Principles of engineering manufacture

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Principles of Engineering Manufacture I Illill IL IIIli I I III I ] This Page Intentionally Left Blank I II _ I I IIII II Principles of Engineering Manufacture Third edition Stewart C B l a c k Bs~,MSc, CEng,FIEE,FIMechE Principal Lecturer in Manufacturing Department of Mechanical Engineering and Manufacturing Systems University of Northumbria, Newcastle upon Tyne Vie Chiles CEng,PhD, BSc, MIEE Senior Lecturer in Manufacturing Department of Mechanical Engineering and Manufacturing Systems University of Northumbria, Newcastle upon Tyne A J L i s s a m a n CEng,MIMechE,FIProdE Formerly Head of Department of Production Engineering North Gloucestershire College of Technology, Cheltenham S J M a r t i n CEng,FIMech, FIProdE Formerly Principal Lecturer in Production Engineering North Gloucestershire College of Technology, Cheltenham ~E i N E M A N N OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann An imprint of Elsevier Science Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Wobum MA 01801-2041 First published as Principles of Engineering Production 1964 Second edition 1982 Third edition 1996 Transferred to digital printing 2002 Copyright 1996, V Chiles, S C Black and Elsevier Science Ltd All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England WIT 4LP Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 340 63195 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at www.bh.com II I Contents Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the Second Edition xi xiii Extracts from the Preface to the First Edition The Range of Manufacturing Processes xvi xv Manufacturing 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Introduction Types of production Manufacturing economics: time and cost estimates Safety in manufacturing Primary Forming Processes 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 Introduction Casting Moulding Forging Continuous extrusion Rolling Drawing Blow moulding Hydraulic forming Rotational moulding Moulding of reinforced materials Working of Sheet Materials 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Vacuum forming Rubber forming Superplastic forming Embossing Shearing Bending 13 13 14 24 30 55 60 62 63 65 65 65 68 68 72 72 73 73 79 vi Contents 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Drawing Practical applications Press load curves Hydraulic presses Other press types Roll bending Pipe bending Spinning Roll forming Machining 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction Turning Moving tool machining Kinematics of Machine Tools 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Introduction Geometric form of engineering components Kinematics in machine tools Kinematics and machining geometric forms Classification of generating systems Mechanics of Machine Tools 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 Basic features of a machine tool Forces in a machine tool Structural elements Slides and slideways Vibration and chatter Machine-tool alignments Straight-line motion Machine tool spindles Rolling beatings Control of Machine Tools The need for automatic control 7.1 Mechanical control 7.2 Single spindle bar automatic lathe (SS Auto) 7.3 Multi-tooling 7.4 Economics of automatic lathes 7.5 Advantages of numerical control 7.6 Analysis of the functions of a CNC machine tool 7.7 Inputs to the machine control unit 7.8 Program preparation 7.9 7.10 Classification of CNC machine types 83 92 92 95 96 96 96 97 98 103 103 103 113 128 128 128 129 133 136 143 143 143 145 149 157 161 170 173 178 185 185 185 187 188 190 190 191 193 194 196 Contents 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 Interpolation for contour generation Displacement of machine tool slides Manual programming CAD/CAM links Machine tool probing systems Introduction to Cutting 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Introduction Chip formation Machinability Tool wear Mechanics of Cutting 9.1 Units and measurement 9.2 Cuttingforce analysis 9.3 Merchant'sanalysis of metal cutting 9.4 Merchant'sanalysis, work done in cutting 10 Cutting Tool Technology I0.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Introduction Variables affecting metal-removal rate Economic cutting speed Cutting tool materials Cutting fluids Other variables influencing the economics of cutting 11 Turning and Milling 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Introduction Selection of turning tools The selection process Milling Peripheral milling- geometry of chip formation Cutting forces and power Character of the milled surface 12 Abrasion 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Introduction Sanding and finishing Grinding Creep feed grinding Honing Lapping Ultrasonic machining vii 198 199 209 217 219 227 227 230 237 241 246 246 246 255 261 267 267 267 274 279 300 311 316 316 322 324 338 352 361 370 372 372 372 372 395 396 396 396 viii Contents 12.8 12.9 Barrel finishing (tumbling) Grit (sand) blasting 13 Principles of Machining- Non-Traditional Methods 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Introduction to non-traditional machining Electro-discharge machining (EDM) Laser beam machining (LB M) Ultrasonic machining (USM) Water jet cutting 14 Screw Threads Specification, Tolerancing, Gauging and Measurement 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Introduction Nomenclature and specification Tolerance for ISO metric threads Screw-thread gauging Measurement of the effective diameter 15 Precision Measurement 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 Introduction Length standards Some sources of error in linear measurement Angular measurement Measurement of small linear displacements Measurement of small angular displacements Indirect measurement Straightness testing Roundness Measurement of surface texture Practical metrology 16 Standards of Limits and Fits 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 Specification and drawing Interchangeable manufacture Dimensioning Tolerances Economic aspects of tolerancing Limit gauging Gauging of tapers Gauge making materials Component tolerancing and gauge design Alternatives to limit gauging Multi-gauging based on comparators 396 397 399 399 400 417 422 426 430 430 435 438 442 447 454 454 454 461 463 466 473 475 479 481 484 496 499 499 499 500 503 509 512 518 523 525 529 53O Contents 16.12 16.13 In-process measurement Co-ordinate measuring machines 17 Control of Quality 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.10 Variability in manufacturing processes Statistical concepts and variability Normal curve of distribution Causes of variation Relationship between bulk and sample parameters Control chart for sample average Control to a specification Control chart for attributes Sampling of incoming goods Tolerance 'build-up' in assemblies 18 Part Handling and Location 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 Introduction Presentation Reorientation of parts Transfer Location Clamping Foolproofing Service features 19 Assembly Technology 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10 Introduction Automatic assembly Factors to consider for automation Feasibility study Quality Feeding and assembly Machine layout Economic assessment Automatic assembly techniques Servicing the assembly line 20 Set-up Time Reduction 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 Introduction The power press The lathe Advanced machining facilities Tool changing Tool code tagging ix 531 532 538 538 539 542 545 546 547 550 555 557 565 573 573 573 578 578 579 584 585 585 587 587 588 589 590 590 591 591 591 592 597 598 598 601 603 604 604 608 Answers to Exercises 625 Exercises- 12 Traverse rate > 2.3 m / r a i n 0.000 05 mm, u s i n g Guest's method 10 v~t~ = v2t2 to m a i n t a i n metal removal rate but ~ t j > ~2t2 to lower force/grit; v2 = 10 m/rain, t = 0.06 m m are possible values Exercises- 13 (b) 2500 W Exercises- 14 0.3665 mm 0.4243 mm Exercises- 15 11 O 1133 mm at 330 ~ +0.02 mm; - m m h = 0.0012 m m h = 9.788 mm; error o f l = +0.028 m m 102.408 mm; +0.089 m m (b) 47o18 ' 1.8 mm diameter 0.04 mm; x 50 000 Exercises- 16 99.820/99.733 m m diameter T P centre line o f slot from new datum 35.684 m m new posn tol for slot +0.04 at M M C (alternatives possible) 20~ 0.0908 m m 0.037 mm E x e r c i s e s - 17 10 11 14 ( i ) mm; (ii) o = 0 ; (iii) m e d i u m precision Method 4: ~' = 2.34/z, a = / z s = 84.599 mm: x = 0.011 mm: T > cr high precision (i) RPI = 2.84; (ii) mean, 55 m m + / + ; range, 0.389/0.319 m m Producer's risk, 0.02; c o n s u m e r ' s risk, 0.42 0.983, 0.785, 0.446, 0.067 (a) 0.662 (b) 290 626 Answers t o Exercises 16 (a) p~=0.423 0.4271 Pr =0.185 0.5729 (b) pa = 0.809 0.8364 p~ =0.019 0.1636 p~ = 0.238 0.3386 Pr =0.311 0.7614 17 Hole, 25.028/25.000 mm diameter; shaft 24.9985/24.9815 mm diameter Index Abbot curves, 495 Abrasion, 228,372-398 barrel finishing (tumbling), 396-397 creep feed grinding, 395-396 grit (sand) blasting, 397-398 honing, 396 lapping, 396 sanding/finishing, 372 ultrasonic machining, 396 wear, 243 Abrasive grits, in USM, 426 Abrasive materials, 374 Accuracy s e e Precision measurement Acoustic elements, in USM, 423-424 Adhesion, 228 wear, 244-245 Aerostatic slide, 156 Air-powered track, 578 Alignment s e e Machine tool alignments Alignment laser, 166-176 Alloys, and machinability, 237-240 Aluminium oxide, 374 Aluminium oxide-based ceramics, 291-292 Amortisation, Angle of inclination, 334 Angular displacements, 473-475 Angular measurement, 463-466 Annealing, 13 Arbor torque smoothness, 369-370 Argon ion lasers, 419 Arithmetical mean, 540 deviatiOn, 485-486, 490 Assembly economics, 591 Assembly operations, 615 Assembly technology, 587-597 automatic, 588-589 for automation, 589-590 economics of, 591-596 feasibility studies, 590 feeding, 590 machine layout, 591 quality, 590 servicing, 597 Assignable causes of variation, 545 Attributes, 555-556 Attribution wear s e e Adhesion wear Autocollimator, 473-474 Autofeed screwdriver, 580 Automatic assembly, 588-590 techniques in, 592-596 Automatic control, 185 Automatic lathes, 107-113, 190 Automation, 589-590 Axes, and location, 581-584 Axial float, testing for, 164 Ball nose cutter, 340-341 Bandsaw, 116 Bar bending, 80-83 Barrel finishing, 396-397 Batch production, 4-5 Bearing parameters, 492-495 Bearings, 178-180 Bending, 79-83 moment, 81 pipes, 96 Best-size cylinders, 450-451 Bevel gears, 523 Billet to rod reduction, 61-62 Blanking, 73-74, 76-77 finished, 78 tool, 73-74 Block tooling systems, 603-604 628 Index Blow moulding, 63-65 Bond strength, of grits, 375 Boron nitride see Cubic boron nitride Bosses, 28-29 Bottle mould, 64-65 Bottom board, 16-17 Bowl feeder, 574-575 Box ribbing, 145-146 'Bridgeport' head, 121-122 Broaching, 116 operations, 115 BS 888,460 BS 969, 516 BS 3635, 133 symbolic notation of, 134-136 BS 3643, 435-437 BS 3800, 162 BS 4311,460 BS 4656, 162 Budgetary control, Built-up edges, 228-230 Bulk parameters, 546-547 CAD/CAM links, 217-219 Calendering, 60 Caliper gauges, 517 Cam-operated presses, 96 Canned cycles, 212-213 Carbon dioxide lasers, 420 Carbon dioxide moulds, 15 Carbon steel drills, 125 Casting, 14-24 see also specific f o r m s of see also spec(/ic f o r m s o f Moulding Casting techniques, 16-18 Cast non-ferrous alloys, 282 Cemented carbide, 282 see also under Cermets Centrifugal casting, 21 Centrifugal forces, in grinding, 394 Ceramic moulds, 21-23 Ceramics, 14,290-294 Cermet finishing insert, 289 Cermet milling, of die steel, 288 Cermet milling insert, 287 Cermets, 286- 290 Chatter, 157,160 patterns, 394 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) technique, 285- 286 Chilled cast iron, 293 Chip breaking, 232-237 Chip dimension, in turning, 320-321 Chip formation, 227-237 see also Merchant's analysis aspects Chip-length determination, 256 Chip length, undefonned, 353-356 Chip thickness in milling, 357-361 recommended values, 358 Chip-tool contact zone, 228-230 Circular arcs, 198-199 Circular interpolation, 198 Clamping, 584-585 Class first-order generation, 137-138 Class second-order generation, 137 Class first-order generation, 137 Class second-order generation, 138 Clearance angle, 334 Clearance, and blanking, 74, 76 Climb milling see Down-cut milling CNC continuous wire, electro-discharge machining, 403-404 CNC lathes, 111-112, 146-148 CNC machine classification, 196-198 CNC machine tool functions, 191 - 193 CNC machinery, 600-601 Coated cemented carbides, 282-286 Coil-fed lathes, 11 Coining, 53 Cold chamber die casting, 20-21 Cold forging economics of, 51 of steel, 49-51 Cold impact extrusion, 53-55 Cold plastic deformation, 60-62 Cold working, 39-55 Combination machines, 120-122 Comparators, 466-473 electrical, 470 mechanical, 466-468 multi-gauging, 530-531 optical, 462 pneumatic, 467-470 Compression moulding, 24-25 Computer control, machining, 122-123 see also raider CNC aspects alzd also specific computer p r o g r a m s Computer-controlled coordinate machine, 532-535 Computer numerical control lathe see CNC lathes Computer programs see specific ~.,pes of Computerised turning tool selection, 3 Concentricity, 16 Index Cone, 128 Continuous blow moulding, 64-65 Continuous extrusion, 55-60 Continuous long chipping, 229 Continuous production, Contour generation, interpolation, 198 Contouring control, CNC machines, 197-198 Conventional milling s e e Up-cut milling Conveying, 578 Coordinate measuring machines, 532-535 Copy milling, 340 Coring, 17-18 Coronite, 294-296 Cosine error, 461-462 Cost estimates, 7-9 Crank presses, 74-75 Crankshaft, 93-95 Crater wear, 245 Creep feed grinding, 395-396 Crossed strip hinge, 466-467 Crossover cam rotary indexing, 594 Crush dressing, 382 Crystalline structure, 40-42 Cubic boron nitride (CBN), 296-298 Cut depth feed rate, 236-237 in milling, 356-357 Cut-off saw, 116-117 Cutter compensation, 213-214 Cutter position, 160-161 Cutter wear, 356-357 Cutting, 227-245 chip formation, 227-237 machinability, 237-240 tool wear, 241-245 Cutting data, 270-271,334-337 Cutting depth in milling, 348-349 in turning, 318-319 Cutting equations, 252-253 Cutting fluids, 300-311 choice of, 303-304 and the environment, 307-308 functions of, 302-303 maintenance of, 308- 310 re-use of, 310-311 storage of, 308-310 types of, 304-307 waste disposal of, 308- 310 Cutting force analysis, 246-254 Cutting force components, 250-251 Cutting force, in grinding, 386-387 Cutting forces, 361-365 Cutting measurement units, 246-247 Cutting, mechanics of, 246-266 cutting force analysis, 246-254 Merchant's analysis, 255-261 units in, 246 Cutting operations, in milling, 339-341 Cutting power, 361-365 Cutting pressure s e e specific cutting pressure Cutting speed, 267-271 economics of, 274-279 Cutting tool materials, 279-300 Cutting tools, 118-119 Cutting tool technology, 267-315 economics, and speed, 274-279 fluids for, 300-311 materials, 279- 300 metal-removal rate, 267-274 Cutting-tool wear, 241-245 Cutting, work done in, 365-367 Cylinders, 128 Cylinder slideways, 150-151 Cylindrical grinding, 389-393 Cylindrical roller bearings, 179-180 Deep drawing, - Deflection, 149 Departmental overheads, 8-9 Diagonal ribbing, 145-146 Diamond, 298-300 and grinding wheels, 381-382 Die casting, 19-21 Dielectric fluids, 412 Dies, 430 Diffusion, 228 wear, 243-244 Dimensional tolerances, 507-508 Dimensioning, 500-503 Disposable patterns, 15 Distributed numerical control, 194 Double action presses, 84-85 Double sampling, 560-561 Dovetail slideways, 150-151 Down-cut milling, 350-352 Downtime minimisation, 601 Drape forming, 68, 71 Drawing, 62-63, 83-91 ratios, 87-89 re-drawing, - 90 Dressing, grinding wheels, 381-383 Drill cycle diagrams, 212-213 Drilling, 123-127 soft materials, 125 629 630 Index Drill nomenclature, 124 Drive systems, 199-200 Drop forging, 43 Dry-sand moulds, 15 Ductile materials, tensile tests of, 31-33 Dynamic loading, 129 Edge damping system, in turning, 324 EDM see Electro-discharge machining Effective diameter, screwthreads, 447-451 Effective rake angle, 336 Electrical comparators, 470 Electrodes, EDM and, 409-412 wear, and polarity, 411 Electro-discharge machining (EDM), 400-416 operation data, 416 types of, 402 Embossing, 73 Emulsions, 305-306 Enclosure, of machinery, 10 Endmilling, 338-339,342-344 Entering angle, 319-320 Environment, and cutting fluids, 307-308 Error, in measurement, 461-463 Escapement devices, 580 Ethylene glycol, 412 External cylindrical grinding, 387-389 Extreme pressure oils, 300 Extruded part design, 58-60 Extrusion coating, 60 continuous, 55-60 machining, 58-59 ram forces in, 56-58 speeds, 49 of thin sheets/films, 59-60 Face milling, 341-342,345 Fatigue wear, 244 Fatty oil lubrication, 301 Feasibility studies, 590 Feedback systems, 199-200 Feeding, in assembly, 591 Feed per tooth unit, 348 Feed rate, 356 and cut depth, 236-237 in turning, 318 Filament winding, 67 File transfers, 218 Film extrusion, 59-60 Finish blanking technique, 78 Finishing, 144, 372 First-order generation, 136-137 Flank wear, 245,268-270 Flat slideways, 150-151,154 Flaws, 489 Flow production, - Flow zone, 228-229 Flushing technique, 413-415 injection, 413-415 side, 413,415 suction, 413, 415 'Fly cutting', 113, 115 Foolproofing, 585 Force monitor, 224-225 Forces, in machine tools, 143-144 Forging, 30- 55 coining, 53 cold, of steel, 49 drop, 43 hammer, 42 bobbing, 53- 54 impact extrusion, 53-55 press, 44 rotary, 43 upset, 51-52 see also specific forms of Forming drape, 68, 71 rubber, 72 superplastic, 72-73 vacuum, 68-70 Forward extrusion, 56-57 Fraction defective, 555-556 Frame support, 146, 149 Free cutting angle, 321 Free machining properties, 239-240 Friction, 302-303 rolling, 180-181 Gas lasers, 419 Gauge designs, 525 standard, 516 types of, 525-529 Gauge tolerances, 516 Gauging limit, 512- 518 making materials, 523-525 method, 445-447 of tapers, 518- 523 and work specification, 514-515 General tolerances, 507-508 Generating systems, classification of, 136-142 Geneva indexing mechanism, 186 Geneva rotary indexing, 594 Index Geometric form, 128-129 Go gauge see under Not-go gauges Graphical programming, 215-217 Gravity die casting, 21 - 22 Green sand moulds, 15 Grinding, 372-373 chips, 373-374 and cutting force, 386-397 economics of, 395 heating effects in, 380-381 power, 376-380 and surface finish, 393-395 wheels, 374- 383 Grip fit, 508 Grisbrook dynamometer, 379-380 Grit, 397 porosity, 376 size, 374-375 Grits, 372-376 in USM, 426 Group technology, Guest's theory, 387-389 Hammer forging, 42 Handling, 573-586 clamping, 584-585 foolproofing, 585 location, 579-584 parts' reorientstion, 578 service features, 585-586 transfer, 578 Hardened steel, 293 Hardening, 13 Hard lay-up, 66-67 Hardness, 237-239 of water, 306 Heading, 51-53 Heat-resistant alloys, 293 Hedge trimmers, 1-2, 588,597 Helium neon lasers, 419 Helix, 128 High-pressure/temperature chipping, 229 High-speed steel, 280-281 Hobbing, 53-54 Holding forces, taper fits, 175-177 Honing, 396 Hopper feeds, 577 devices, 576 Horizontal spindle machine, 118, 120 Hot chamber die casting, 20 Hot hardness, 279, 281 Hot plastic deformation, 60-62 Hot working, 39-55 631 Hydraulic forming, 65 Hydraulic presses, 95 Hydrocarbon dielectric fluids, 412- 413 Impact extrusion, 53-55 In bowl orientation, 575,577 Inch unit conversion, 501 Indirect extrusion, 56 Indirect measurements, 475-479 Inductosyn, 203 Inherent process variation, 545 Injection flushing, 413-414 Injection moulding, 25-30 In line transfer, 592, 594, 595 In-process measurement, 531-532 Insert clamping method, 322-323 Insert shape, in turning, 325 Inserts, and chip breaking, 234-237 Insert size, in turning, 326 Insert type, in turning, 328 Interchangeable manufacture, 499-500 Interference fit, 508 Interferometry, 456-460 Internal cylindrical grinding, 389-390 International Graphic Exchange Standard (IGES), 219 International Prototype Metre, 454-455 International standard metre, 455 Interpolation, 198 Investment, casting, 23-24 boning, 90-91 ISO classification, in turning, 329-331 ISO metric threads, 438-439 ISO operations, in turning, 331-333 Isopulse electrode, 410 JIT ('just-in-time') manufacturing, 598-600 Job production, Jobbing production, Kinematic slide, 132 Lamellar chipping, 229 Lapping, 396 Laser beam machining (LBM), 417-422 Laser interferometry, 458-460 Lasers, industrial applications, 422 see also specij~c types o f Lathe turning, 103-104 Lathes, 105-113,603-604 see also specific types of Lattice structures, 40 LBM see Laser beam machining 632 Index Length standards, 454-461 Level method, in straightness testing, 479-481 Lever presses, 96 Light chip formation, 232 Limit gauging, 512-518 alternatives to, 529-530 Linear displacements, 466-473 Linear expansion coefficients, 456-457 Linear gratings, 206 Linear interpolation, 198 Linear measurement error, 461-463 Linear motion control, CNC machines, 196-197 Linear movement, 130 Line standard, 454-455 Load-extension diagrams, 31-38 Load-penetration curves, 74, 76 Location, 579-584 see also under Handling Lock lathe, 111 Low penetration curves, 74, 76 Low-pressure casting, 20-22 Lubrication see Cutting fluids Machinability, 237-240 ratings, 240 Machine control unit inputs, 193-194 Machine layout, 591 Machine-tool alignments, 161 - 170 Machine tool probing systems, 219-226 Machine tool slide displacement, 199-200 Machine tool spindles, 173-174 Machine tools, control of, 185-226 automatic, 185 automatic lathe economics, 190 CAD/CAM links, 217-219 CNC machine classification, 196-198 CNC machine tools, 191 - 193 displacement of machine tool slides, 199-208 inputs to machine control unit, 193-194 interpolation for contour generation, 198 manual programming, 209-216 mechanical, 185-187 multi-tooling, 188-189 probing systems, 219 program preparation, 194-196 single spindle bar automatic lathe (SS Auto), 187-188 Machine tools, kinematics of, 128-142 classification of generating systems, 136-142 geometric forms, 128-129 Machine tools, mechanics of, 143-184 basic features of, 143 forces, 143-144 machine-tool alignments, 161 - 170 machine-tool spindles, 173-178 rolling bearings, 178-184 slides/slideways, 149-157 straight-line motion, 170-172 structural elements, 145 - 149 Machinery centre, 124 Machining, 103-127 moving tool machining, 113-127 turning, 103-112 types of, 400 Machining centres, 123, 613-614 Machining, non-traditional methods, 399-429 electro-discharge machining (EDM), 400-416 laser beam machining (LBM), 417-422 ultrasonic machining (USM), 396, 422-426 water jet cutting, 426-429 Macro programming, 215-216 Manual programming, 209-212 Manufacturing, - 12 economics of, - safety, 9-12 types of production, - Mass production, Maximum metal condition (MMC), 515 Mean size, 540 Measurement adjustment, 508-509 Measurements see Precision measurement Mechanical comparators, 466-467 see also other f o r m s o f Mechanical control, 185-187 Mechanical lay-up, 66 Mechanical working, 40-42 Merchant's analysis of metal cutting, 255- 261 for work done in cutting, 261-263 Merchant's circle, 259-260 Merchant's constant (C), 264 Metal cutting see Cutting Metal-removal rate, in cutting technology, 267-268 Metals, 13 extrusion of, 5 - spinning, - Metre, definition of, 454-455 Index Metrology, 496, 500-503 Microscopes, 471-472 Milled surfaces, characteristics of, 370-371 Milling, 118, 337-371 cutting geometry, 339 down-cut, 350-352 end, 338-339,342-344 face, 341 - 342, 345 power constant (K), 368-369 peripheral, 342, 352-353 terminology in, 346-350 up-cut, 350- 352 see aLw Turning Mineral oil lubrication, 300 see also Cutting fluids Mixed aluminium oxide-based ceramics, 292 Modular tooling, 604-608 Moirr-fringe pattern, 206-207 Moulding, 24-30 blow, 63-65 compression, 24-25 injection, 25-30 reinforced materials, 65 rotational, 65 see also specific forms o f Movement, 130-133 Moving tool machining, 113-127 Multi-gauging, and comparators, 530-531 Multiple start threads, 432-433 Multi-spindle automatic lathes, 110, 188-189 Multi-tooling, 188-189 Narrow guide principle, 153 National Physical Laboratory (NPL), screw threads and, 447-448 Natural non-metallic materials, 14 Neat cutting oils, 304 Neat mineral oil, 300 Needle roller bearings, 179-180 Nibbling, 79 Normal curve, 542-545 Nose radius, 214, 232 in turning, 326-327 Notation, and maching tooling, 134-136 Not-go gauges, 443-444, 512-514 Numerical control, 190-191 see also under CNC aspects Numerical tolerances, 507-508 Oblique cutting, 335 metals, 231 Oil emulsions, 305 Operating characteristics, 559 633 Optical comparators, 467-468 Optical gratings, 206-207 Optical magnification, 471-473 Optical projection, 472-473 Orientation, simplification of, 585-586 Orthogonal cutting, 334-335 Orthogonal metal cutting, 231 Overarm saw, 116-117 Overbending, 82-83 by ironing, 83 Overheads, in manufacture, - Oxidation, 243-244 Packaging, Pantographs, for wheel trueing, 381-384 Parallelism, measurement, 166-170 Parallax error, 462 Parts handling see Handling Pass-through thread grinding, 434 Patterns, for moulding see under specific f o r m s o f Casting a n d Moulding Peak drilling Cycle, 213 Perfectly plastic materials, 35-39 Peripheral milling, 346, 352-361 Perpendicularity, 164 Physical vapour deposition, 286-287 Pick and place transfer, 581 Pipe bending, 96 Placement, 578 Plane, 128 Plug-assist vacuum forming, 68, 70 Plastic, 14 deformation, 60-62 moulds, 21-23 Plastics, extrusion of, 58 Play fit, 508 Plug-assist vacuum forming, 68, 70 Plug gauges, 517 Plunge-cut thread grinding, 434 Pneumatic comparators, 467-468 Pneumatic rotary indexing, 594 Poisson distribution, 558-559, 562-563 Pollution, and cutting fluids, 307-310 Polycrystalline diamond (PCD), 298-300 Porosity, of grits, 376 Positional control, CNC machines, 196 Power presses, 601-603 Precision measurement, 454-498 angular displacements, 473-475 angular measurement, 463-466 indirect measurement, 475-479 linear displacements, 466-473 634 Index Precision measurement (continued) linear measurement, error, 461-463 measurements (angular), 463-466 measurements (indirect), 475-479 measurements (linear), 461-463 metrology, practical, 496-498 roundness, 481-484 straightness testing, 479-481 surface texture, 484-490 Preferred numbers, 501-502 Pressed casting, 21 Presses see specific names o f Press forging, 44-49 Press load curves, - Pressure die casting, 20 Primary forming processes, 13-68, 71 blow moulding, 63-65 casting, 14-24 continuous extrusion, 55-60 drawing, 62-63 forging, 30-55 hydraulic forming, 65 moulding, 24-30 moulding (blow), 63-65 moulding (rotational), 65 reinforced material moulding, 65-67 Probe type instruments, 485 Probing, 609-610 systems, 219-226 Process capability index, 552-553 Production drawings, 499 Production types, - batch, continuous, flow, job, jobbing, mass, Profile gauging, 517-518 Profile height parameter, 490-492 Programs for CNC machine tools, 194-195 structures, 215 subroutines, 214- 215 see also specific ~.,pes of see also CNC aspects Proprietary parts, Pugh and Watkins equation, 45-46 PUMA robot, 579 Purchased components, Pure oxide-based ceramics, 292 Quality, 590 Quality control, 538-572,590 attributes, 555-556 bulk and sample parameters, 546-547 normal curve of distribution, 542-545 sample average, 547-550 sampling, 557-564 statistical concepts in, 539-542 tolerance 'build-up', 565-572 variability and, 538,545 Rake angles, 334-337 Range, 541 control chart for, 548-550 Ram forces, 56-58 Rapid response manufacturing, 615 -616 Raw materials, Reamer nomenclature, 126 Reaming, 125-126 Rectangular transfer, 593 Recycling, of cutter fluids, 310-311 Redrawing, 89- 90 reverse, 89-90 Reference surfaces, 504 Reinforced ceramics, 292 Reinforced material moulding, 65-67 Relaxation circuit, in EDM, 405-407 Releasing forces, taper fits, 175-177 Removable patterns, 15 Reorientation, of parts, 578 Resonance curves, 158-159 Reverse redrawing, 89-90 Risers, and vents, 17-18 Robots, 578,596 Roll bending, 96 bearings, 178 - 184 friction, 180-181 slideways, 152 Rollering, 60-62 Roll-forming, 98-102 Rotary encoder, 203-205 Rotary indexing, 594 Rotary transfer, 592 Rotary swaging, 43 Rotation, 133, 139 Rotational moulding, 65 Rotational movement, 130 Rotomatic lathe, 111 Roughing, 144 Roughness, 489-490 standards, 484 Roundness, 481-484 Rubber forming, 72 Rubber moulds, 24 Index Safe working practices, 11-12 Safety, 9-12 equipment, 10-11 Sample average, 547-550 Sample parameters, 546-547 Sampling, 557-561 double, 560 economics, 560 sequential, 564 Sand blasting s e e Grit blasting Sand castings, 15 Sanding, 372 Saucer wheel, 391-392 Sawing, 113-118 Saw teeth, 116, 118 Schlesinger's formula, 360-361,366 Screwcutting, 430-433 9Screw machine, 187-188 Screw threads specification, 430-453 caliper gauge, 444-445 diameters, 447-450 effective diameter, 447-453 gauging, 442-447 geometry, 432,437 measuring machine, 447-448 nomenclature for, 435-438 tolerances, for ISO metric, 438-442 Seaming, 98 Second-order generation, 137-139 Sedimentation, 309-310 Segmental chipping, 229 Self-holding tapers, 175-178 Self-release tapers, 175-178 Self-sharpening, in grinding, 383-384 Semisynthetic cutting fluids, 306-307 Sensing devices, 224 Sensors, 223-225 Separation, 578 Sequential sampling, 564 Servicing assembly lines, 586-597 Set-up time reduction, 598-626 advanced machining facilities, 604 assembly operations, 615 lathes, 603-604 machining centres, 613-614 power presses, 601-603 probing, 609-610 rapid response manufacturing, 615-616 tool codetagging, 608-609 tool changing, 604-608 turning centres, 610-613 Shear, 77-78 Shearing, 73-77, 103 635 Sheet extrusion, 59-60 Sheet materials, working of, 68-102 bending, 79-83 drawing, 83-91 embossing, 73 hydraulic presses, 95 pipe bending, 96 practical applications and, 92 press load curves, 92-95 roll forming, 98-102 rolling, 96 rubber forming, 72-73 shearing, 73-79 spinning, 97 superplastic forming, 72-73 vacuum forming, 68-72 Shell moulding, 18-19 Short chipping, 229 Shoulder grinding, 391-393 Side milling cutter, 347 Side flushing, 413,415 Side rake angle, 335 Sighting method, of profile gauging, 517-518 Sigma comparator, 467 Silicon carbide, 374 Silicon nitride-based ceramics, 291-293 Sine bar, 478-479 Sine error, 461-462 Single point cutting, 113 Single-row angular contact bearings, 179-180 Single-row radial bearings, 179-180 Single-row thrust bearings, 179-180 Single spindle automatic lathe, 108-109 Single spindle bar automatic lathe (SS Auto), 187-188 Single spindle chucking autos, 187-188 Sintering, 285-286 Size ranges, 501 Skin dried moulds, 15 Slab mill, 122 Slides, 149-150 Slideways 149-150 for program controlled machines, 156 Sliding head automatic lathe, 109 Slip gauges, 460-461 Slot drill, 340 Slot milling motion, 340 Slot tolerancing, 509-510 Slotting cutter, 346 Slush casting, 21 Soft low force chipping, 229 Solid-state lasers, 420 636 Index Sound Ultrasonic machining (USM) Spacing parameters, 492-495 Spark-generating circuits, in EDM, 404-405 Special grade HSS, 282 Specification, 499 control to, 550- 55 l Specific cutting pressure, 247-251 Sphere, 128 Spindle axis, alignment, 163 Spindle noses, 174-175 Spindle systems, 172 Spindles, tests, 163 Spinning, 97 hand, 97 shear, 97 Spirit levels, 474-475 Spray-up process, 67 Spring-back, 82-83 in sheet metal bends, 83 Sprue pins, 16-17 SS Auto s e e Single spindle bar automatic lathe Stack dispensing, 577 Stagnation zone, 234 Standard deviation, 541-542 Static loading, 129 Statistics, 539-545 Steel cold forging of, 49-51 high speed, 280-281 for gauging making, 524-525 and machinability, 237-240 Stepping-motor drive system, 200-202 Sticking, 228 Stick-slip, 157 Straight line motion, 171 - 172 Straightness testing, 479-481 Strains, 262-263 Stress, in deep drawing, 84-87 Stress-strain curves, 33-35 'Strike-rod', 16-17 Subroutines, 214-215 Sub-contracted parts, Suction flushing, 413-415 Superplastic forming, 72-73 Surface finish graphs, 485-486 Surface grinding, 390-395 Surface lay, 489 Surface stn~cture, in EDM, 415-416 Surface texture, 484-490 specification, 495-496 Swaging, 43 Swept moulds, 16 see Synchro-resolver, 202-203 Synthetic cutting fluids, 305-307 Synthetic materials, 14 System tolerances, 508 Talyvel, 474 Taper angle, 520-523 Tapered polygon, 605 Taper fit forces, 175-177 Taper roller bearings, 179-180 Tapers, 174-178 gauging of, 518-523 Taps, 430 Taylor-Hobson "I'alysurf, 486 Taylor's formula, 267,270, 277, 311 Taylor's principles of gauging, 442, 512-513 Temperature, - 33 control, 455-456 and cutting fluids, 302-303 extrusion, 58 and oxidation, 243-244 Temperatures, in grinding, 380-381 Textile materials, 14 Thermoforming s e e Vacuum forming Thermoplastic materials, 14 Thermosetting plastics, 14 Thread chasing, 430-433 Thread grinding, 434 Thread milling, 433-434 Thread rolling, 434-435 Threads s e e u n d e r Screw threads specification Tilsley and Howard equation, 45 Time, 7-9 Titanium s e e u n d e r Cutting tool technology Toggle presses, 96 Tolerance 'build-up', 565-568 Tolerance fields, 506-507 Tolerancing, 503-512 economics, 509-510, 512 Tool changing, 604-608 Tool code tagging, 608-609 Tool electrode, in EDM, 409-412 Toolholder, in turning, 324-325 Tool inclination, 334-337 Tool length measurement, 207-209 Tool life predictability, 268,273 Tool material, in turning, 328 Tool monitoring, 223-227 Tool wear, 241-245 ratios, in USM, 425 Index Torque, and self-holding tapers, 177-178 Transfer, of components, 578-579 Transfer systems, 591-595 Transistorised pulse generator circuit, in EDM, 407-409, 411 Transition fit, 508 Translation, 133, 139 'Trepanning', 113 True stress-strain curves s e e Stress-strain curves Tumbling s e e Barrel finishing Tungsten carbide, 125 Turning, 103-112, 316-337 centres, 610 tools, selection of, 322-337 s e e a l s o Milling Turret lathe, 106, 108 Turret presses, 79 Twin spindle CNC lathe, 112 Twist drill, 123 Ultrasonic machining (USM), 396, 422-426 Undeformed chip length, 353-356 Up-cut milling, 350-352 Upset forging, 51- 53 USM s e e Ultrasonic machining Vacuum forming, 68-72 Variability, 538-545 Variance, 541-542 Varying, high force chipping, 229 637 VDUs (visual display units), 194 Vee slideways, 150-151,154 forces on, 155 Velocities, 262,263 Velocity and cutting force, 251-252 transformers, 424 Vents, 17-18 Vernier acuity, 462-463 Vertical automatic lathe, I11 Vertical borer, 106, 108 Vertical lathe, 106 107 Verticle spindle machines, 120-122 Vibration, 157 Voids, 376 Walking beam transfer, 594-595 Water-based cutting fluids, 308 Water hardness, 306 Water jet cutting, 426-428 Water-soluble cutting oils, 304-306 Waviness, 489 Wear of tools, 241-245 zones, 242 Wedge angle, 334 Wire drawing, - Wood, 14 Work done in compressing, - in cutting, 365-367 and Merchant's analysis, 261-263 Work specification, and gauging, 514-515 This Page Intentionally Left Blank Printed in the United Kingdom by Lightning Source UK Ltd 118416UK00001 B/23-24 !!11 ilUJ]!!!ll!3!!