M o r an | Sh ap ir o | Boet t ner | Bai l e y Principles of Engineering Thermodynamics Eighth Edition EXCLUSIVE CONTENT SI Ver s i o n How to Use This Book Effectively This book is organized by chapters and sections within chapters For a listing of contents, see pp xi–xviii Fundamental concepts and associated equations within each section lay the foundation for applications of engineering thermodynamics provided in solved examples, end-of-chapter problems and exercises, and accompanying discussions Boxed material within sections of the book allows you to explore selected topics in greater depth, as in the boxed discussion of properties and nonproperties on p Contemporary issues related to thermodynamics are introduced throughout the text with three unique features: ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT discussions explore issues related to energy resource use and the environment, as in the discussion of hybrid vehicles on p 32 BIOCONNECTIONS discussions tie topics to applications in bioengineering and biomedicine, as in the discussion of control volumes of living things and their organs on p Horizons link subject matter to emerging technologies and thought-provoking issues, as in the discussion of nanotechnology on p 13 Other core features of this book that facilitate your study and contribute to your understanding include: Examples c Numerous annotated solved examples are provided that feature the solution methodology presented in Sec 1.9 and illustrated in Example 1.1 We encourage you to study these examples, including the accompanying comments c Each solved example concludes with a list of the Skills Developed in solving the example and a QuickQuiz that allows an immediate check of understanding c Less formal examples are given throughout the text They open with c FOR EXAMPLE and close with b b b b b These examples also should be studied Exercises c Each chapter has a set of discussion questions under the heading c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT that may be done on an individual or small-group basis They allow you to gain a deeper understanding of the text material, think critically, and test yourself c A large number of end-of-chapter problems also are provided under the heading c PROBLEMS: DEVELOPING ENGINEERING SKILLS The problems are sequenced to coordinate with the subject matter and are listed in increasing order of difficulty The problems are also classified under headings to expedite the process of selecting review problems to solve Answers to selected problems are provided on the student companion website that accompanies this book c Because one purpose of this book is to help you prepare to use thermodynamics in engineering practice, design considerations related to thermodynamics are included Every chapter has a set of problems under the heading c DESIGN & OPEN ENDED PROBLEMS: EXPLORING ENGINEERING PRACTICE that provide opportunities for practicing creativity, formulating and solving design and open-ended problems, using the Internet and library resources to find relevant information, making engineering judgments, and developing communications skills See, for example, problem 1.10D on p 29 Further Study Aids c Each chapter opens with an introduction giving the engineering context, stating the chapter objective, and listing the learning outcomes c Each chapter concludes with a c CHAPTER SUMMARY AND STUDY GUIDE that provides a point of departure to study for examinations c For easy reference, each chapter also concludes with lists of c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS and c KEY EQUATIONS c Important terms are listed in the margins and coordinated with the text material at those locations c Important equations are set off by a color screen, as for Eq 1.8 c TAKE NOTE in the margin provides just-in-time information that illuminates the current discussion, as on p 6, or refines our problem-solving methodology, as on p 10 and p 20 c A in the margin identifies an animation that reinforces the text presentation at that point Animations can be viewed by going to the student companion website for this book See TAKE NOTE on p for further detail about accessing animations c in the margin denotes end-of-chapter problems where the use of appropriate computer software is recommended c For quick reference, conversion factors and important constants are provided on the next page c A list of symbols is provided on the inside back cover Conversion Factors Mass and Density Pressure 1 1 1 Pa kg g/cm3 g/cm3 lb lb/ft3 lb/ft3 5 5 5 2.2046 lb 103 kg/m3 62.428 lb/ft3 0.4536 kg 0.016018 g/cm3 16.018 kg/m3 1 1 5 5 5 bar atm lbf/in.2 lbf/in.2 atm N/m2 1.4504 1024 lbf/in.2 105 N/m2 1.01325 bar 6894.8 Pa 144 lbf/ft2 14.696 lbf/in.2 Length Energy and Specific Energy 1 1 1 1 1 1 cm m in ft 5 5 0.3937 in 3.2808 ft 2.54 cm 0.3048 m Velocity km/h 0.62137 mile/h mile/h 1.6093 km/h Volume 1 1 1 1 cm3 m3 L L in.3 ft3 gal gal 5 5 5 5 0.061024 in.3 35.315 ft3 1023 m3 0.0353 ft3 16.387 cm3 0.028317 m3 0.13368 ft3 3.7854 1023 m3 Force 1 1 N N lbf lbf 5 5 kg ? m/s2 0.22481 lbf 32.174 lb ? ft/s2 4.4482 N J kJ kJ kJ/kg ft ? lbf Btu Btu Btu/lb kcal 5 5 5 5 N ? m 0.73756 ft ? lbf 737.56 ft ? lbf 0.9478 Btu 0.42992 Btu/lb 1.35582 J 778.17 ft ? lbf 1.0551 kJ 2.326 kJ/kg 4.1868 kJ Energy Transfer Rate 1W kW Btu/h hp hp hp 5 5 5 J/s 3.413 Btu/h 1.341 hp 0.293 W 2545 Btu/h 550 ft ? lbf/s 0.7457 kW Specific Heat kJ/kg ? K 0.238846 Btu/lb ? 8R kcal/kg ? K Btu/lb ? 8R Btu/h ? 8R 4.1868 kJ/kg ? K Others ton of refrigeration 200 Btu/min 211 kJ/min volt watt per ampere Constants Universal Gas Constant Standard Atmospheric Pressure 8.314 kJ/kmol ? K R • 1545 ft ? lbf/lbmol ? °R 1.986 Btu/lbmol ? °R 1.01325 bar atm • 14.696 lbf/in.2 760 mm Hg 29.92 in Hg Standard Acceleration of Gravity 9.80665 m/s2 g5 e 32.174 ft/s2 Temperature Relations T(°R) 1.8 T(K) T(°C) T(K) 273.15 T(°F) T(°R) 459.67 How to Use This Book Effectively This book is organized by chapters and sections within chapters For a listing of contents, see pp xi–xviii Fundamental concepts and associated equations within each section lay the foundation for applications of engineering thermodynamics provided in solved examples, end-of-chapter problems and exercises, and accompanying discussions Boxed material within sections of the book allows you to explore selected topics in greater depth, as in the boxed discussion of properties and nonproperties on p Contemporary issues related to thermodynamics are introduced throughout the text with three unique features: ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT discussions explore issues related to energy resource use and the environment, as in the discussion of hybrid vehicles on p 32 BIOCONNECTIONS discussions tie topics to applications in bioengineering and biomedicine, as in the discussion of control volumes of living things and their organs on p Horizons link subject matter to emerging technologies and thought-provoking issues, as in the discussion of nanotechnology on p 13 Other core features of this book that facilitate your study and contribute to your understanding include: Examples c Numerous annotated solved examples are provided that feature the solution methodology presented in Sec 1.9 and illustrated in Example 1.1 We encourage you to study these examples, including the accompanying comments c Each solved example concludes with a list of the Skills Developed in solving the example and a QuickQuiz that allows an immediate check of understanding c Less formal examples are given throughout the text They open with c FOR EXAMPLE and close with b b b b b These examples also should be studied Exercises c Each chapter has a set of discussion questions under the heading c EXERCISES: THINGS ENGINEERS THINK ABOUT that may be done on an individual or small-group basis They allow you to gain a deeper understanding of the text material, think critically, and test yourself c A large number of end-of-chapter problems also are provided under the heading c PROBLEMS: DEVELOPING ENGINEERING SKILLS The problems are sequenced to coordinate with the subject matter and are listed in increasing order of difficulty The problems are also classified under headings to expedite the process of selecting review problems to solve Answers to selected problems are provided on the student companion website that accompanies this book c Because one purpose of this book is to help you prepare to use thermodynamics in engineering practice, design considerations related to thermodynamics are included Every chapter has a set of problems under the heading c DESIGN & OPEN ENDED PROBLEMS: EXPLORING ENGINEERING PRACTICE that provide opportunities for practicing creativity, formulating and solving design and open-ended problems, using the Internet and library resources to find relevant information, making engineering judgments, and developing communications skills See, for example, problem 1.10D on p 29 Further Study Aids c Each chapter opens with an introduction giving the engineering context, stating the chapter objective, and listing the learning outcomes c Each chapter concludes with a c CHAPTER SUMMARY AND STUDY GUIDE that provides a point of departure to study for examinations c For easy reference, each chapter also concludes with lists of c KEY ENGINEERING CONCEPTS and c KEY EQUATIONS c Important terms are listed in the margins and coordinated with the text material at those locations c Important equations are set off by a color screen, as for Eq 1.8 c TAKE NOTE in the margin provides just-in-time information that illuminates the current discussion, as on p 6, or refines our problem-solving methodology, as on p 10 and p 20 c A in the margin identifies an animation that reinforces the text presentation at that point Animations can be viewed by going to the student companion website for this book See TAKE NOTE on p for further detail about accessing animations c For quick reference, conversion factors and important constants are provided on the next page c A list of symbols is provided on the inside back cover Conversion Factors Mass and Density Pressure 1 1 1 Pa kg g/cm3 g/cm3 lb lb/ft3 lb/ft3 5 5 5 2.2046 lb 103 kg/m3 62.428 lb/ft3 0.4536 kg 0.016018 g/cm3 16.018 kg/m3 Length 1 1 cm m in ft 5 5 0.3937 in 3.2808 ft 2.54 cm 0.3048 m Velocity km/h 0.62137 mile/h mile/h 1.6093 km/h Volume 1 1 1 1 cm3 m3 L L in.3 ft3 gal gal 5 5 5 5 0.061024 in.3 35.315 ft3 1023 m3 0.0353 ft3 16.387 cm3 0.028317 m3 0.13368 ft3 3.7854 1023 m3 Force 1 1 N N lbf lbf 5 5 kg ? m/s2 0.22481 lbf 32.174 lb ? ft/s2 4.4482 N 1 1 5 5 5 bar atm lbf/in.2 lbf/in.2 atm N/m2 1.4504 1024 lbf/in.2 105 N/m2 1.01325 bar 6894.8 Pa 144 lbf/ft2 14.696 lbf/in.2 Energy and Specific Energy 1 1 1 1 J kJ kJ kJ/kg ft ? lbf Btu Btu Btu/lb kcal 5 5 5 5 N ? m 0.73756 ft ? lbf 737.56 ft ? lbf 0.9478 Btu 0.42992 Btu/lb 1.35582 J 778.17 ft ? lbf 1.0551 kJ 2.326 kJ/kg 4.1868 kJ Energy Transfer Rate 1W kW Btu/h hp hp hp 5 5 5 J/s 3.413 Btu/h 1.341 hp 0.293 W 2545 Btu/h 550 ft ? lbf/s 0.7457 kW Specific Heat kJ/kg ? K 0.238846 Btu/lb ? 8R kcal/kg ? K Btu/lb ? 8R Btu/h ? 8R 4.1868 kJ/kg ? K Others ton of refrigeration 200 Btu/min 211 kJ/min volt watt per ampere Constants Universal Gas Constant Standard Atmospheric Pressure 8.314 kJ/kmol ? K R • 1545 ft ? lbf/lbmol ? °R 1.986 Btu/lbmol ? °R 1.01325 bar atm • 14.696 lbf/in.2 760 mm Hg 29.92 in Hg Standard Acceleration of Gravity Temperature Relations g5 e 9.80665 m/s 32.174 ft/s2 T(°R) 1.8 T(K) T(°C) T(K) 273.15 T(°F) T(°R) 459.67 PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS S I Ve r s i o n EIGHTH EDITION MICHAEL J MORAN The Ohio State University HOWARD N SHAPIRO Wayne State University DAISIE D BOETTNER Colonel, U.S Army MARGARET B BAILEY Rochester Institute of Technology Copyright © 2012, 2015 John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte Ltd Cover photo from © Janaka Dharmasena/Shutterstock Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global 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scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions ISBN: 978-1-118-96088-2 Printed in Asia 10 Figures and Charts Figure A-9E Psychrometric chart for atm (English units) Source: Z Zhang and M B Pate, “A Methodology for Implementing a Psychrometric Chart in a Computer Graphics System,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol 94, Pt 1, 1988 857 Index A Absolute entropy, 725–726 Absolute pressure, 13, 15, 16 Absolute zero, 221 Absorber (absorption refrigeration systems), 533–534 Absorption refrigeration systems, 533–534 Additive pressure rule, 599, 630 Additive volume model, 631 Additive volume rule, 599–600 Adiabatic flame temperature (adiabatic combustion temperature), 716–720 Adiabatic processes, 48, 51–52 Adiabatic-saturation temperature, 657–658 Aerodynamic drag, 37 Afterburners, 480 Air: atmospheric, 627 and combustion, 695–699 compressed, for energy storage, 161, 167 compressed, storing, 184–186 dry, 628 excess, burning natural gas with, 701–702 ideal gas properties of, 836 as ideal gas undergoing a cycle, 115–117 isentropic process of, 279–283 moist, 647–648, 650–656 polytropic compression of, 294–295 saturated, 648 theoretical, 696 Air-conditioning processes, 661–678 adiabatic mixing of two moist air streams, 675–678 applying mass and energy balances to, 661–662 dehumidification, 666–669 evaporative cooling, 672–675 humidification, 670–672 moist air at constant composition, 663–665 Aircraft propulsion, gas turbines for, 480–484 Air–fuel ratio, 695–696 Air-source heat pumps, 536, 537 Air-standard analysis, 430–431, 444 Air-standard dual cycle, 440–442 Algae growth, 410 Amagat model, 631 Ammonia: heating, at constant pressure, 89–90 as natural refrigerant, 87, 528–529 pressure table for saturated, 822 standard chemical exergy of, 741 superheated (table), 823 temperature table for saturated, 821 Analysis, engineering, 21–22 Apparent molecular weight (average molecular weight), 627 Archimedes’ principle, 14 Arrhythmias, 151 Atmospheric air, 627 Atmospheric pressure, 15, 16 Atomic weights, of selected elements/ compounds (table), 799 Automotive air-conditioning systems, 518, 544–545 Avogadro’s number, 13 B Back pressure, 407, 492–494, 497–499 Back-pressure heating plants, 407, 408 Back work ratio (bwr), 377 Bar: hot metal, quenching, 265–267 solid, extension of, 43 Barometer, 13–14 Base units, Batteries, 67, 723 See also specific types of batteries, e.g.: Lithium-ion Beattie–Bridgeman equation, 560–561 Benedict–Webb–Rubin equation, 561, 842, Bernoulli equation, 293 Binary vapor power cycle (binary cycle), 406 Biomass-fueled power plants, 369 Biomechanics, 581 Blood pressure measurements, 16 Body forces, 44 Boiler: in Rankine cycle, 377, 383–385 at steady state, 346–348 Boiling-water reactors, 374 Boil-off gas, 444 Boltzmann relation, 268 Boltzmann’s constant, 268 Bore (of engine cylinder), 428 Boundaries, 2, 5–6 Bourdon tube gage, 14 Brayton cycle, 445–455 ideal, 446–452 with irreversibilities, 452–455 power plants based on, 369, 370 with regeneration, 457–459 Brayton refrigeration cycle, 539–544 Building-related illness, 647 Buoyancy, 14–15 Bypass flow (turboprop engine), 484 C Calorimeters, 716 constant-volume, 53 throttling, 174–175 Cap-and-trade programs, 371 Carbon capture and storage, 378, 407–409 Carbon dioxide: in automotive air-conditioning systems, 528, 544–545 carbon capture and storage, 407–409 from coal combustion, 378, 408 emissions trading, 371 and enhanced oil recovery, 409 as natural refrigerant, 87, 528, 529 Carnot corollaries, 216–218 Carnot cycle, 229–231, 254–255 ideal Rankine cycle vs., 384–385 power cycles, 216–218, 224–226, 229–231 Carnot efficiency, 224 Carnot heat pump cycle, 219–220, 226, 228–229, 231, 535 Carnot refrigeration cycle, 219–220, 226–227, 231, 517–518 Cascade refrigeration systems, 531–532 Cellulosic ethanol, 342 Celsius temperature scale, 19, 20 CFCs, see Chlorofluorocarbons Change in entropy, see Entropy change Change in exergy, 318 Chemical equilibrium, 764–785 and equation of reaction equilibrium, 764–766 with ideal gas mixtures, 766–774 and ionization, 781–782 with mixtures and solutions, 774–775 with simultaneous reactions, 782–785 Chemical exergy, 315, 732–742 conceptualizing, 733–734 evaluating, 735–737 exergy reference environment, 732, 733 standard, 737–742 working equations for, 735 Chemical potential, 605–606, 612–613 defined, 761 and equilibrium, 760–761 Chemotherapy, 48 Chlorine-containing refrigerants, 87, 527–528 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 527–528 Choked flow, 493 Clapeyron equation, 571–574, 786 Classical thermodynamics, Clausius–Clapeyron equation, 572–573, 786 Clausius inequality, 231–233, 258 Clausius statement, 206 Closed feedwater heaters, 400–401 Closed systems, 2, energy balance for, 51–63 entropy balance for, 257–264 entropy change in internally reversible processes of, 254–257 entropy rate balance for, 262–264 exergy balance for, 318–327 processes of, 55–58 Coal, 368, 378 Coal-fueled power plants, 369, 378, 407, 408, 479, 480 Coefficient(s) of performance, 66–67 of heat pump cycle, 535 of refrigeration cycle, 518 Cogeneration, 407 859 860 Index Cogeneration system, exergy costing of, 348–352 Cold air-standard analysis, 429 Cold storage, 530–531 Combined power cycle (combined cycle), 471–477 exergy accounting for, 473–477 H-class power plants, 472, 473 Combustion, 694–703 and air, 695–698 of coal, 378 complete, 694 determining products of, 698–702 enthalpy of, 713–716 of fuels, 694–696 of methane with oxygen at constant volume, 712–713 in power plants, 369 Complete combustion, 694 Compounds, atomic/molecular weights of, 799 Compressed air: for energy storage, 160, 167 storing in tanks, 184–186 Compressed liquids, 84 Compressed liquid tables, 87–88 Compressibility: isentropic, 580, 581 isothermal, 580 Compressibility factor (Z), 109–113 Compressible flow(s), 484–503 and area change in subsonic and supersonic flows, 489–491 defined, 484 effects of back pressure on mass flow rate, 492–494 and flow across normal shock, 494–595 for ideal gases with constant specific heats, 495–503 in nozzles and diffusers, 489–503 sound waves, 486–488 steady one-dimensional flow, 484–485, 489–495 Compression-ignition engines, 428 Compression ratio, 428 Compression work: minimum theoretical, 261–262 modeling, 38–41 Compressors, 163–164, 167 defined, 163 exergetic efficiency of, 343 and intercooling, 462–466 isentropic efficiency of, 289–291 modeling considerations with, 163 power of, 163–164 and refrigerant performance, 527 Condensation, 85 Condensors, 173 in Rankine cycle, 376–377, 383–385 vapor cycle exergy analysis of, 415–416 Conduction, 48, 49 Conservation of energy, 34, 52, 151–153 Conservation of mass, for control volumes, 143–151 Constant-temperature coefficient, 585 Constraints, design, 20 Continuum hypothesis, 11 Control mass, Control surface, Control volume(s), 2, 4–5 analyzing, at steady state, 154–156 compressors/pumps, 163 conservation of energy for, 151–153 conservation of mass for, 143–151 energy rate balance for, 151–152 evaluating work for, 152 exergy accounting for, at steady state, 335–339 exergy balance for, at steady state, 327–339 heat exchangers, 169 nozzles/diffusers, 156–159 and system integration, 175–178 throttling devices, 173–175 and transient analysis, 178–188 turbines, 159 Control volume entropy rate balance, 269–277 Convection, 48 Cooking oil, measuring calorie value of, 107–108 Cooling: biomedical applications of, 168–169 cold storage, 530–531 evaporative, 672–675 of gas, in piston–cylinder, 55–56 Newton’s law of, 50 of superconducting cable, 326 thermoelectric, 529–530 in vapor power plants, 375 Cooling towers, 678–681 Cost engineering, 345–346 Costing, 345–346 and cap-and-trade programs, 371 of cogeneration systems, 348–352 cost engineering, 345–346 environmental costs in, 346 Cost rate balance, 349 Criteria, equilibrium, 759–760 Critical point, 82 Critical pressure, 82, 492 Critical specific volume, 82 Critical temperature, 82 Cryobiology, 20 Cryopreservation, 20 Cryosurgery, 86 Currents, power generation from, 369, 370 Cutoff ratio, 437 Cycles, 63–67 See also specific types of cycles, e.g.: Brayton defined, 63 heat pump, 65–67 power, 64–65 refrigeration, 65–66 thermodynamic, 63, 216–233 D Dalton model, 630–631, 647–648 Dead state, 312, 315 Deaeration, 401 Degrees of freedom, 790 Dehumidification, 666–669 Density, 11–12 Design: engineering, 20–21 using exergy in, 346–348 Design constraints, 20 Dew point temperature, 651–652 Diastolic blood pressure, 16 Diesel cycle, 436–440 cycle analysis, 436–439 and effect of compression ratio on performance, 437–438 Diesel engines, 443 Diffusers, 156–159 defined, 156 flow of ideal gases in, with constant specific heats, 495–497, 499–500 modeling considerations with, 157 one-dimensional steady flow in, 489–495 Direct-methanol fuel cells, 723 Disorder, 268–269 Displacements, generalized, 45–46 Displacement volume (internal combustion engine), 428 Distributed generation, 372, 586 District heating, 407, 408 Drag coefficient, 37 Drag reduction, 38 Dry air, 627 Dry-bulb temperature, 658–659 Dry product analysis, 699–700 Dual cycle, 440–442 Ducts, heating moist air in, 663–665 E E, see Exergy E, see Energy Efficiency, thermal, 65 Elastic waves, 581 Electricity: demand for, 67, 167 from hydropower, 159 from renewable resources, 369 storage and recapture of, 67–68, 98 U.S generation of, by source, 368 from wind-turbine plants, 160, 161 Electric power, 44 distributed generation systems, 586 generation of, 368–372 from renewable and nonrenewable sources, 369 smart grids, 372 superconducting cable for, 326 Electrolysis, 213 Electrolysis reaction, 68 Elements, atomic/molecular weights of selected, 799 Emergency power generation, using steam for, 182–183 Emissions trading, 371 Energy (E), 31–35 conservation of, 34, 52, 151–153 exergy vs., for control volumes at steady state, 330 internal, 46–47 kinetic, 31–32 net amount of, 52 potential, 33 units for, 34 Index Energy balance(s), 51–63 in air-conditioning systems, 662 applying, 97–99 for closed systems, 51–63 cycle, 64 defined, 52 and dehumidification, 666 and property tables, 99–102 for reacting systems, 705–713 and software, 102–103 time rate form of, 53 in transient analysis, 179–180 Energy rate balance: for control volumes, 151–152 defined, 153 integral form of, 153 Energy resources, 2, coal, 368, 369, 378, 407, 408, 479, 480 currents, 369, 370 hydropower, 160, 368, 369 natural gas, 368, 444, 701–702 nuclear, 368, 369, 372–375 oil, 342, 368, 369, 430–431 and power generation, 368–372 solar, 98, 369, 369, 371, 374–375 tides, 369, 370 waves, 369, 370 wind, 159–160, 293, 369 Energy storage, 67–68 compressed-air, 160, 167 pumped-hydro, 160, 167 thermal, 98 Energy transfer by heat, 47 See also Heat transfer Engineering analysis, 21–22 Engineering design, 20–21 Engineering models, 21–22 English base units, 10–11 Enhanced oil recovery, 409 Enthalpy (H), 93–95 evaluating, for reacting systems, 703–705 generalized charts for, 591–597, 848–849 of ideal gas mixture, 631–632 mixture, 649 stagnation, 489 Enthalpy departure, 591–597 Enthalpy–entropy diagram, 248, 853–854 Enthalpy of combustion, 713–716 Enthalpy of formation, 704–705 Entropy (S), 244–248 absolute, 725–726 data retrieval for, 245–248 defined, 244 and disorder, 268–269 evaluating, 245 evaluating, for reacting systems, 725–726 generalized departure chart for, 594–598 heat transfer and transfer of, 248 of ideal gas mixture, 632–633 and increase of entropy principle, 264–267 mixture, 650 and Mollier diagram, 248 and probability, 245 production of, 258–259, 271–272, 275–277 statistical interpretation of, 267–268 Entropy balance, 257 closed system, 257–264 for reacting systems, 726–731 Entropy change, 244–245 for combustion of gaseous methane with oxygen constant volume, 730–731 of ideal gas, 251–254 of incompressible substance, 250–251 in internally reversible processes of, closed systems, 254–257 T ds equations for determining, 248–250 Entropy departure, 594–598 Entropy rate balance: closed system, 262–263 control volume, 269–277 integral form of, 269–270 steady-state form of, 270 Entropy statement of the second law, 208–209 Environment: costs related to, 346 as exergy reference environment, 312, 732, 733 thermal pollution, 375 Environmental impacts: of coal combustion, 378 of power plants, 368, 369, 371 of refrigerants, 528 Equation of reaction equilibrium, 764–766 Equation(s) of state, 555–561 comparing, 559–560 defined, 555 ideal gas, 114 multiconstant, 560–561 two-constant, 556–558 virial, 113–114, 555 Equilibrium, 8, 759–791 chemical, 764–785 and chemical potential, 760–761 criteria for, 759–760 defined, homeostatic, 763 phase, 785–791 thermal, 17 thermodynamic, 759 Equilibrium constant: defined, 767 for ideal gas mixtures, 766–774 logarithms to base 10 of, 845 for mixtures and solutions, 774–775 Equilibrium flame temperature, 776–780 Equilibrium state, Equivalence ratio, 697 Ericsson cycle, 470 Ethylene, 204 Eutectic (molten) salts, 98 Evaporative cooling, 672–675 Evaporator, 173 Evapotranspiration, 175 Exact differentials: defined, 561 principal, 565 property relations from, 565–570 Exergetic efficiency(-ies), 339–345 of heat exchangers, 343–344 and matching end use to source, 340–342 of turbines, 342–343 using, 344–345 861 Exergy (E), 310–318 aspects of, 315 chemical, 315, 732–742 defined, 312 destruction/loss of, 320, 324–325, 330–335 energy vs., for control volumes at steady state, 330 specific, 316–318 specific flow, 328–329 of a system, 312–318 total, 742–745 transfer of, 320–323 and work, 311 Exergy accounting, 326–327, 335–339 for combined cycle, 473–477 of vapor power plant, 410–416 Exergy balance: for closed systems, 318–327 for control volumes at steady state, 327–329 developing, 319 steady-state form of, 323–325 Exergy change, 318 Exergy reference environment (environment), 312, 732, 733 Exergy transfer accompanying heat, 320 Exergy transfer accompanying work, 320 Exergy unit cost, 349 Expansion work, modeling, 38–43 Expansivity, volume, 580 Extensive properties, 7–8 Extent of reaction, 765–766 External irreversibilities, 210 External reforming, 721 Extraction district heating plants, 407, 408 F Factory farms, 315 Fanno line, 495 Feedwater heater, at steady state, 147–148 First law of thermodynamics, 51–52 First T ds equation, 249 Fissionable material, production peak for, 368 Flame temperature, equilibrium, 776–780 Flash chambers, 533 Flow: choked, 493 one-dimensional, 145 Flow rates: mass, 143–145 volumetric, 146 Flow work, 152, 329 Fluid mechanics, 13 Flux, mass, 146–147 Flywheels, 68 Food production and transportation: fossil fuels used in, 108 ripening, 204 Forces, generalized, 45–46 Fossil-fueled power plants, 65, 372, 373 carbon dioxide emissions from, 408 fuel processing and handling for, 375 Fracking, 368 Free body, Friction, 211–212, 386 Fuels, 694–695 See also specific fuels 862 Index Fuel cells, 369, 370, 720–724 direct-methanol, 723 internal reforming, 721 molten carbonate (MCFCs), 722 phosphoric acid (PAFCs), 722 proton exchange membrane, 722–723 solid oxide, 724 stacks, 720 vehicles, 723 Fuel processing and handling, 375 Fuel-tank-to-wheel efficiency, 345 Fugacity, 608–611, 850 defined, 608 of a mixture component, 611 in single-component systems, 608–611 Fundamental thermodynamic functions, 570–571 developing tables by differentiating, 588–591 G Gage pressure, 15, 16 Galileo Galilei, 31 Gases: cooling, in a piston-cylinder, 55–56 exergy of exhaust, 316–318 ideal gas properties of, 838 ideal gas specific heats of, 834 microscopic interpretation of internal energy for, 47 Gas mixtures, p-v-T relations for, 598–602 Gas refrigeration systems, 539–545 Gas thermometer, 222–223 Gas turbine power plants, 443–484 for aircraft propulsion, 480–484 and Brayton cycle, 445–455 combined with vapor power cycle, 471–477 and Ericsson cycle, 470 fueled with methane, 709–711 integrated gasification combined-cycle, 478–480 modeling, 443–444 regenerative, 455–459 and Stirling engine, 470–471 Gearboxes: exergy accounting for, 326–327 at steady state, 59–60 Generalized compressibility chart, 110–113, 846–847 Generalized displacements, 45–46 Generalized forces, 45–46 Generator (absorption refrigeration systems), 533 Geothermal power plants, 369, 370, 372, 374, 375 Gibbs–Duhem equation, 606 Gibbs function, 565, 731 Gibbs function of formation, 731–732 Gibbs phase rule, 790–791 Gliders, thermal, 214–215 Global climate change, 368 and coal use, 378 and methane in atmosphere, 775 Global warming, 32, 528 Global Warming Potential (GWP), 528–529 Gram mole (mol), 12 Gravimetric analysis, 626 Gravitational potential energy (PE), 33 Greenhouse gases, 378 See also specific gases, e.g.: Carbon dioxide GWP (Global Warming Potential), 528–529 H H, see Enthalpy HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons), 527–528 H-class power plants, 472, 473 Head injuries, 581 Heart, human, 150–151 Heat: energy transfer by, 47 See also Heat transfer exergy transfer by, 320 Heat exchangers, 168–173 in computers, 171–173 exergetic efficiency of, 343–344 exergy destruction in, 332–334 modeling considerations with, 169 power plant condensers as, 170–171 types of, 168 vapor cycle exergy analysis of, 412–414 Heat flux, 270 Heat (thermal) interaction, 17 “Heat islands,” 219 Heat pump components, entropy production in, 275–277 Heat pump cycles, 65–67 Carnot, 231 coefficient of performance for, 66–67 corollaries of the second law for, 219–220 limits on coefficients of performance for, 218 maximum performance measures for, 226, 228–229 vapor-compression, analyzing, 537–538 Heat pump systems, 535–538 Heat rate, 377 Heat-recovery steam generator, 315–317 Heat transfer, 47–51 area representation of, 254 by conduction, 48, 49 by convection, 50 entropy transfer accompanying, 258 in internally reversible, steady-state flow processes, 291–292 for moist air at constant volume, 655–656 and Newton’s law of cooling, 50 by radiation, 49–50 rate of, 48 sign convention for, 47 from steam turbine, 161–162 Helmholtz function, 565 Higher heating value (HHV), 713–714 Holes (electron vacancies), 529–530 Homeostasis, 763 Human-health impacts: of coal combustion, 378 of power plants, 368, 371 Humidification, 670–672 Humidity: relative, 649 specific, 648 Humidity ratio, 648–649 calculating, 659 defined, 648 evaluating, using adiabatic-saturation temperature, 657–658 and influenza, 650 Hybrid vehicles, 32 nanotechnology-based batteries for, 67 ultra-capacitors for, 68 Hydraulic fracturing, 86 Hydraulic turbines, 159–160 Hydrocarbons: as natural refrigerant, 528, 529 reforming, 721 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), 527–528 Hydroelectric power (hydropower), 159, 368 Hydroelectric power plants, 369 Hydrogen: as energy storage medium, 67 production by reforming, 721 and second law, 213 Hypersonic flow, 488 I Ideal gases: entropy change of, 251–254 and polytropic processes, 128–131 variation of cp with temperature for, 835 Ideal gas equation of state, 114 Ideal gas mixtures, 626–681 adiabatic mixing at constant total volume, 641–644 adiabatic mixing of two streams, 644–646 and Amagat model, 631 apparent molecular weight of, 627 calculation of equilibrium compositions for reacting, 769–771 and chemical exergy, 736–737 compression of, 636–638 constant composition, mixture processes at, 634–641 and Dalton model, 630–631 describing mixture composition for, 626–628 energy, enthalpy, and entropy for, 703 equilibrium constant for, 766–771 evaluating entropy of, 632–633 evaluating internal energy and enthalpy of, 631–632 evaluating specific heats of, 632 expanding isentropically through nozzle, 638–641 gravimetric analysis of, 626 molar analysis of, 627 property relations on mass basis for, 633 relating p, V, and T for, 630–631 volumetric analysis of, 627 Ideal gas model, 116–117 and isentropic processes, 278–280 specific heat in, 117–120 specific internal energy in, 117–118 Ideal gas tables, 120–122, 251–253, 635 Ideal Rankine cycle, 379–382 Ideal solution, 611–612 Ideal vapor-compression cycle, 521–522 IGCC, see Integrated gasification combined-cycle plant Index Incompressible substances, entropy change of, 250–251 Incompressible substance model, 106–108 Increase of entropy principle, 264–267 Indoor air quality, 647 Influenza, 650 Integrated gasification combined-cycle plant (IGCC), 378, 478–480 Intensive properties, 7–8, 79–80 Intensive state, of closed systems, 79 Interactive Thermodynamics: IT (software tool), 96 Intercoolers, 462 Intercooling, multistage compression refrigeration system with, 532–533 Internal combustion engines, 428–443 air-standard analysis of, 429–430 compression-ignition, 428 and Diesel cycle, 436–440 and dual cycle, 440–442 exergetic efficiency of, 745–746 fueled with liquid octane, 707–709 and Otto cycle, 431–435 spark-ignition, 428 terminology related to, 428–431 Internal energy (U), 46–47 of ideal gas mixture, 631–632 microscopic interpretation of, 47 thermal energy as, 98 Internal irreversibilities, 210, 386 Internally reversible processes: heat transfer and work in steady state, 291–295 and second law of thermodynamics, 213 of water, 255–257 Internal reforming, 721 International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), 223 Interpolation, linear, 88 Inverse reaction, 68 Ionization, 781–782 Irreversibilities, 210 Brayton cycle with, 453–455 Brayton refrigeration cycle with, 542–543 demonstrating, 211–212 in Rankine cycle, 385–389 Irreversible processes, 209–213 isentropic compressibility, 580, 581 of water, 260–261 Isentropic efficiencies: of compressors and pumps, 289–291 of nozzles, 287–289 of turbines, 284–287 Isentropic processes, 277–283 of air, 280–283 and ideal gas model, 278–280 Isolated systems, Isothermal compressibility, 580 ITS-90 (International Temperature Scale of 1990), 223 J Joule (J), 34 Joule, James Prescott, 51–52 Joule–Thomson coefficient, 584–586 Joule–Thomson expansion, 173 K Kay’s rule, 598–599 KE, see Kinetic energy Kelvin Planck statement, 206–208 analytical form of, 214 and thermodynamic cycles, 214–215 Kelvin temperature scale, 18, 220–221 Kilogram, Kilojoule (kJ), 34 Kinetic energy (KE), 31–32 translational, 47 L Lb (pound mass), 11 Lbf (pound force), 11 Lead-acid batteries, 67 Lewis–Randall rule, 611–612 LHV (lower heating value), 713–714 Linear interpolation, 88 Liquids: compressed, 84, 87–88 evaluating properties of, 105–108 properties of, 833 saturated, 105–106 Liquid data (for entropy), 246–247 Liquid film, stretching of, 43–44 Liquid-in-glass fever thermometers, 18 Liquid nitrogen, 86 Liquid octane: adiabatic flame temperature for complete combustion of, 718–720 evaluating chemical exergy of, 739–741 Liquid states, 84 Liquid tables, 87–88 Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 368, 444 Lithium bromide, 534–535 Lithium-ion batteries, 67, 723 Living things: as control volumes, and disorder, 269 elastic waves causing injury in, 581 as integrated systems, 175 mimicking processes of, 409 LNG, see Liquefied natural gas Logarithms to base 10, of equilibrium constant (table), 845 Lower heating value (LHV), 713–714 Low-wind turbines, 160 M M, see Mach number m (meter), Machines, nanoscale, 36 Mach number (M), 488, 581 Magnetization, work due to, 44 Manometer, 13–14 Mass: conservation of, for control volumes, 143–145 control, Mass balance: in air-conditioning systems, 662 and dehumidification, 666–667 Mass flow, entropy transfer accompanying, 269 Mass flow rates, 143–145 863 Mass flux, 146–147 Mass fractions, 626, 628–629 Mass rate balance: applications of, 147–151 defined, 143 integral form of, 146–147 one-dimensional flow form of, 145–146 steady-state form of, 146 Maxwell relations, 567–570 MCFCs (molten carbonate fuel cells), 722 Mean effective pressure, 429 Melting, 86 MEMS (microelectromechanical systems), 155 Mercury-filled thermometers, 18 Meso-scale systems, 155 Metal bar, quenching a hot, 265–267 Meter (m), Methane, 315 in atmosphere, 775 enthalpy of combustion of, 714–715 gas turbines fueled with, 709–711 steam reforming of, 721 Methane hydrate, 775 Methanol, and fuel cell performance, 720 Method of intercepts, 604 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), 155 Microscopic interpretation of internal energy, 47 Microstates, 268 Micro systems, 155 Mixture enthalpy, 649 Mixture entropy, 650 Moist air, 647–648, 650–656 conditioning, at constant composition, 663–665 cooling, at constant pressure, 652–653 cooling, at constant volume, 653–655 equilibrium of, in contact with liquid water, 788–789 heat transfer for, at constant volume, 655–656 Mol (gram mole), 12 Molar analysis, 627–629 Molar basis, 12 Molecular weights: apparent, 627 of selected elements/compounds (table), 799 Mole fractions, 626–629 Mollier diagram, 248 Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs), 722 Molten (eutectic) salts, 98 Momentum equation, 485–486 Motor, transient operation of, 61–63 Multicomponent systems, 603–613, 760 chemical potential of components in, 605–606, 612–613 fugacity in, 608–611 fundamental thermodynamic functions for, 606–607 modeling of, as ideal solution, 611–612 multiphase, equilibrium of, 787–791 partial molal properties for, 603–605 Multiconstant equations of state, 560–561 Multiple feedwater heaters, 401–402 Multistage vapor-compression refrigeration systems, 532–533 864 Index N N (newton), 10 Nanoscale machines (nanomachines), 36, 268 Nanoscience, 13 Nanotechnology, 13, 36 batteries, nanotechnology-based, 67 and second law, 268 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 589 Natural gas: burning, with excess air, 701–702 electricity generation by, 368 for power generation, 368, 444 production peak for, 368 uses of, 368 Natural gas-fueled power plants, 369 Naturally occurring refrigerants, 87 Natural refrigerants, 87, 528–529 Newton (N), 10 Newton, Isaac, 31 Newton’s law of cooling, 50 Newton’s second law of motion, 10, 485–486 Nickel-metal hydride batteries, 67 NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), 589 Nitric oxides, from coal combustion, 378 Nitrogen, 86 Nitrogen oxides (NOx), 378, 443 Nonrenewable energy, in power generation, 368–369 Normal shock, 493–494 Normal stress, 13 NOx (nitrogen oxides), 378, 443 Nozzles, 156–159 and choked flow, 493 defined, 156 exit area of steam, 158–159 flow in, of ideal gases with constant specific heats, 495–503 gas mixture expanding isentropically through, 638–641 isentropic efficiency of, 287–289 modeling considerations with, 157 one-dimensional steady flow in, 489–495 Nuclear-fueled power plants, 369, 372–375 Nuclear power, 368 O Off-peak electricity demand, 167, 530 Oil: electricity generation by, 368 enhanced oil recovery, 409 Oil-fueled power plants, 369 Oil supply: oil shale and oil sand deposits, 342 production peak for, 368, 430–431 One-dimensional flow, 145 One-inlet, one-exit control volumes at steady state, 270–271 On-peak electricity demand, 167 Open feedwater heaters, 395–400 Open systems, Optical pyrometers, 18 Organs, as control volumes, Organic Rankine cycles, 406 Otto cycle, 431–435 cycle analysis, 432–435 and effect of compression ratio on performance, 433 P Pa (Pascal), 15 PAFCs (phosphoric acid fuel cells), 722 Paraffins, 104 Partial molal properties, 603–605 Partial pressure, 630 Partial volume, 631 Particle emissions, from coal combustion, 378 Pascal (Pa), 15 PCMs (phase-change materials), 104 PE (gravitational potential energy), 33 Peak loads, 372 Peltier effect, 529, 530 PEMFCs (proton exchange membrane fuel cells), 722–723 Percent excess air, 696 Percent of theoretical air, 696 Perfectly executed processes, 212 Phase(s): defined, 79 single-phase regions, evaluating, 574–579 Phase-change materials (PCMs), 104 Phase changes, 84–86 and Clapeyron equation, 571–574 Phase-change systems, energy storage in, 98 Phase diagrams, 83 Phase equilibrium, 785–791 of multicomponent, multiphase systems, 787–791 between two phases of a pure substance, 785–786 P-h diagrams, 527 Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), 722 Photosynthesis, Piezoelectric effect, 14 Piston-cylinder, cooling of gas in, 55–56 Planck’s equation for blackbody radiation, 223 Plasmas, 781 Plug-in hybrid vehicles, 32 Polarization, work due to, 44 Pollution, thermal, 375 Polycrystalline turbine blades, 473 Polytropic processes, 128–130 defined, 41 work in, 293–295 Potential energy (PE), 33 Poultry industry, 315 Pound force (lbf), 11 Pound mass (lb), 11 Power: of a compressor, 163–165 electric, 44, 67–68 transmission and distribution of, 371–372 transmission of, by a shaft, 44 Power cycles, 64–65 Carnot, 216–218, 224–226, 229–231 Carnot corollaries for, 216–218 limit on thermal efficiency for, 216–218 maximum performance measures for, 223–229 Power generation, 368–372 emergency, using steam for, 182–183 future issues in, 369–370 and power plant policy making, 370–371 and power transmission and distribution, 371–372 in the United States, 368–369 Power plants combustion, 369 distributed generation systems, 586 environmental impacts, 368, 369, 371 human-health impacts, 368, 371 life cycles of, 370 natural resources for, 368 policy making for, 370, 371 using nonrenewable and renewable resources, 369 Pressure, 12–16 absolute, 13, 15, 16 atmospheric, 15, 16 back, 492–494 critical, 82, 492 defined, 12 gage, 15 mean effective, 429 measuring, 13–14 partial, 630 reduced, 110 saturation, 83 stagnation, 489 units of, 15–16 vacuum, 15 Pressure table, 90 Pressurized-water reactors, 373–374 Primary dimensions, Probability, thermodynamic, 268 Processes, defined, Products (of combustion), 694, 698–702 Propane: pressure table for saturated, 828, as refrigerant, 87, 529 superheated (table), 829, temperature table for saturated, 827, Property(-ies): defined, 7, extensive, 7–8 intensive, 7–8 retrieving, 87 using software to evaluate, 96–103 Property tables, 97–100 Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), 722–723 Pseudoreduced specific volume, 111 Psychrometers, 658–659 Psychrometric charts, 660–661, 811–812 Psychrometrics, 647–681 air-conditioning processes, 661–678 cooling towers, 678–681 defined, 647 dew point temperature, evaluation of, 651–652 humidity ratio, 648–649, 657–658 mixture enthalpy, 649 moist air, 647–648, 650–651 relative humidity, 649 Index Pump(s), 163, 165–168 analyzing, 165–166 defined, 163 exergetic efficiency of, 343 isentropic efficiency of, 289–290 modeling considerations with, 163 in Rankine cycle, 377, 385–386 vapor cycle exergy analysis of, 414–415 Pumped-hydro energy storage, 160, 167 Pure substance, defined, 79 P-v diagrams, 83 P-v-T surface, 81–84 Q Quality (of a mixture), 85 Quasiequilibrium (quasistatic) processes: defined, 39–40 and internally reversible processes, 213 and state principle, 80 work in, 39–45 R Radiation, thermal, 49–50 Radiation therapy, 48 Radiation thermometers, 18 Ram effect, 480 Rankine cycle, 375–389 Carnot cycle vs., 384–385 effects of boiler and condenser pressures on, 383–385 ideal, 379–382 and irreversibilities/losses, 385–389 modeling, 376–378 organic, 406 power plants based on, 369, 370 in vapor power systems, 372–373 Rankine temperature scale, 224, 226 Rayleigh line, 495 Reactants, 694 Reacting systems: energy balances for, 702–703, 705–713 entropy balances for, 702–703, 726–731 evaluating enthalpy for, 703–705 evaluating entropy for, 725–726 evaluating Gibbs function for, 731–732 exergetic efficiencies of, 745–748 Rectifier (absorption refrigeration systems), 534 Redlich–Kwong equation, 558–560, 842 Reduced pressure, 110 Reduced temperature, 110 Reference states, 95 Reference values, 95 Reforming, 213, 721 REFPROP, 589 Refrigerants, 87, 527–530 environmental considerations, 528 natural, 87, 528–529 performance of, 527 refrigeration without, 529–530 types and characteristics, 527–528 Refrigerant 12, 87, 528 Refrigerant 22, 527–528 pressure table for saturated, 811 superheated (table), 812 temperature table for saturated, 810 Refrigerant 134a, 528 pressure table for saturated, 817 superheated (table), 818 temperature table for saturated, 816 Refrigerant 407-C, 528 Refrigerant 410A, 528 Refrigeration capacity, 519 Refrigeration cycles, 65–66 Carnot, 231 coefficient of performance for, 66–67 corollaries of the second law for, 219–220 limits on coefficients of performance for, 218 maximum performance measures for, 226–227 Refrigeration systems, 517–535 absorption, 533–535 gas, 539–545 vapor, 517–519 vapor-compression, 519–527 without refrigerants, 529–530 Regeneration, 395–405 with closed feedwater heaters, 400–401 with multiple feedwater heaters, 401–405 with open feedwater heaters, 395–399 Regenerative hybrid vehicle components, 32 Regenerators (regenerative gas turbines), 455–459 and Brayton cycle, 457–459 effectiveness of, 456–457 with intercooling, 462–469 with reheat, 459–461, 466–469 Regions, Reheat, 389–395 regenerator with, 459–461, 466–469 Relative humidity, 649 Renewable energy resources, 159 electricity generation by, 368 hydropower, 159 in power generation, 368–370 Resistance temperature detectors, 18 Reversible processes, 209, 212–213 entropy change in, 254–257 of water, 255–257 Rockets, 484 S S, see Entropy Sand deposits, oil from, 342 Saturated air, 648 Saturated liquids, 105–106 Saturation data (for entropy), 246 Saturation pressure, 83 Saturation state, 82 Saturation tables, 90–91 Saturation temperature, 83 SBS (sick building syndrome), 647 Secondary dimensions, Second law of thermodynamics, 203–234 aspects of, 205–206 and Clausius inequality, 231–233 Clausius statement of, 206 entropy statement of, 208–209 and internally reversible processes, 213 and International Temperature Scale of 1990, 223 and irreversible processes, 209–212 865 Kelvin–Planck statement of, 206–208, 214–215 and Kelvin temperature scale, 220–221 and opportunities for developing work, 205 and reversible processes, 209, 212–213 and spontaneous processes, 203–204 and thermodynamic cycles, 216–233 uses of, 205–206 violation of, 268, 269 Second T ds equation, 249 Shaft, transmission of power by, 44 Shale: natural gas from, 368 oil from, 342 Shear stresses, 13 Shock, normal, 494–495 SI base units, 9–10 Sick building syndrome (SBS), 647 Sign convention(s): for heat transfer, 47 for work, 36 Silicon chip, at steady state, 60–61 Simple compressible systems, 79–80 Simultaneous reactions, 782–785 Single-crystal turbine blades, 473 Smart grids, 372 Sodium-sulfur batteries, 67 SOFCs (solid oxide fuel cells), 722, 724 Solar-concentrating power plants, 369 Solar energy, storage of, 98 Solar-photovoltaic power plants, 369 Solar power plants, 370 Solar thermal power plants, 372, 374–375 Solids, properties of, 833 Solid bar, extension of, 33 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), 722–724 Solid wastes, from coal combustion, 378 Solutions, 602 equilibrium constants for, 774–775 ideal, 611–613 Sonic flow, 488 Sonic velocity, 486, 581 Sound: medical uses of, 488–489 velocity of, 486–489, 581 Sound waves, 486–488, 581 Spark-ignition engines, 428 Specific exergy, 316–318 Specific flow exergy, 328–329 Specific heats (heat capacities), 104–105 of common gases (table), 834 constant, and entropy change of ideal gas, 253 as constants, 122–128 of ideal gas mixture, 632 in ideal gas model, 117–120 and Joule–Thomson coefficient, 584–586 relations involving, 581–584 Specific heat ratio, 104 Specific humidity, 648 Specific volume, 12–13, 580 pseudoreduced, 111 Spontaneous processes, 203–204 Stacks, fuel cell, 720 Stagnation enthalpy, 489 Stagnation pressure, 489 Stagnation state, 489 Stagnation temperature, 489 866 Index Standard chemical exergy, 737–742 of ammonia, 741 of hydrocarbons, 738–741 Standard molar chemical energy, of selected substances, 844 Standard reference state, 704 State principle, 79 Statistical thermodynamics, 6, 267 Steady one-dimensional flow: momentum equation for, 485–486 in nozzles and diffusers, 489–495 Steady state: control volumes at, 154–156 defined, 146 one-inlet, one-exit control volumes at, 270–271 Steady-state entropy rate balance, 270 Steady-state systems, 7, 59–60 Steam: for emergency power generation, 182–183 in supercritical vapor power plants, 390 withdrawing, from a tank at constant pressure, 180–182 Steam nozzle, calculating exit area of, 158–159 Steam quality, measuring, 174–175 Steam-spray humidifiers, 670–672 Steam tables, 87 Steam turbines: calculating heat transfer from, 161–162 entropy production in, 271–272 exergy accounting of, 336–337 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 49 Stirling cycle, 470–471 Stirling engine, 471 Stoichiometric coefficients, 694 Stresses: normal, 13 shear, 13 Stroke (internal combustion engine), 428 Subcooled liquids, 84 Sublimation, 86 Subsonic flow, 488 Sulfur dioxide, from coal combustion, 378 Superconducting magnetic systems, 68 Superconducting power cable, 326 Supercritical vapor power cycle, 378, 389–390 Superheat, 389 Superheated vapors, 85, 473 Superheated vapor tables, 87–88 Supersonic flow, 488 Surface, control, Surroundings, Syngas (synthesis gas), 479 Synthetic refrigerants, 527 System(s), 2, 4–8 closed, 2, defined, describing, 6–8 disorder of, 268 exergy of, 312–318 isolated, open, selecting boundary of, 5–6 steady-state, 7, 59–60 System integration, 175–178 Systolic blood pressure, 16 T Tables of thermodynamic properties, constructing, 586–591 by differentiating a fundamental thermodynamic function, 588–591 by integration, using p-v-T and specific heat data, 587–588 Tanks: air leaking from, 282–283 storing compressed air in, 184–186 well-stirred, temperature variation in, 187–188 withdrawing steam from, at constant pressure, 180–182 T ds equations, 248–250 Temperature, 16–20 adiabatic flame, 716–720 adiabatic-saturation, 657–658 critical, 82 defined, 17 dew point, 651–652 dry-bulb, 658–659 equilibrium flame, 776–780 reduced, 110 saturation, 83 stagnation, 489 wet-bulb, 658–659 Temperature-entropy diagram (T-s diagram), 247–248, 852–853 Temperature table, 90 Test for exactness, 561–563 Theoretical air, 696 Thermal blankets, 168 Thermal conductivity, 49 Thermal efficiency, 65 limit on, for power cycles interacting with two reservoirs, 216–218 of Rankine cycle, 377, 383 Thermal energy storage, 98 cold storage, 530–531 Thermal equilibrium, 17 Thermal glider, 214–215 Thermal (heat) interaction, 17 Thermal pollution, 375 Thermal radiation, 49 Thermal reservoir, 206–207 Thermistors, 18 Thermochemical properties, of selected substances (table), 843 Thermocouples, 17 Thermodynamic cycles, 63, 216–233 See also Cycles Thermodynamic equilibrium, 759 Thermodynamic probability, 268 Thermodynamics See also Second law of thermodynamics classical, first law of, 51–52 and future sustainability challenges, 2, macroscopic vs microscopic views of, 6–7 refrigeration and heat pump cycles, 218–220, 231 statistical, 6, 267 third law of, 725 using, 2, zeroth law of, 17 Thermodynamics problems, solving, 22–24 Thermoeconomics, 345–352 Thermoelectric cooling, 529–530 Thermometers, 17–18, 222–223 Thermometric properties, 17 Thermometric substances, 17 Third law of thermodynamics, 725 Throat, 491 Throttling calorimeter, 174–175 Throttling devices, 173–175 Throttling processes, 174 Throttling valve, exergy destruction in, 331–332 Tides, power generation from, 369, 370 Time rate form of the energy balance, 53 Ton of refrigeration, 519 Total exergy, 742–745 Transient analysis, 178–188 applications of, 180–188 energy balance in, 179–180 mass balance in, 178–179 Transient operation, 61–63 Translational kinetic energy, 47 Transonic flow, 488 Trap (closed feedwater heater), 400 Triple line, 82 Triple point, 19, 20 T-s diagram, see Temperature-entropy diagram Turbines, 159–162 See also Gas turbine power plants cost rate balance for, 349–350 defined, 159 exergetic efficiency of, 342–343 heat transfer from steam, 161–162 hydraulic, 159–160 isentropic efficiency of, 284–287 low-wind, 160 modeling considerations with, 161 in Rankine cycle, 376, 385 reheat cycle with turbine irreversibility, 393–395 steam, entropy production in, 271–272 steam, exergy accounting of, 336–337 vapor cycle exergy analysis of, 414–415 wind, 159, 160 Turbofan engine, 483–484 Turbojet engine, 480–483 Turboprop engine, 483–484 T-v diagrams, 83–84 Two-phase liquid-vapor mixtures, 85 Two-phase regions, 81, 82 U U, see Internal energy Ultimate analysis, 695 Ultra-capacitors, 67–68 Ultrasound, 448–449 Ultra-supercritical vapor power plants, 390 Unit conversion factors, 10 Universal gas constant, 109 V Vacuum pressure, 15, 16 Van der Waals equation of state, 556, 560, 842 Van’t Hoff equation, 780–781 Vapors, superheated, 85 Index Vapor-compression heat pumps, 535–538 Vapor-compression refrigeration systems, 519–527 cascade, 531–532 and ideal vapor-compression cycle, 521–522 irreversible heat transfer and performance of, 523–524 multistage, 532–533 performance of, 520–527 principal work and heat transfers for, 519–520 Vapor data (for entropy), 246 Vaporization, 85 Vapor power systems, 368–417 and binary vapor power cycle, 406 carbon capture and storage, 407–409 in closed feedwater heaters, 400–401 cogeneration systems, 407 exergy accounting for, 410–416 in open feedwater heaters, 395–399 Rankine cycle, 375–389 regeneration in, 395–405 reheat in, 389–395 and supercritical cycle, 389–390 superheat in, 389 vapor power plants, 372–375 and working fluid characteristics, 405–406 Vapor refrigeration systems, 517–519 Vapor states, 85–86 Vapor tables, 87–88 Velocity of sound, 486–489, 581 Virial equations of state, 113–114, 555 Volts, 44 Volume(s): control, 2, 4–5 partial, 631 specific, 11–12, 580 Volume expansivity, 580 Volumetric analysis, 627, 631 Volumetric flow rate, 146 W W (watt), 37 Waste-heat recovery systems, 176–178 exergy accounting of, 337–339 Water: compressed liquid (table), 808 equilibrium of moist air in contact with, 788–789 filling a barrel with, 148–150 heating, at constant volume, 92–93 internally reversible process of, 255–257 irreversible process of, 260–261 moist air in equilibrium with, 650–651 saturated, pressure table for, 802 saturated, temperature tables for, 800, 809 stirring, at constant volume, 99–100 superheated (table), 804 as working fluid, 405–406 Water-gas shift reaction, 721 Watt (W), 37 Waves, power generation from, 369, 370 Wearable coolers, 104 867 Well-to-fuel-tank efficiency, 345 Well-to-wheel efficiency, 345 Wet-bulb temperature, 658–659 Wind chill index, 659 Wind farms, 160, 293 Wind power plants, 369 Wind turbines, 159, 161 environmental concerns with, 369 low-wind, 161 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, 214–215 Work, 32, 35–46 for a control volume, 152 examples of, 43–45 and exergy, 311 exergy transfer accompanying, 320 expansion/compression, 38–43, 261–262 flow, 152 in internally reversible, steady-state flow processes, 292–293 in polytropic processes, 293–295 and power, 37–38 in quasiequilibrium processes, 39–45 second law of thermodynamics and opportunities for developing, 205 sign convention for, 36 thermodynamic definition of, 35 Workable designs, 21 Working fluids, 372–375, 405–406 Z Z (compressibility factor), 109–113 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 17 Symbols a A AF bwr c c# C CaHb cp c𝜐 cp0 e, E e, E# ef, E#f Ed, E # d Eq, Eq Ew E % f fi F F, F FA g g, G gf8 h, H h H h°f hRP HHV i k k K ke, KE l, L LHV m # m M M acceleration, activity area air–fuel ratio back work ratio specific heat of an incompressible substance, velocity of sound unit cost cost rate hydrocarbon fuel specific heat at constant pressure, 𝜕h/𝜕T)p specific heat at constant volume, 𝜕u/𝜕 T)𝜐 specific heat cp at zero pressure energy per unit of mass, energy exergy per unit of mass, exergy specific flow exergy, flow exergy rate exergy destruction, exergy destruction rate exergy transfer accompanying heat transfer, rate of exergy transfer accompanying heat transfer exergy transfer accompanying work electric field strength electrical potential, electromotive force (emf) fugacity fugacity of component i in a mixture degrees of freedom in the phase rule force vector, force magnitude fuel–air ratio acceleration of gravity Gibbs function per unit of mass, Gibbs function Gibbs function of formation per mole at standard state enthalpy per unit of mass, enthalpy heat transfer coefficient magnetic field strength enthalpy of formation per mole at standard state enthalpy of combustion per mole higher heating value electric current specific heat ratio: cp/c𝜐 Boltzmann constant equilibrium constant kinetic energy per unit of mass, kinetic energy length lower heating value mass mass flow rate molecular weight, Mach number magnetic dipole moment per unit volume mep mf n N p patm pi pr pR P P pe, PE q? Q # Q# Q# x # Qc, Qe r rc R R s, S s° t T TR u, U 𝜐, V V, V 𝜐r 𝜐9R Vi W# W x X y z Z# Z mean effective pressure mass fraction number of moles, polytropic exponent number of components in the phase rule pressure atmospheric pressure pressure associated with mixture component i, partial pressure of i relative pressure as used in Table A-22 reduced pressure: p/pc number of phases in the phase rule electric dipole moment per unit volume potential energy per unit of mass, potential energy heat flux heat transfer heat transfer rate conduction rate convection rate, thermal radiation rate compression ratio cutoff ratio gas constant: R/M, resultant force, electric resistance universal gas constant entropy per unit of mass, entropy entropy function as used in Table A-22, absolute entropy at the standard reference pressure as used in Table A-23 time temperature reduced temperature: T/Tc torque internal energy per unit of mass, internal energy specific volume, volume velocity vector, velocity magnitude relative volume as used in Table A-22 pseudoreduced specific volume: 𝜐/(RTc/pc) volume associated with mixture component i, partial volume of i work rate of work, or power quality, position extensive property mole fraction, mass flow rate ratio elevation, position compressibility factor, electric charge cost rate of owning/operating Greek Letters 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 D 𝜀 h 𝜃 𝜅 𝜇 𝜇J 𝜈 𝜌 # 𝜎, 𝜎 𝜎 S 𝜏 𝜙 𝜓, Ψ 𝜔 isentropic compressibility coefficient of performance for a refrigerator, volume expansivity coefficient of performance for a heat pump, activity coefficient change final minus initial exergetic (second law) efficiency, emissivity, extent of reaction efficiency, effectiveness temperature thermal conductivity, isothermal compressibility chemical potential Joule–Thomson coefficient stoichiometric coefficient density entropy production, rate of entropy production normal stress, Stefan–Boltzmann constant summation surface tension relative humidity Helmholtz function per unit of mass, Helmholtz function humidity ratio (specific humidity), angular velocity Subscripts a ad as ave b c cv cw C db e e f F fg dry air adiabatic adiabatic saturation average boundary property at the critical point, compressor, overall system control volume cooling water cold reservoir, low temperature dry bulb state of a substance exiting a control volume exergy reference environment property of saturated liquid, temperature of surroundings, final value fuel difference in property for saturated vapor and saturated liquid g H i i I ig, if isol int rev j n p ref reg res P R s sat surr t o v w wb x y 1,2,3 property of saturated vapor hot reservoir, high temperature state of a substance entering a control volume, mixture component initial value, property of saturated solid irreversible difference in property for saturated vapor (saturated liquid) and saturated solid isolated internally reversible portion of the boundary, number of components present in a mixture normal component pump reference value or state regenerator reservoir products reversible, reactants isentropic saturated surroundings turbine triple point property at the dead state, property of the surroundings stagnation property vapor water wet bulb upstream of a normal shock downstream of a normal shock different states of a system, different locations in space Superscripts ch e – ? * chemical exergy component of the exergy reference environment bar over symbol denotes property on a molar basis (over X, V, H, S, U, Ψ, G, the bar denotes partial molal property) dot over symbol denotes time rate property at standard state or standard pressure ideal gas, quantity corresponding to sonic velocity WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT Go to www.wiley.com/go/eula to access Wiley’s ebook EULA