlite vs transformation temperature, 387 fine and coarse pearlite, 386 precipitation hardened aluminum alloy (2014), 457 selected materials, 890–895 selected metals, 185 spheroidite, 386 tempered martensite, 390 Durometer hardness, 195, 591 E Economics, materials selection: considerations in materials engineering, 869–871 pressurized cylindrical tube, 201–202 tubular composite shaft, 658–659 Eddy currents, 822 Edge dislocations, 115, 218–219, 924 See also Dislocations interactions, 220–221 EEPROM memory, 755 E-glass, 652 Elastic deformation, 174–179, 924 Elastic modulus, see Modulus of elasticity Elastic (strain) recovery, 190, 924 Elastomers, 582, 597–599, 608–610, 622, 924 in composites, 639 deformation, 597–599 thermoplastic, 614–616 trade names, properties, and applications, 609 Electrical conduction: in insulators and semiconductors, 731–732 in metals, 731 Electrical conductivity, 727–728, 732–733, 924 ranges for material types (bar chart), selected ceramics and polymers, 757 selected metals, 733 selected semiconductors, 739 temperature variation (Ge), 781 values for electrical wires, 737 Electrical resistivity, 727, 930 See also Electrical conductivity metals: influence of impurities, 735, 779 influence of plastic deformation, 734, 735 influence of temperature, 734–735 values for various materials, 906–909 Electrical wires, aluminum and copper, 736–738 Electric dipole moment, 761 Electric dipoles, see Dipoles Electric field, 727, 732, 924 Electrochemical cells, 685–686 Electrochemical reactions, 683–689 Electrodeposition, 685 Electrode potentials, 685–686 values of, 687 Electroluminescence, 854, 924 in polymers, 759 Electrolytes, 685, 924 Electromagnetic radiation, 839–841 interactions with atoms/electrons, 841–842 Electromagnetic spectrum, 839–840 Electron band structure, see Energy bands Electron cloud, 22, 24, 38 Electron configurations, 26–28, 924 elements, 26, 27 periodic table and, 28 stable, 26 Index • 945 Electronegativity, 29, 43, 924 influence on solid solubility, 109 values for the elements, 29 Electroneutrality, 482–483, 924 Electron gas, 731 Electron orbital shapes, 24–25 Electronic conduction, 728, 758 Electronic polarization, 765, 766, 842, 929 Electron microscopy, 125–126 Electron mobility, 732–733 influence of dopant content on, 746, 747 influence of temperature on, 746, 747 selected semiconductors, 739 Electron orbitals, 22 Electron probability distribution, 22–23 Electrons, 20 conduction process, 740, 752 role, diffusion in ionic materials, 486–487 energy bands, see Energy bands energy levels, 22–23 free, see Free electrons scattering, 732, 787 in semiconductors, 739–744 temperature variation of concentration, 744–745 spin, 25, 808 valence, 26 Electron states, 924 Electron transitions, 842–843 metals, 843–844 nonmetals, 847–849 Electron volt, 33, 924 Electropositivity, 29, 924 Electrorheological fluids, 12 Elongation, percent, 184 selected materials, 890–895 selected metals, 185 selected polymers, 583 Embrittlement: hydrogen, 704–706 temper, 391 Embryo, phase particle, 360 Emf series, 686–687 Emitter, 753–754 Emulsifiers, 41 Endurance limit, 272 See also Fatigue limit Energy: activation, see Activation energy bonding, 31, 32–34, 922 current concerns about, 14, 872, 873 free, 300, 358–363, 925 grain boundary, 119 to magnetize ferromagnetic material, 836 photon, 841 surface, 119 vacancy formation, 107 Energy band gap, see Band gap Energy bands, 728–730 structures for metals, insulators, and semiconductors, 730 Energy levels (states), 22–26, 729–730 Energy and materials, 872, 873 Energy product, magnetic, 822–823 Engineering stress/strain, 172, 931 Entropy, 300, 358, 597 Environmental considerations and materials, 871–878 Epoxies: degradation resistance, 714 polymer-matrix composites, 656 repeat unit structure, 916 trade names, characteristics, applications, 607 Equilibrium: definition of, 300 phase, 300, 924 Equilibrium diagrams, see Phase diagrams Erosion-corrosion, 704, 924 Error bars, 198–199 Error function, Gaussian, 146 Etching, 124, 125 Ethane, 547 Ethers, 548 Ethylene, 547 polymerization, 549–550 Ethylene glycol (structure), 618 Euro coins, alloys used for, 433 Eutectic isotherm, 314 Eutectic phase, 323, 924 Eutectic reactions, 314, 321, 924 iron-iron carbide system, 335 Eutectic solders, 319 Eutectic structure, 321, 924 Eutectic systems: binary, 312–318 microstructure development, 318–325 Eutectoid, shift of position, 344 Eutectoid ferrite, 339 Eutectoid reactions, 328, 335, 924 iron-iron carbide system, 335 kinetics, 371–372 Eutectoid steel, microstructure changes/ development, 336–338 Exchange current density, 692 Excimer lasers, 859 Excited states, 843, 924 Exhaustion, in extrinsic semiconductors, 744 Expansion, thermal, see Thermal expansion Extrinsic semiconductors, 741–744, 924 electron concentration vs temperature, 745 exhaustion, 744 saturation, 744 Extrusion, 924 clay products, 532 metals, 435 polymers, 621–622 F Fabrication: ceramics, 526 clay products, 531–535 fiber-reinforced composites, 663–665 metals, 434–439 Face-centered cubic structure, 54–55, 924 anion stacking (ceramics), 474–475 Burgers vector for, 222 close packed planes (metals), 82–84 interstitial sites, tetrahedral and octahedral, 109–110, 335 slip systems, 222 Factor of safety, 200, 264 Failure, mechanical, see Creep; Fatigue; Fracture Faraday constant, 688 Fatigue, 270–281, 924 corrosion, 281 crack initiation and propagation, 276–278 cyclic stresses, 270–271 environmental effects, 280–281 low- and high-cycle, 275 polymers, 590–591 probability curves, 273–274 thermal, 281 Fatigue damage, commercial aircraft, 251 Fatigue life, 273, 924 factors that affect, 278–280 Fatigue limit, 272–273, 924 Fatigue S-N curves, 272–275 for metals, 274 for polymers, 590 Fatigue strength, 273, 924 Fatigue testing, 272 Feldspar, 510, 531 Fermi energy, 730, 741, 743, 788, 924 Ferrimagnetism, 811–813, 924 temperature dependence, 815 Ferrite (a), 333–334, 925 eutectoid/proeutectoid, 339, 929 from decomposition of cementite, 416 Ferrites (magnetic ceramics), 811–813, 924 Curie temperature, 815 as magnetic storage, 827–828 Ferritic stainless steels, 415, 416 Ferroelectricity, 767–768, 925 Ferroelectric materials, 768 Ferromagnetic domain walls, 122 Ferromagnetism, 810, 925 temperature dependence, 815 946 • Index Ferrous alloys, 925 See also Cast irons; Iron; Steels annealing, 440–441 classification, 335–336, 410 continuous-cooling transformation diagrams, 381–384 costs, 911–912 hypereutectoid, 341–343, 926 hypoeutectoid, 338–340, 926 isothermal transformation diagrams, 370–381 microstructures, 336–343 mechanical properties of, 384–388, 890–891 Fiber efficiency parameter, 650 Fiberglass, 512 Fiberglass-reinforced composites, 653–654 Fiber-reinforced composites, 642–665, 925 continuous and aligned, 643–649 discontinuous and aligned, 650 discontinuous and randomly oriented, 650–651 fiber length effect, 642–643 fiber orientation/concentration effect, 643–649 fiber phase, 651–653 longitudinal loading, 643–646 matrix phase, 653 processing, 663–665 reinforcement efficiency, 651 transverse loading, 647–648, 649 Fibers, 610, 925 carbon: graphitic, 520 structure, 520 turbostratic, 520 coefficient of thermal expansion values, 899 in composites, 637 continuous vs discontinuous, 642–643 fiber phase, 651–653 length effect, 642–643 orientation and concentration, 643–651 costs, 915 density values, 885 elastic modulus values, 652, 888 electrical resistivity values, 909 optical, 860–862 polymer, 610 properties of selected, 652 specific heat values, 905 spinning of, 622–623 tensile strength values, 652, 894 thermal conductivity values, 903 Fick’s first law, 144, 793, 925 for polymers, 571 Fick’s second law, 145, 155, 801, 925 solutions to, 146, 155, 163 Fictive temperature, 527 Filament winding, 664–665 Fillers, 618–619, 925 Films: polymer, 611–612 shrink-wrap (polymer), 597 Fine pearlite, 372, 373, 382, 386, 925 Fireclay refractories, 515 Firing, 514, 534–535, 925 Flame retardants, 620, 925 Flash memory, 725, 755 Flash memory cards, 725 Flexural deflection, equation for, 508, 658 Flexural strength, 495–496, 925 influence of porosity on, ceramics, 499 values for selected ceramics, 496, 893–894 Float process (sheet glass), 529 Fluorescence, 853, 925 Fluorescent lights, compact, 853 Fluorite structure, 473 Fluorocarbons, 551 trade names, characteristics, applications, 606 Flux (clay products), 531, 532 Foams, 612, 925 Forces: bonding, 30–32 coulombic, 32, 923 Forging, 435, 925 Formaldehyde, 548, 608 Forming operations (metals), 434–436 Forsterite, 479 Forward bias, 752, 925 Fractographic investigations: ceramics, 492–495 metals, 255 Fractographs: cup-and-cone fracture surfaces, 255 fatigue striations, 277 glass rod, 494 intergranular fracture, 258 transgranular fracture, 257 Fracture See also Brittle fracture; Ductile fracture; Impact fracture testing delayed, 491 fundamentals of, 253 of Liberty ships, polymers, 588–590 types, 184, 253–257 Fracture mechanics, 257–265, 925 applied to ceramics, 491 polymers, 590 use in design, 262–265 Fracture profiles, 254, 584 Fracture strength, 182 See also Flexural strength ceramics, 495 distribution of, 491–492 influence of porosity, 499 influence of specimen size, 492, 651 Fracture surface, ceramics, 493–494 Fracture toughness, 186, 260–262, 925 ceramic-matrix composites, 660–662 ranges for material types (bar chart), testing, 265–269 values for selected materials, 262, 895–896 Free electrons, 731, 925 contributions to heat capacity, 788 role in heat conduction, 793 Free energy, 300, 359–362, 925 activation, 360, 364 volume, 359 Freeze-out region, 745 Frenkel defects, 483, 925 equilibrium number, 484 Full annealing, 382, 441, 925 Fullerenes, 522–523 applications, 523 properties, 523 Functionality (polymers), 551, 925 Furnace heating elements, 736 Fused silica, 478 characteristics, 512, 527 dielectric properties, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 flexural strength, 496 index of refraction, 845 modulus of elasticity, 496 thermal properties, 789 G Gadolinium, 810 Gallium arsenide: cost, 913 electrical characteristics, 739, 740–741 for lasers, 857 for light-emitting diodes, 854 Gallium phosphide: electrical characteristics, 739 for light-emitting diodes, 854, 867 Galvanic corrosion, 699–701, 925 Galvanic couples, 685 Galvanic series, 690, 925 Galvanized steel, 432, 708 Garnets, 813 Garnet single crystal, 85 Gas constant, 107, 925 Gating system, 436 Gauge length, 170 Gauss (magnetic unit), 807 Gaussian error function, 146 Gears, transmission, 140 Gecko lizard, 19 Index • 947 Geometrical isomerism, 561, 562 Germanium: crystal structure, 481 electrical characteristics, 739, 745, 781 Gibbs phase rule, 330–332, 925 Gilding metal, 423 Glass: as amorphous material, 92 annealing, 441, 529, 921 blowing, 526, 528 classification, 512 color, 851 commercial, compositions and characteristics, 512 corrosion resistance, 712 cost, 914 dielectric properties, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 flexural strength, 496 forming techniques, 528–529 fracture surface (photomicrograph), 494 hardness, 500 heat treatment, 529–530 melting point, 527 modulus of elasticity, 496 optical flint, 512 plane strain fracture toughness, 262 refractive index, 845 sheet forming (float process), 529 soda-lime, composition, 512 softening point, 527 strain point, 527 stress-strain behavior, 497 structure, 479 surface crack propagation, 491 tempering, 529–530, 544 thermal properties, 789 viscous properties, 527 working point, 527, 933 Glass-ceramics, 512–513, 925 composition (Pyroceram), 512 continuous-cooling transformation diagram, 513 fabricating and heat treating, 530–531 flexural strength, 496 modulus of elasticity, 496 optical transparency, conditions for, 852 properties and applications, 513 Glass fibers, 526 fiberglass-reinforced composites, 653–654, 656 forming, 529 properties as fiber, 652 Glass transition, polymers, 601 Glass transition temperature, 526–527, 601, 925 factors that affect, polymers, 603, 604 values for selected polymers, 602, 920 Glucydur, low-expansion alloy used in wristwatches, 792 Gold, 432 atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 electrical conductivity, 733 slip systems, 222 thermal properties, 789 Graft copolymers, 563, 564, 925 Grain boundaries, 86, 119–120, 925 Grain boundary energy, 119 Grain growth, 240–241, 925 Grains, 925 definition, 84 distortion during plastic deformation, 216, 226–227 Grain size, 925 dependence on time, 240–241 determination of, 128–131 linear intercept method for determination of, 128 mechanical properties and, 229–231, 240–241 reduction, and strengthening of metals, 229–231 refinement by annealing, 441 Grain size number (ASTM), 128 Graphene, 524–525 applications, 525 in nanocomposites, 671 properties, 523 Graphite, 482 in cast irons, 416 compared to carbon, 520, 652 cost, 915 from decomposition of cementite, 416 electrical conductivity, 757 properties/applications, 519 properties as whisker, 652 as a refractory, 516 structure of, 482 Gray cast iron, 417, 418, 925 compositions, mechanical properties, and applications, 419 Green ceramic bodies, 533, 925 Green design, 873 Ground state, 26, 843, 925 Growth, phase particle, 358, 366–367, 925 rate, 366 temperature dependence of rate, 366 Gutta percha, 561 H Hackle region, 494–495 Half-cells, standard, 686–687 Half-reactions, 684 Hall coefficient, 750 Hall effect, 749–751, 925 Hall-Petch equation, 230 Hall voltage, 750 Halogens, 28 Hard disk drives, 803, 825–827 Hardenability, 442–446, 925 Hardenability band, 446 Hardenability curves, 443–446 Hard magnetic materials, 822–825, 925 properties, 824 Hardness, 925 bainite, pearlite vs transformation temperature, 387 ceramics, 499–500 comparison of scales, 195–196 conversion diagram, 195 correlation with tensile strength, 196 fine and coarse pearlite, spheroidite, 386 pearlite, martensite, tempered martensite, 388 polymers, 591 tempered martensite, 388–390 Hardness tests, 191–195 summary of tests, 193 Hard sphere model, 53 Head-to-head configuration, 559 Head-to-tail configuration, 559 Heat affected zone, 438 Heat capacity, 786–788, 925 temperature dependence, 788 vibrational contribution, 787 Heat flux, 793 Heat of fusion, latent, 360 Heat transfer: mechanism, 787, 793 nonsteady-state, 801 Heat treatable, definition of, 422 Heat treatments, 141 See also Annealing; Phase transformations dislocation density reduction, 219 glass, 529–530 hydrogen embrittlement, 706 intergranular corrosion and, 702 polymer morphology, 601 polymer properties, 596 for precipitation hardening, 453–454 recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth during, 235–242 steel, 441–451 Henry (magnetic unit), 807 Hertz, 841 Heterogeneous nucleation, 364–365 Hexagonal close-packed structure, 56–58, 925 anion stacking (ceramics), 474 Burgers vector for, 222 close-packed planes (metals), 83 slip systems, 222 twinning in, 228 unit cell volume, 59 Hexagonal crystal system, 62, 63 direction indices, 70–74 planar indices, 79–80 948 • Index Hexagonal ferrites, 813 Hexamethylene diamine, 632 Hexane, 547 High-carbon steels, 410, 413, 414 High-cycle fatigue, 275 High polymers, 556, 926 High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels, 411–412, 926 High-temperature superconductors, 830 Holes, 731, 739, 926 role, diffusion in ionic materials, 487 mobility: influence of dopant concentration on, 746, 747 influence of temperature on, 746, 747 values for selected semiconductors, 739 temperature dependence of concentration (Si, Ge), 745 Homogeneous nucleation, 358–364 Homopolymers, 551, 563, 926 Honeycomb structure, 668, 670 use in Boeing Dreamliner, 670 Hooke’s law, 174, 180, 584 Hot pressing, 536, 537 Hot working, 238, 434, 926 See also Heat treatments HSLA (high-strength, low-alloy) steels, 411–412, 926 Hume-Rothery rules, 109, 507 Hund’s rule, 835 Hybrid composites, 662–663, 926 Hybridized bonding, in carbon, 36–38 Hydration, of cement, 517–518 Hydrocarbons, 546–549 Hydrogen: diffusive purification, 144, 162, 166 reduction, 692 Hydrogen bonding, 34, 39–40, 41, 926 water expansion upon freezing, 42 Hydrogen chloride, 40, 41 Hydrogen electrode, 686 Hydrogen embrittlement, 704–706, 926 Hydrogen fluoride, 41, 49 bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 Hydrogen induced cracking, 705 Hydrogen stress cracking, 705 Hydroplastic forming, 532, 926 Hydroplasticity, 531 Hydrostatic powder pressing, 536 Hypereutectoid alloys, 341–343, 926 Hypoeutectoid alloys, 338–340, 926 Hysteresis (magnetic), 817–818, 926 Hysteresis, ferromagnetic, 926 soft and hard magnetic materials, 820, 822, 822–823 I Ice, 42, 297, 302, 316, 354, 356 Ice berg, 297 Impact energy, 266, 926 fine pearlite, 385 temperature dependence: high-strength materials, 269 low-strength FCC and HCP metals, 269 low-strength steels, 269 Impact fracture testing, 266–267 Impact strength, polymers, 590 Imperfections, see Defects; Dislocations Impurities: in ceramics, 485–486 diffusion, 142 electrical resistivity, 735 in metals, 108–110 thermal conductivity, 794 Incongruent phase transformation, 329 Index of refraction, 844–845, 926 selected materials, 845 Indices, Miller, 75–78, 927 Indium antimonide, bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 electrical characteristics, 739 Indium phosphide, electrical characteristics, 739 in light-emitting diodes, 854 Induced dipoles, 39–40 Inert gases, 28 Inhibitors, 707, 926 Initial permeability, 816–817 Injection molding, 621 Ink-jet printer heads, piezoelectric ceramics in, 769–770 Insulators (electrical), 926 See also Dielectric materials ceramics and polymers as, 757–759, 767 color, 850–851 defined, 728 electron band structure, 729–730, 731–732 translucency and opacity, 852–853 Integrated circuits, 756–757, 926 interconnects, 157–158 scanning electron micrograph, 725, 756 Interatomic bonding, 32–39 Interatomic separation, 30, 31 Interconnects, integrated circuits, 157–158 Interdiffusion, 142, 926 Interfacial defects, 118–122 Interfacial energies, 122 for heterogeneous nucleation, 364 Intergranular corrosion, 702–703, 926 Intergranular fracture, 257, 926 Intermediate solid solutions, 325, 328, 926 Intermetallic compounds, 44, 327, 455, 926 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 873 Interplanar spacing, cubic crystals, 89 Interstitial diffusion, 142–143, 926 Interstitial impurity defects, 109 Interstitials: in ceramics, 482 in polymers, 571 self-, 107, 930 Interstitial sites, FCC and BCC, 109–110, 136 Interstitial solid solutions, 109, 485, 926 Intrinsic carrier concentration, 740 temperature dependence for Si and Ge, 745 Intrinsic conductivity, 739–740 Intrinsic semiconductors, 738–741, 926 Invar, Material of Importance, 792 thermal properties, 789 Invariant point, 302 Inverse lever rule, see Lever rule Inverse spinel structure, 811–812 Ion cores, 38 Ionic bonding, 32–33, 926 in ceramics, 469 forces and energies, 32–35 Ionic character (percent), 43, 469 Ionic conduction, 487, 728, 758 Ionic polarization, 765, 929 Ionic radii, 471 Iridium, 432 Iron, see also Ferrous alloys; Steels atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 Curie temperature, 815 electrical conductivity, 733 ferrite (a), 333, 334, 339, 925 as ferromagnetic material, 810 magnetic properties, 822 magnetization curves (single crystal), 819 polymorphism, 60 recrystallization temperature, 238, 239 rolling texture, 821 slip systems, 222 stress-strain behavior (at three temperatures), 186 thermal properties, 789 yield and tensile strengths, ductility, 185 Iron age, Iron-carbon alloys, see Ferrous alloys Iron-iron carbide alloys, 333–336 Iron-silicon alloy, magnetic properties, 822 Material of Importance (use in transformer cores), 821 Isobutane, 548, 631 Index • 949 Isobutylene, 565 Isomerism, 548, 926 geometrical, 561, 562 stereoisomerism, 560, 562 Isomorphous systems, 303, 926 binary, see Binary isomorphous alloys Isoprene, 561 (ISO) International Organization for Standardization, 873 Isostatic powder pressing, 536 Isostrain, in fiber-reinforced composites, 645 Isostress, in fiber-reinforced composites, 647 Isotactic configuration, 560, 562, 926 Isothermal, 926 Isothermal transformation diagrams, 370–381, 512, 926 4340 alloy steel, 379 0.45 wt% C steel, 407 0.76 wt% C steel, 378 1.13 wt% C steel, 404 Isotopes, 21, 926 Isotropic materials, 86, 651, 926 Izod impact test, 266, 267, 926 J Jominy end-quench test, 442–443, 926 Junction depth, diffusion, 155 Junction transistors, 753–754, 926 K Kaolinite clay, 480, 481, 531 Kevlar, see Aramid Kinetics, 367–368, 926 crystallization of polymers, 600–601 oxidation, 711–712 phase transformations, 357–370 Knoop hardness, 193, 194, 195, 500 Kovar: as low-expansion alloy, 792 thermal properties, 789 Krypton, bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 L Ladder polymer, 716 Lamellae (polymers), 569 Laminar composites, 665–667, 926 angle-ply, 666 carbon fiber-epoxy, Boeing Dreamliner, 669–670 cross-ply, 666 multidirectional, 666 unidirectional, 666 Large-particle composites, 637–641, 927 Larson-Miller parameter, 285 plots of, 286, 296 Lasers, 856–860, 927 semiconductor, 857–859 types, characteristics, and applications, 859 Laser beam welding, 438 Latent heat of fusion, 360 Latex, 610 Lattice parameters, 62, 63, 927 Lattices, 53, 927 Lattice strains, 220, 231–232, 456, 927 Lattice waves, 787 Laue photograph, 51, 91 Layered silicates, 480–481 Lay-up, in prepreg processing, 664 Lead, 432 atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 diffraction pattern, 91 recrystallization temperature, 239 superconducting critical temperature, 830 Lead-free solders, 319 Lead oxide, crystal structure, 505 Lead-tin phase diagram, 315, 318–325 Lead zirconate, 769 Lead-zirconate-titanate, 769 Leak-before-break design, 264 Leathery region, polymers, 586–587 LEDs, see Light-emitting diodes Lever rule, 306, 307, 927 Liberty ship failures, Life cycle analysis/assessment, 873 Light: absorption, 846–850 reflection, 846 refraction, 844–846 scattering, 852 transmission, 850 Light-emitting diodes: organic, 854–855 polymer, 854–855 semiconductor, 854 Lime, 518 Linear atomic density, 81 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion, 281, 790–791, 796, 797, 802, 927 values for selected materials, 737, 789, 897–900 Linear corrosion rate, 712 Linear defects, 115–118 Linear polymers, 558, 927 Liquid crystal polymers, 613–614, 927 Liquidus line, 303, 304, 313, 314, 927 Liquidus temperatures: solders, 319 Cu-Au system, 349 Lithium fluoride, bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 Lodestone (magnetite), 804, 811 Logrithmic corrosion rate, 712 Longitudinal direction, 643, 927 Longitudinal loading, composites, 643–647, 648–649 Lost foam casting, 434, 436–437 Lost-wax casting, 436 Low-angle grain boundaries, see Smallangle grain boundaries Low-carbon steels, 411–412 Low-cycle fatigue, 275 Lower critical temperature (ferrous alloys), 440, 927 Lower yield point, 181 Low-expansion alloys, 792 in wristwatches, 792 Luminescence, 853, 927 M Macromolecules, 549, 927 Magnesia, see Magnesium oxide Magnesium: automobile wheel, 51 diffraction pattern, 51 elastic and shear moduli, 174 Poisson’s ratio, 174 single crystal, cleaved, 51 slip systems, 222 Magnesium alloys, 426, 428 Magnesium fluoride, optical properties, 846 Magnesium-lead phase diagram, 327 Magnesium oxide: bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 flexural strength, 496 index of refraction, 845 modulus of elasticity, 496 thermal properties, 789 Magnesium oxide-aluminum oxide phase diagram, 488 Magnetic anisotropy, 819–820, 821 Magnetic ceramics, 811–814 Magnetic dipoles, 804–805 Magnetic domains, see Domains Magnetic energy product, 822–823 Magnetic field strength, 805, 807, 927 Magnetic field vectors, 805–807 Magnetic flux density, 805–806, 807, 927 critical values for superconductors, 830 Magnetic hard disk drives, 803, 825–827 Magnetic hysteresis, 817–818 factors that affect, 819 soft and hard magnetic materials, 820, 822–823 Magnetic induction, see Magnetic flux density Magnetic materials: hard, 822–825 low thermal expansion characteristics, 792 neodymium-iron-boron alloys, 824–825 950 • Index Magnetic materials (Contd.) samarium-cobalt alloys, 824 soft, 820–822 Magnetic moments, 805, 807–808 cations, 811–813 Magnetic permeability, 806, 840, 845 Magnetic recording, 825 Magnetic storage, 803, 825–828 hard disk drives, 803 Magnetic susceptibility, 806, 927 selected diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials, 809 various units for, 807, 834 Magnetic tapes, 827–828 Magnetic texture, 86, 821 Magnetic units, conversion factors, 807 Magnetism: basic concepts, 804–808 electron spin and, 808 Magnetite (lodestone), 804, 811 saturation magnetization computation, 813–814 Magnetization, 806, 927 easy and hard directions, 819, 821, 828 saturation, 810, 813–814, 930 Magnetocrystalline anisotropy, 819 Magnetostrictive materials, 12 Magnetorheological fluids, 13 Magnification, determination from photomicrographs, 129 Majority charge carriers, 741 Malleability, see Ductility Malleable cast iron, 418, 420, 927 compositions, mechanical properties, and applications, 419 Manganese oxide, as antiferromagnetic material, 811 Manufacturing techniques, economics, 870–871 Martensite, 376–378, 382, 391, 392, 927 alloying to favor formation of, 383 crystal structure, 376 hardness, 387 hardness vs carbon content, 388 shape-memory phase transformations, 395 tempering of, 389 Martensitic stainless steels, 414, 415–416 Materials: advanced, 12–14 by design, 13 classification of, 6–11 costs, 657, 201–202, 911–915 current and future needs, 14 disposal of, 872 economic considerations, 869–871 engineered, 872 of the future, 12 historical development of, nanoengineered, 13–14 nonrenewable sources of, 14, 872 smart, 12 total cycle, 871–872 Materials engineering, 2–4, 170 Materials of Importance: aluminum electrical wires, 736–738 aluminum for integrated circuit interconnects, 157–158 biodegradable and biorenewable polymers/plastics, 876–877 catalysts (and surface defects), 121 Invar and other low-expansion alloys, 792 an iron-silicon alloy used in transformer cores, 821 lead-free solders, 319 light-emitting diodes, 854–855 metal alloys used for euro coins, 433 phenolic billiard balls, 607–608 piezoelectric ceramics for ink-jet printer heads, 769–770 shape-memory alloys, 394–396 shrink-wrap polymer films, 597 tin (its allotropic transformation), 61 water (its volume expansion upon freezing), 42 Materials science, 2–3 Material-type tetrahedron, 43 Matrix phase, 927 definition, 636 fiber-reinforced composites, 653 Matthiessen’s rule, 734, 927 Maxwell (magnetic unit), 807 Mean stress (fatigue), 270, 279 Mechanical properties, see also specific mechanical properties grain size and, 230, 240–241 variability, 197–199 Mechanical twins, 122, 228 See also Twinning Mechanics of materials, 174 Medium carbon steels, 412–413 Meissner effect, 829 Melamine-formaldehyde, repeat unit structure, 916 Melting (polymers), 601 Melting point (temperature): and bonding energy for selected materials, 34 ceramics, 527 factors that affect (polymers), 603 glasses, 527, 927 polymers, 601–602, 920 Melt spinning, 622 Memory, flash, 725, 755 Mercury: bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 superconducting critical temperature, 830 Mer unit, 549 Metal alloys, see Alloys Metallic bonding, 38–39, 927 Metallic glasses, 465, 733 Metallographic examination, 124 Metalloids, 43 Metal-matrix composites, 659–660, 927 Metals, see also Alloys; Crystalline materials corrosion, see Corrosion costs, 911–913 crystal structures, see Crystal structures defined, 7, 927 density values, 882–884 elastic modulus values, 174, 885–887 as electrical conductors, 730 electrical resistivity values, 906–907 electron band structures, 730 fabrication, 434–438 fracture toughness for selected, 262, 895–896 linear coefficient of thermal expansion values, 789, 897–898 optical properties, 843–844 oxidation, 709–712 Poisson’s ratio for selected, 174, 889–890 shear moduli, 174 specific heat values, 789, 903–904 strengthening, see Strengthening of metals thermal conductivity values, 789, 900–901 Metastability, 927 of microstructures, 370 Metastable states, 301 Methane, 36, 37, 547, 566 bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 Methyl alcohol, 548, 618 Methyl group, 549 Mica, 481, 767 dielectric constant and dielectric strength, 761 Microconstituents, see also specific microconstituent phases: definition, 324, 927 in eutectic alloys, 324 in steel alloys, 336–342 Microcracks, 258 in ceramics, 491–492, 502 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), 13, 521–522, 927 Microelectronics, 756–757 Microindentation hardness tests, 194 Micron, 123 Microscopic techniques, useful resolutions ranges, 127 Microscopy, 123–129, 927 Microstructure, 123, 927 austenite, 334 Index • 951 bainite, 374 bonded ceramic abrasive, 517 brass during recrystallization and grain growth, 237 carbon-black-reinforced rubber, 639 cast irons, 418, 421 cemented carbide, 639 coarse and fine pearlite, 373 compacted graphite iron, 418 cored structure, brass, 312 craze in poly(phenylene oxide), 589 development in eutectic alloys, 318–324 development in iron-carbon alloys, 336–343 development in isomorphous alloys: equilibrium cooling, 309–310 nonequilibrium cooling, 310–312 eutectic (lead-tin), 322 ferrite (a), 334 glass-ceramic, 514 glass fracture surface, 494 gray cast iron, 418 hard disk drive, 803, 827 hypereutectoid steel alloy, 342 hypoeutectoid steel alloy, 339 influence of cooling rate, 444 integrated circuit, 157, 725, 756 magnetic tape storage, 827 martensite, 377 metastable, 301 microscopic examination, 123–128 pearlite, 337, 373 polycrystalline metal before and after deformation, 227 porcelain, 510, 535 precipitation-hardened aluminum alloy, 456 reversible-matrix, Al-Cu eutectic, 323 single-phase iron-chromium alloy, 125 sintered ceramic, 537 size ranges, various structural features, 127 spheroidite, 376 spherulite (natural rubber), 545, 569 stress corrosion in brass, 706 TEM (high resolution)—single crystals of (Ce0.5Zr0.5)O2, 105, 121 tempered martensite, 389 Microvoids, 255, 589 Miller-Bravais index system, 70 Miller indices, 75–78, 927 Minority charge carriers, 741 Mirror region (ceramics), 493, 494 Mist region (ceramics), 494 Mixed bonding, 43–44 tetrahedron, 43 Mixed dislocations, 117, 219, 927 See also Dislocations Mobility, of charge carriers, 732, 927 influence of dopant content, 746, 747 influence of temperature, 747 ionic, 758 values for selected semiconductors, 739 Modulus of elasticity, 174, 927 anisotropy, 86, 208 atomic bonding and, 175–176, 208 carbon nanotubes, 523 copper reinforced with tungsten, 638 directionality dependence for cubic crystals, 208 influence of porosity on, in ceramics, 499 ranges for material types (bar chart), relation to shear modulus, 178 selected ceramics, 496, 887–888 selected fiber-reinforcement materials, 652, 888 selected metals, 174, 885–887 selected polymers, 583, 888 temperature dependence: elastomers, 597 metals, 176 and thermal fatigue, 281 and thermal stresses, 796, 797, 802 values for various materials, 885–889 Modulus of resilience, 185–186 Modulus of rupture, 495 See also Flexural strength Mohs hardness scale, 191, 195 Molarity, 685, 927 Molding, plastics, 620, 927 Mole, 21, 927 Molecular chemistry, polymers, 549–553, 927 Molecular configurations, polymers, 559–562 Molecular mass, 553 Molecular materials, 44 Molecular shape, polymers, 556–557 Molecular structure, polymers, 558–559, 928 Molecular weight, 928 influence on polymer melting/ glass transition temperatures, 603–604 influence on mechanical behavior, polymers, 595 number-average, 554, 555–556 weight-average, 554, 556 Molecular weight distribution, 553–555 Molecules, polar, 40, 929 Molybdenum, 429, 431 atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 density, 883 modulus of elasticity, 887 Poisson’s ratio, 889 properties as wire, 652 slip systems, 222 thermal properties, 898, 901, 904 yield strength, tensile strength, ductility, 185, 893 Moment of inertia, 495, 496, 508, 658 Monel, 432 Monoclinic crystal system, 62, 63 Monomers, 549, 928 Montmorillonite clay, as nanoparticle, 671 MOSFET transistors, 753, 754–755, 928 Mullite, 490 flexural strength, 496 modulus of elasticity, 496 Multidirectional laminar composite, 666 Multiphase transformations, see Phase transformations Muntz metal, 423 Muscovite (mica), 481 N Nanocarbons, 522–525, 928 properties, 523 Nanoclays, 670 Nanocomposites, 670–672, 928 applications, 671–672 for dental restorations, 671–672 for electrostatic dissipation, 672 for energy storage, 671 as flame-barrier coatings, 671 as gas-barrier coatings, 671 for mechanical strength enhancement, 672 Nanocrystals, 670–671 Nanomaterials, 13–14 Nanoparticle, 670 size effect, 13, 670 Nanotechnology, 13 Nanotubes, carbon, 13, 523–524 in nanocomposites, 670 Natural aging, 457, 928 Natural rubber (polyisoprene), 561, 608, 609 degradation resistance, 714 melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 stress-strain behavior, 599 thermal properties, 789 NBR, see Nitrile rubber (NBR) Necking, 181–182 complex stress state in, 188 criterion for, 212 in ductile fracture, 253, 254 polymers, 584 Néel temperature, 815 Neodymium-iron-boron magnets, 824–825 Neodymium-YAG lasers, 859 Neoprene rubber, 609, 714 Nernst equation, 688 Network formers (glass), 478 952 • Index Network modifiers (glass), 478 Network polymers, 558, 559, 928 Neutrinos, 20 Neutrons, 20 Nichrome, 736 Nickel, 431, 432 atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 Curie temperature, 815 elastic and shear moduli, 174 as ferromagnetic material, 810 magnetization curves (single crystal), 819 Poisson’s ratio, 174 recrystallization temperature, 239 saturation magnetization, 810–811 slip systems, 222 thermal properties, 789 thoria-dispersed (TD), 641 yield and tensile strengths, ductility, 185 Nickel ferrite, 813 Niobium, 429 Niobium alloys, as superconductors, 830 Nitinol, 394–396 Nitrile rubber (NBR), 564 characteristics and applications, 608, 609 degradation resistance, 714 Noble metals, 432 Nodular iron, see Ductile iron Noncrystalline materials, 53, 92, 928 Nondestructive evaluation, see Nondestructive testing Nondestructive inspection, see Nondestructive testing Nondestructive testing, 263 Nonequilibrium cooling, 343 Nonequilibrium phases, 367 Nonequilibrium solidification, 310–312 Nonferrous alloys, 422–434, 928 See also specific nonferrous alloys classification of, 423 Nonsteady-state diffusion, 145–149, 928 Nonstoichiometry, 483–484 Nonvolatile memory, 755 Normalizing, 382, 440, 928 Notches, effect of, 259, 588 Notch toughness, 186, 266 n–p-n Junction transistors, 753–754 n-Type semiconductors, 741–742, 928 Nucleation, 358–365, 928 heterogeneous, 364–365 homogeneous, 358–364 Nucleation rate, 362 temperature dependence, 362 homogeneous vs heterogeneous, 365 Nucleus, phase particle, 358 Number-average molecular weight, 554, 555–556 Nylon, fatigue behavior, 590 Nylon 6,6: degradation resistance, 714 density, 578–579, 583, 885 dielectric constant and dielectric strength, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 mechanical properties, 583, 888, 890, 894, 896 melting and glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 repeat unit structure, 553, 917 thermal properties, 789 Nylons, trade names, characteristics, and applications, 606 O Octahedral position, 474, 812, 928 in FCC and BCC, 109–110, 335 Oersted (magnetic unit), 807 Ohm’s law, 726–727, 928 Oil, as quenching medium, 447 Opacity, 842, 928 in insulators, 852–853 in semiconductors, 848 Optical dispersion, white light, 845 Optical fibers, 861–862 in communications, 860–862 Optical flint glass, composition and properties, 512, 845 Optical microscopy, 124–125, 127 Optical properties, 839 of metals, 843–844 of nonmetals, 844–853 Ordered solid solution, 325, 423 Organic light-emitting diodes, 854–855 Orientation polarization, 765, 929 Orthorhombic crystal system, 62, 63 Osmium, 432 Overaging, 454, 928 Overvoltage, 691, 692, 694 Oxidation, 683, 709–712, 928 kinetics, 711–712 metals, 709–712 Ozone, degradation of polymers, 714, 715–716 P Palladium, 144, 162, 432 Parabolic corrosion rate, 711 Paraffins, 547 Paramagnetism, 808–809, 817–818, 928 Parisons, 528, 622 Particle-reinforced composites, 637–641, 928 Pascal-second, 498 Passivity, 698–699, 928 Pauli exclusion principle, 26, 928 Pearlite, 337, 928 coarse, 372, 373, 922 colonies, 337 as composite, 636 ductility vs transformation temperature, 387 fine, 372, 385, 925 formation of, 338, 370–374, 382, 391 hardness vs transformation temperature, 387 mechanical properties, 384–386, 392 Pentane, 547 Performance (materials), See also Processing/structure/properties/ performance correlations Periclase, 515, 516 See also Magnesium oxide Periodic table, 28–29, 928 and properties of elements, 29 Peritectic reaction, 328, 928 Permalloy (45), magnetic properties, 822 Permanent dipoles, 39, 765 Permeability (in polymers), 571 Permeability coefficient, 571, 572 Permeability, magnetic, 806, 807, 840, 845, 928 Permittivity, 33, 760, 840, 845, 928 Perovskite structure, 473, 474, 768, 830 Perpendicular magnetic recording media, 826–827 PET, see Polyester(s) Phase boundaries, 120 Phase diagrams, 301–302, 302–309, 928 binary eutectic systems, 312–325 binary isomorphous systems, 303–312 ceramic systems, 330, 487–490 congruent phase transformations, 329, 923 definitions/basic concepts, 298–302 eutectoid and peritectic reactions, 328 intermediate phases in, 325–327 interpretation of, 305–309 pressure-temperature (unary), 301–302 specific: aluminum-copper, 353, 455 aluminum oxide-chromium oxide, 487 carbon dioxide (pressuretemperature), 356 cast iron, 421 copper-beryllium, 466 copper-nickel, 304 copper-silver, 313, 332 copper-zinc, 326, 328 halfnium-vanadium, 330 iron-carbon (graphite), 417 iron-iron carbide, 333 lead-tin, 315, 320–325 magnesium-lead, 327 magnesium oxide-aluminum oxide, 488 nickel-titanium, 329 Index • 953 silica-alumina, 490 sugar-water, 299 tin-gold, 353 water (pressure-temperature), 297, 302, 354 water-sodium chloride, 316 zirconia-calcia, 489 ternary, 330 Phase equilibria, 300–301, 928 Phases, 300, 928 Phase transformation diagrams: continuous-cooling, 923 metals, 381–384, 404 glass-ceramics, 513 isothermal, 370–381, 926 Phase transformation rate, 368 martensitic transformation, 377 temperature dependence, 366 Phase transformations, 928 athermal, 377 classification, 357–358 shape-memory effect, 394–395 Phenol, 548 Phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite): in billiard balls, 580, 607–608 dielectric constant and dielectric strength, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 mechanical properties, 583 repeat unit structure, 553, 916 thermal properties, 789 Phenolics, trade names, characteristics, applications, 607 Phenyl group, 549, 551 Phonons, 787, 793, 794, 928 Phosphorescence, 853, 928 Photoconductivity, 853, 928 Photomicrographs, 123, 928 Photonic signal, 860 Photons, 787, 841, 928 Photovoltaic solar cell, 838 Pickling, of steels, 706 Piezoelectricity, 768–769, 928 Piezoelectric ceramics, 768 as Materials of Importance, ink-jet printer heads, 769–770 in ink-jet printer heads, 769–770 properties and applications, 769–770 in smart materials, 12 Pilling-Bedworth ratio, 710, 928 selected metals, 711 Pitting corrosion, 702, 928 Plain carbon steels, 378, 410, 411, 928 Planar atomic density, 82 Planck’s constant, 841, 928 Planes, see Crystallographic planes Plane strain, 260, 928 Plane strain fracture toughness, 261, 929 ceramic-matrix composites, 660–662 selected materials, 262, 895–896 Plaster of Paris, 436, 517, 532 Plastic deformation, 180–197, 929 ceramics, 497–498 dislocation motion and, 217–228 in fracture, 259 influence on electrical conductivity, 735 polycrystalline materials, 226–227 semicrystalline polymers, 593, 594 twinning, 228–229 Plasticizers, 619, 929 Plastics, 605–608, 929 characteristics and applications, 606–607 in composites, 639 forming techniques, 620–622 Platinum, 432 atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 electrical conductivity, 733 Plexiglass, see Poly(methyl methacrylate) Plywood, 667 p-n-p Junction transistors, 753–754 p-n Junctions: for light-emitting diodes, 854 for rectification, 751–753 Point coordinates, 64–66 Point defects, 106–115, 482–485, 929 Poise, 498 Poisson’s ratio, 177, 929 selected metals, 174 values for various materials, 889–890 Polarization, 761, 929 See also Electronic polarization; Ionic polarization; Orientation polarization Polarization (corrosion), 691–694, 929 corrosion rates from, 695–697 Polar molecules, 39–40, 929 Polyacetylene, repeat unit structure, 758 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN): carbon fibers, 655 melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 repeat unit structure, 565, 916 Poly(alkylene glycol), as a quenching agent, 446 Poly(amide-imide) (PAI), repeat unit structure, 916 glass transition temperature, 920 Polybutadiene, see Butadiene Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), repeat unit structure, 917 melting temperature, 920 Polycarbonate: density, 583 degradation resistance, 714 mechanical properties, 583 melting and glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 plane strain fracture toughness, 262, 896 reinforced vs unreinforced properties, 650 repeat unit structure, 553, 917 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 606 Polychloroprene, see Chloroprene; Chloroprene rubber Polychlorotrifluoroethylene, repeat unit structure, 917 Polycrystalline materials, 84–86, 929 plastic deformation, 226–227 Poly(dimethyl siloxane), 608 degradation resistance, 714 melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 repeat unit structure, 608, 917 Polyester(s): degradation resistance (PET), 714 density (PET), 579, 583 fatigue behavior (PET), 590 magnetic storage tape, 828 mechanical properties (PET), 583 melting and glass transition temperatures (PET), 602, 920 in polymer-matrix composites, 656 recycle code and products (PET), 875 repeat unit structure (PET), 553, 917 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 607 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), 656 degradation resistance, 714 melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 repeat unit structure, 917 Polyetherimide (PEI), 656 Polyethylene, 549–550, 552 crystal structure of, 565 degradation resistance, 714 density, 567, 583, 885 dielectric constant and dielectric strength, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 fatigue behavior, 590 index of refraction, 845 mechanical properties, 583 melting and glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 recycle codes and products, 875 single crystals, 568 thermal properties, 789 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 606 ultra-high-molecular-weight, see Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene Poly(ethylene naphthalate), as magnetic storage tape, 828 Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), see Polyester(s) Poly(hexamethylene adipamide), see Nylon 6,6 954 • Index Polyimides: glass transition temperature, 920 polymer-matrix composites, 656 repeat unit structure, 918 Polyisobutylene: melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 repeat unit structure, 565, 918 Polyisoprene, see Natural rubber (polyisoprene) Poly(lactic acid), 868, 877 Polymer-matrix composites, 653–659, 929 Polymerization, 550, 616–618 degree of, 555 Polymer light-emitting diodes, 854–855 Polymer nanocomposites, 670 Polymers, 9–10, 549, 929 See also Plastics additives, 618–620 classification (molecular characteristics), 562 coefficient of thermal expansion values, 789, 899 conducting, 758–759 costs, 914–915 crosslinking, see Crosslinking crystallinity, 564–566, 923 crystallization, 600–601 crystals, 568–570 defined, 9, 549 defects in, 570–571 deformation (semicrystalline): elastic, 591–593 plastic, 593, 594 degradation of, 713–716 density, 566 density values, 583, 884–885 diffusion in, 571–573 ductility values, 583, 894 elastic modulus values, 583, 888 elastomers, 597–599, 608–609 electrical properties, 757, 758–759, 761, 908 fibers, 610 fracture mechanics, 590 fracture toughness values, 262, 896 glass transition, 601 glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 as insulators, 758, 767 ladder, 716 as light-emitting diodes, 854–855 liquid crystal, 613–614 mechanical properties, 581–591 factors that affect, 593, 595–596 values of, 583, 888, 890, 894, 896 melting of, 601 melting temperatures, 602, 920 miscellaneous applications, 610–612 miscellaneous mechanical characteristics, 590–591 molecular chemistry, 549–553 molecular configuration, 559–562 molecular shape, 556–557 molecular structure, 558–559 molecular weight, 553–556 natural, 546 opacity and translucency, 852 Poisson’s ratio values, 890 radiation effects, 715 refraction indices, 845 semicrystalline, 566, 568, 591–593, 594, 595 specific heat values, 789, 905 spherulites in, 545, 568–569, 593, 596 stereoisomerism, 560–561 stress-strain behavior, 581–584 swelling and dissolution, 713–714 tensile strength values, 583, 894 thermal conductivity values, 789, 902–903 thermal properties, 791, 795 thermoplastic, see Thermoplastic polymers thermosetting, see Thermosetting polymers types of, 546 viscoelasticity, 584–588 weathering, 716 yield strength values, 583, 894 Poly(methyl methacrylate): density, 885 electrical conductivity, 757 fatigue behavior, 590 index of refraction, 845 mechanical properties, 583 melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 plane strain fracture toughness, 262, 896 relaxation modulus, 630 repeat unit structure, 553, 918 stress-strain behavior as function of temperature, 583 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 606 Polymorphic transformations, in iron, 333–334 Polymorphism, 60, 929 Poly(paraphenylene terephthalamide), see Aramid Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO), repeat unit structure, 918 Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS), 656 melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 repeat unit structure, 918 Polypropylene, 551 degradation resistance, 714 density, 579, 583, 885 fatigue behavior, 590 index of refraction, 845 kinetics of crystallization, 600 mechanical properties, 583 melting and glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 plane strain fracture toughness, 896 recycle code and products, 875 repeat unit structure, 552, 918 thermal properties, 789 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 606 Polystyrene: degradation resistance, 714 density, 583, 885 dielectric properties, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 fatigue behavior, 590 index of refraction, 845 mechanical properties, 583 melting and glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 plane strain fracture toughness, 262, 896 repeat unit structure, 552, 919 thermal properties, 789 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 606 viscoelastic behavior, 586–587 Polytetrafluoroethylene, 551, 552 degradation resistance, 714 density, 885 dielectric constant and dielectric strength, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 fatigue behavior, 590 index of refraction, 845 mechanical properties, 583 melting and glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 repeat unit structure, 552, 919 thermal properties, 789 Poly(vinyl acetate), repeat unit structure, 919 Poly(vinyl alcohol), repeat unit structure, 919 Poly(vinyl chloride): density, 885 mechanical properties, 583 melting and glass transition temperatures, 602, 920 recycle code and products, 875 repeat unit structure, 551, 552, 919 Poly(vinyl fluoride): melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 repeat unit structure, 919 Poly(vinylidene chloride): melting and glass transition temperatures, 920 repeat unit structure, 919 Index • 955 Poly(vinylidene fluoride): glass transition temperature, 920 repeat unit structure, 919 Porcelain, 510, 532 dielectric constant and dielectric strength, 761 electrical conductivity, 757 microstructure, 510, 535 Porosity: ceramics, 499 formation during sintering, 536–537 influence on flexural strength, ceramics, 499 influence on modulus of elasticity, ceramics, 499 influence on thermal conductivity, 795 optical translucency and opacity, 852 refractory ceramics, 515 Portland cement, 517–518 Portland cement concrete, 640 Posttensioned concrete, 641 Potassium niobate, 769 Powder metallurgy, 437, 929 Powder pressing, ceramics, 535–537 Powder x-ray diffraction techniques, 90–91 Precipitation-hardenable stainless steels, 415 Precipitation hardening, 451–458, 929 heat treatments, 453–454 mechanism, 455–457 Prepreg production processes, 664, 929 Pressing: ceramics, powdered, 535–537 glass, 528 Prestressed concrete, 641, 929 Primary bonds, 32–39, 929 Primary creep, 282, 283 Primary phase, 323, 929 Principal quantum number, 23, 26 Principle of combined action, 636, 929 Process annealing, 439, 929 Processing, materials, Processing/structure/properties/ performance correlations: glass-ceramics, 97, 503–504, 541, 542 summary, 542 introduction, 15–16 polymer fibers, 47, 576, 627, 628 summary, 628 silicon semiconductors, 47, 134, 160, 161, 774–777 summary, 777 steels (iron-carbon alloys), 96, 134, 161, 206, 245–246, 347–348, 400–401, 461, 462 summaries, 461, 462 topic timelines, 15–16 Proeutectoid cementite, 341, 929 Proeutectoid ferrite, 339, 929 Propane, 547 Properties, 929 See also Processing/ structure/properties/performance categories of, Proportional limit, 181, 929 Predeposition step (diffusion in semiconductors), 154, 155 Protons, 20–21 PTFE, see Polytetrafluoroethylene p-Type semiconductors, 742–744, 929 Pultrusion, 663–664 Pyrex glass: composition, 512 density, 884 electrical resistivity, 908 fracture of soda-lime imitation, 798 index of refraction, 845 mechanical properties, 887, 890, 893 plane strain fracture toughness, 896 thermal properties, 789, 898, 902, 905 thermal shock, 797 Pyroceram: composition, 512 density, 884 electrical resistivity, 908 flexural strength, 496 modulus of elasticity, 496 plane strain fracture toughness, 896 Poisson’s ratio, 890 thermal properties, 789, 898, 902, 905 Pyrolytic carbon, 520 Q Quantum mechanics, 22, 929 Quantum numbers, 23–26, 929 azimuthal, 24 magnetic, 25, 808 Quarks, 20 Quartz, 467, 478, 510, 531–532, 534 grains, 510 index of refraction, 845 single crystal, 467 structure of, 467 unit cell, 467 Quenching media, 446–447 R Radiation effects, polymers, 715 Random copolymers, 563, 564, 929 Range of stress, 270, 271 Recombination, electron-hole, 752, 848 in light-emitting diodes, 854 Recovery, 235–236, 929 Recrystallization, 236–239, 439, 929 effect on properties, 238 kinetics for copper, 368 rate, 236 Recrystallization temperature, 236, 238, 929 dependence on alloy content, 236 dependence on percent cold work, 236, 238 selected metals and alloys, 239 Rectification, 751–753 Rectifying junctions, 751–753, 929 Recycling: issues in materials science and engineering, 873–875 of beverage cans, 868 of composite materials, 878 of glass, 874 of metals, 874 of plastics and rubber, 874–878 Recycling codes and products, 875 Reduction (electrochemical), 683, 929 Reduction in area, percent, 184 Reflection, 846, 929 Reflectivity, 842, 846 Refraction, 844–846, 929 index of, 844–845, 926 Refractories (ceramics), 511, 514–516, 929 corrosion, 712 Refractory metals, 429, 431 Reinforced concrete, 640–641, 930 Reinforcement efficiency, table of, 651 Relative permeability, 806, 807, 930 Relative permittivity, see Dielectric constant Relaxation frequency, 766, 930 Relaxation modulus, 585–587, 630, 930 Relaxation time, 629–630 Remanence (remanent induction), 817, 930 Repeated stress cycle, 270, 271 Repeat units, 549 bifunctional and trifunctional, 551 table of, 552–553, 916–919 Residual stresses, 439–440, 930 See also Thermal stresses glass, 529 martensitic steels, 388 Resilience, 185–186, 930 Resin, polymer, 653 Resistance (electrical), 726–727 Resistivity, see Electrical resistivity Resolved shear stresses, 223, 930 Retained austenite, 377 Reverse bias, 752, 753, 930 Reversed stress cycle, 270, 271 Rhodium, 432 Rhombohedral crystal system, 62, 63 Rochelle salt, 768 Rock salt structure, 472, 473, 474 Rockwell hardness tests, 191–192 Rolling, of metals, 435, 930 Rolling texture, 821 Rouge, 517 956 • Index Rovings, 663 Rubbers, 557, 564 natural, see Natural rubber (polyisoprene) synthetic, 564, 608–610 trade names, characteristics, and applications, 609 Rubbery region, polymers, 586, 587 Ruby See also Aluminum oxide lasers, 856–858 optical characteristics, 851 Rule of mixtures, 930 composites, 638, 648, 649, 650, 658 electrical resistivity, 735 multiphase alloys, 355 Rupture, 283, 930 Rupture lifetime, 282 extrapolation of, 285–286 Rust, 681, 684 Ruthenium, 432 S Sacrificial anodes, 708, 930 Safe stress, 200, 930 Safety factors, 200, 201, 264 Samarium-cobalt magnets, 824 Samarium iron garnet, 835 Sand casting, 436 Sandwich panels, 667–668, 930 applications, 668 use in Boeing 787 Dreamliner, 670 Sapphire See also Aluminum oxide optical transmittance, 851 Saturated hydrocarbons, 547, 930 Saturation, extrinsic semiconductors, 744 Saturation magnetization, 810, 813–814, 818, 930 iron ferrite (magnetite), 813–814 nickel, 810–811 temperature dependence, 815 SBR, see Styrene-butadiene rubber Scale bar, on photomicrographs, 129 Scaling, 709 Scanning electron microscopy, 126, 930 Scanning probe microscopy, 13, 126–127, 930 Schmid factor, 247 Schottky defect, 483, 486, 930 equilibrium number, 484 Scission, 715, 930 Scleroscope hardness, 195 Screw dislocations, 115, 116, 117, 218, 219, 930 See also Dislocations in polymers, 570 Seawater, as corrosion environment, 707 Secant modulus, 175 Secondary bonds, 39–41, 930 phenomena and applications, 41 Secondary creep, 282, 283 Segregation, 312 Selective leaching, 703–704, 930 Self-diffusion, 142, 930 Self-interstitials, 107, 930 SEM, see Scanning electron microscopy Semiconductor devices, 751–757 Semiconductor lasers, 857–860 Semiconductors: band structure, 730 carbon nanotubes as, 524 in computers, 755 costs, 913–914 defined, 12, 728, 930 diffusion in, 154–158 extrinsic, 741–744, 924 intrinsic, 738–741, 926 intrinsic carrier concentration, 740, 745 light absorption, 846–849 n-type, 741, 928 p-type, 742–744, 929 temperature dependence: electron concentration, n-type Si, 745 electron mobility, Si, 747 hole mobility, Si, 747 intrinsic carrier concentration of Ge, 745 intrinsic carrier concentration of Si, 745 Semicrystalline polymers, 566 deformation mechanisms: elastic, 591–593 plastic, 593, 594 Semi-metals, 43 Sensors, 12–13 Severity of quench, 446 Shape memory: alloys, 12, 394–396 phase transformations, 394–395 thermoelastic behavior, 396 Shear deformation, 171, 191 Shear modulus, 176 relationship to elastic modulus, 178 selected metals, 174 Shear strain, 171, 173, 930 Shear stress, 173, 930 resolved, 223 resolved from tensile stress, 173–174 Shear tests, 173 Sheet glass forming (float process), 529 Shot peening, 280 Shrinkage, clay products, 533 Shrink-wrap polymer films, 597 Silica, 8, 478 crystalline and noncrystalline structures, 93 fibers for optical communications, 860–862 fused, see Fused silica as refractory, 515–516 Silica-alumina phase diagram, 490 Silica glasses, 478 viscosity, 527 Silicates: glasses, 478 layered, 480–481 tetrahedral structure, 467, 477 types and structures, 478–481 Silicon: bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 conduction in, 740 cost, 914 electrical characteristics, 739 electron concentration vs temperature, n-type, 745 electron/hole mobility vs impurity concentration, 746 electron/hole mobility vs temperature, 747 fracture toughness, 521 intrinsic carrier concentration vs temperature, 745 in MEMS, 521 vacancy (surface), 107 Silicon carbide: as abrasive, 516 bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 flexural strength, 496 hardness, 500 modulus of elasticity, 496 properties as whiskers and fibers, 652 as refractory, 516 Silicon dioxide, see also Silica layer formation in integrated circuits, 783 Silicone rubber, 608–609 characteristics and applications, 609 degradation resistance, 714 Silicon nitride: flexural strength, 496 fracture strength distribution, 492 hardness, 500 modulus of elasticity, 496 properties as a whisker, 652 Silly putty, 585 Silver, 432 atomic radius and crystal structure, 54 bonding energy and melting temperature, 34 electrical conductivity, 158, 733 slip systems, 222 thermal properties, 789 Simple cubic crystal structure, 56, 57 Single crystals, 84, 930 slip in, 223–226 Sintered aluminum powder (SAP), 641 Sintering, 536–537, 930