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MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND INVESTMENT TRAINING CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT NGUYEN THANH THUY FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN VIETNAM: A CASE STUDY OF SOME NORTHERN PROVINCES Major: Development Economics Major Code: 9.31.01.05 DOCTORAL DISSERTATION ABSTRACT IN ECONOMICS Ha Noi, 2023 The dissertation completed at the Central Institute for Economic Management Academic Advisor: Assoc Prof., Ph.D Nguyen Cong Giap Examiner 1: ……………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… Examiner ……………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… Examiner 3: ……………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… (Note full name, scientific title, and academic degree) The dissertation will be presented before the Dissertation Defense Committee at Central Institute for Economic Management On time: The dissertation can be searched at the libraries: Library of Central Institute for Economic Management National Library, Hanoi INTRODUCTION Reasons for choosing the topic The guiding viewpoint of the Vietnamese Government states that "Preschool education is the first level of the national education system, laying the initial foundation for the physical, intellectual, emotional, and aesthetic development of Vietnamese children The responsibility for developing preschool education is shared by various levels of government, each sector, each family, and the entire society under the leadership of the Party and the management of the State The care and education of preschool children must be carried out with close coordination and integration between schools, families, and society" (Decision No 149/2006/QD-TTg) According to experts in the field of early childhood education, spending on early childhood education using proper methods and timing can contribute to the holistic development of children in terms of physical, intellectual, and emotional aspects It prepares them for lifelong learning stages and enables them to adapt more easily to society compared to children who unfortunately grow up in economically and educationally disadvantaged environments (Robert Lynch and Kavya Vaghul, 2015) This demonstrates the importance of investing in early childhood education The family plays a crucial role as a subject in allocating resources for children's education In Vietnam today, each family pays special attention to spending on their children's education due to small family size, clearer awareness of the benefits of education, and improved socio-economic conditions compared to the past However, educational expenditure is a unique form of spending where parents seek long-term development of their children rather than pursuing personal profits Until now, issues related to household expenditure on education have been studied from various perspectives by researchers These include analyzing the benefits of educational expenditure (Josh Biven et al., 2016), examining the patterns of educational expenditure in different families (Sabino Kornrich and Frank Furstenberg, 2013), investigating the ways and motivations behind educational expenditure by families (Oleg Oberemko, 2006), and identifying factors influencing the decision to spend on education by households (Rizk and Abou, 2016; Megumi Omori, 2010) Overall, the varying levels and patterns of educational expenditure among families lead to different outcomes in terms of children's awareness and development Moreover, studies also indicate that several factors can influence household decisions regarding educational expenditure, and the impact of these factors varies across different research contexts Based on previous studies and the current situation in Vietnam, the author has chosen the topic "Factors Affecting Household Expenditrue On Early Childhood Education In Vietnam: A Case Study Of Some Northern Provinces ” as the research topic for this dissertation Novel contributions of the dissertation 2.1 Theoretical contributions The dissertation focuses on studying the factors that impact the expenditure of households on early childhood education - a group that has not been thoroughly investigated in previous studies Through this, the dissertation aims to contribute to the development of the theory of household expenditure on education in the early years of children, expanding knowledge on this issue The dissertation expands the research content by considering both the factors influencing expenditure intentions and behavior of households on early childhood education By doing so, the dissertation identifies and evaluates the direct factors influencing expenditure behavior and the indirect factors through expenditure intentions of households on early childhood education Examining both aspects simultaneously enhances understanding of the decision-making process and the influencing factors The dissertation has constructed a new model to explain the factors influencing the expenditure intentions of households on early childhood education by adding a factor to Ajzen's (1991) "Theory of Planned Behavior" model This theoretical model provides a fundamental framework for understanding and analyzing the expenditure intentions of households on education in a clear and coherent manner 2.2 Practical contributions Through secondary data sources (VHLSS) and primary data (direct survey of households), the dissertation provides qualitative and quantitative information about the level of expenditure and the factors influencing the expenditure of households on early childhood education in Vietnam, specifically in some provinces in the North This helps to fill the research gap regarding household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam and the factors influencing education expenditure in this region The dissertation proposes solutions to enhance household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam based on analyses of the current situation of factors influencing expenditure intentions and behavior These solutions aim to involve the government, households, and society in improving expenditure on early childhood education in the context of reality This will contribute to improving the quality of life and learning opportunities for young children while ensuring fairness and sustainability in the early childhood education system in Vietnam Content structure In addition to the introduction and conclusion, the dissertation consists of four chapters, as follows: Chapter Provides an overview of existing research and the research direction of the dissertation Chapter Presents the theoretical foundation and practical experiences regarding the factors influencing household expenditure on preschool education Chapter Describes the current situation of the factors influencing household expenditure on preschool education in Vietnam Chapter Presents several solutions aimed at the influencing factors to increase household expenditure on preschool education in Vietnam 3 CHAPTER : LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH DIREACTION OF THE DISSERTATION 1.1 Literature review and research gaps In terms of content, studies on the factors influencing household expenditure on preschool education for children in the early childhood stage have shown that households consider education expenditure as a key to providing their children with better future opportunities The factors influencing education expenditure in Vietnamese households also share similarities with studies worldwide, such as: residential areas (Rizk and Abou-Ali, 2016; Aysit Tansel and Fatma Bircan, 2006; Khong Tien Dung and Pham Le Thong, 2014 ); ethnicity, race (Megumi Omori, 2010; Mauldin et al., 2011; Hoang Thanh Nghi, 2020 ); gender of household head (Hoang Thanh Nghi, 2020); socio-economic status of households (Gustafsson and Li, 2004; Paviot et al., 2008; Huy, 2012 ); household size (Edna, 2017; Hai-Anh Dang and Halsey Rogers, 2013 ); parents' education level (Tilak, 2002; Pham Huong Tra, 2008 ); age of household head (Sandra J Huston, 1995; Mauldin et al., 2011; Khong Tien Dung and Pham Le Thong, 2014 ); parents' occupation (Rizk and Abou-Ali, 2016; Reham Rizk, John Owusu-Afrlyle, 2014 ); household's shocks (Sowmya Dhanaraj et al., 2018; Peter J Glick et al., 2014 ); child's gender (Wikan, 2008; Edna, 2017; Le Thuy Hang, 2006 ) Through an overview of research studies, the following research gaps can be identified: 1) Studies on education expenditure and factors influencing household expenditure on education often rely on household living standards survey data However, these datasets not provide qualitative information about households, which may include factors that impact education expenditure; 2) There is a lack of dedicated research on expenditure for early childhood education; 3) No study comprehensively addresses both the group of factors influencing the intention of education expenditure and the group of factors influencing expenditure behavior by households; 4) Research studies are conducted in different countries and regions where are varying educational contexts and policies Therefore, the dissertation focuses on "Factors affecting household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam: A case study of some northen provinces" It utilizes a combination of VHLSS data from the years 2016, 2018, and 2020, along with survey data, to assess the factors influencing the intention of expenditure and expenditure behavior by households on early childhood education, as well as the relationship between them 1.2 Research Objectives, subjects and scope of the dissertation 1.2.1 Research Objectives 1.2.1.1 Overall objectives Through the systematic organization of relevant theoretical foundations, the dissertation selects a research model to assess the current situation and the level of impact of factors on educational expenditure for preschool children in households in Vietnam Based on that, the dissertation proposes solution groups aimed at enhancing household expenditure for early childhood education in Vietnam 1.2.1.2 Specific objectives 1) Systematizing theoretical issues and international experiences regarding factors affecting household expenditure for early childhood education 4 2) Assessing the current situation and the level of impact of factors on household expenditure for early childhood education in Vietnam, considering expenditure intention and expenditure behavior 3) Proposing some solutions targeting the influencing factors to encourage and enhance the effectiveness of household expenditure for early childhood education in Vietnam in the upcoming period 1.2.2 Research Subjects and Scope 1.2.2.1 Research subjects The expenditure of households and the factors influencing the intention and behavior of household expenditure for early childhood education in Vietnam 1.2.2.2 Research scope 1) In terms of content The research focuses on the current situation of household expenditure and the factors influencing household expenditure for early childhood education in Vietnam It comprehensively examines the group of factors affecting expenditure intention and the group of factors affecting expenditure behavior 2) In terms of space The research is conducted based on data from households in Vietnam with children in the preschool age range (from 03 months to years old) at the time of the survey Additionally, the study conducts representative surveys in five provinces/cities in the Northern region, including Hanoi, Haiphong, Lang Son, Nam Dinh, and Thai Binh 3) In terms of time The research evaluates the current situation and the level of impact of factors on household education expenditure for preschool children in Vietnam in 2020 Based on this evaluation, the study provides policy implications and recommendations for the period 2022-2030 1.2.3 Research questions 1) What is the current situation of household expenditure for preschool education in Vietnam? 2) Which factors influence the expenditure intention of households for early childhood education in Vietnam? How these factors impact expenditure intention for children of preschool age? 3) Which factors influence the expenditure behavior of households for for early childhood education in Vietnam? How these factors impact expenditure behavior for preschool children? 4) What solutions are available to target the influencing factors to increase household expenditure for early childhood education in Vietnam? 1.3 Approach and Research Methodology 1.3.1 Approach and Analytical Framework 1.3.1.1 Approaches 1) Theoretical and literature review-based approach 2) Practical-based approach 3) Subject-oriented approach 1.3.1.2 Analytical framework (Source: Author's own depiction) Figure Analytical framework 1.3.2 Research Methodology 1.3.2.1 Secondary data collection method During the theoretical research phase, methods such as analysis, comparison, synthesis, interpretation, and generalization are used to collect secondary data During the practical research phase, the dissertation utilizes data collected from the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey in the years 2016, 2018, and 2020 conducted by the General Statistics Office 1.3.2.2 Methods of primary data collection through surveys Primary data was collected through a sample survey method The survey targets households with children aged to years (at the time of the survey) The minimum theoretical sample size is 385 observations The actual sample size for the study is 621 observations 1.3.2.3 Data analysis methods 1) Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics 2) Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 3) Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression CHAPTER THEORETICAL BASIS AND PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE ON FACTORS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 2.1 Theoretical Basis of Household Expenditure on Early Childhood Education 2.1.1 Concepts related to household expenditure on early childhood education 2.1.1.1 Preschool children Pre-school children are children from months to years old, before entering grade 2.1.1.2 Early childhood education Early childhood education is the first level of education in the national education system, laying the foundation for the comprehensive development of Vietnamese individuals It involves nurturing, caring for, and educating children aged months to years Early childhood education aims to develop children comprehensively in terms of physical, emotional, intellectual, aesthetic aspects, and to form the initial elements of their personality, preparing them for primary education (Education Law, 2019) 2.1.1.3 Education expenditure Education expenditure refers to the total financial resources allocated to the education sector based on the educational development needs, with the aim of enhancing human capital and expecting benefits for the individuals, their families, and the economy and society of the country (Can Hi Ban, 2001) 2.1.1.4 Household expenditure on early childhood education Household expenditure on early childhood education refers to the amount of money that households spend on their children's education during the early childhood years This includes expenses for education within early childhood institutions as well as outside of them 2.1.1.5 Intentions and behavior of household expendiutre on early childhood education 1) Intention of household expenditure on early childhood education The intention of household expenditure on early childhood education reflects the level of readiness, desire, and effort of households to allocate resources for their children's education during the early childhood period 2) Behavior of household expenditure on early childhood education The behavior of household expenditure on early childhood education refers to the total amount of money that a household spends on their children's education over a certain period In the scope of this study, expenditure behavior is understood as the level of expenditure on early childhood education by households within a one-year period, including expenses within and outside of early childhood institutions 2.1.2 Roles of household expenditure on early childhood education 1) Contributing to better learning opportunities for children 2) Contributing to reducing the burden on the state budget 2.1.3 Characteristics of household expenditure on early childhood education 1) Education expenditure for early childhood is the responsibility of households 2) Household expenditure on early childhood education is a long-term investment 3) Household expenditure on early childhood education depends on the demand for education 7 4) Household expenditure on early childhood education is constrained by the household budget 2.2 Theoretical basis of factors affecting household expenditure on early childhood education 2.2.1 Some concepts of factors affecting household expenditure on early childhood education 2.2.1.1 Factors affecting the intention of household expenditure on early childhood education Factors affecting the intention of families to spend on ECE are things and phenomena that have an impact on the level of readiness, desire and effort of families to spend on the education of their children in preschool age young It is based on attitudes about education spending, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and family expectations for education 2.2.1.2 Factors affecting the behavior of household expenditure on early childhood education Factors affecting the behavior of household expenditure on early childhood education are objects, events, or phenomena that affect the actual actions of families in using financial resources for their children's education during the early childhood stage In other words, they are factors, events, or characteristics that can influence the amount of money spent by households on early childhood education 2.2.2 The role of research about factors affecting household expenditure on early childhood education 1) Identifying and evaluating affecting factors 2) Proposing solutions to encourage education expenditure based on affecting factors 2.2.3 Research content on factors affecting household expenditure on early childhood education 2.2.3.1 Research on factors affecting the intention of household’s expenditure on early childhood education 1) Research on the current situation of factors affecting the intention of household expenditure on early childhood education 2) Research on the level of impact of factors on intention of household expenditure on early childhood education 2.2.3.2 Research on factors affecting the behavior of household expenditure on early childhood education 1) Research on the current situation of factors affecting the behavior of household expenditure on early childhood education 2) Research on the level of impact of factors on behavior of household expenditure on early childhood education 2.2.4 The role of relevant entities in influencing household expenditures on early childhood education 2.2.4.1 The State The State plays a role in improving the policy mechanisms for the development of early childhood education, thereby influencing the factors that affect households' expenditure intentions, such as attitudes and behavior control perceptions Additionally, the state also has a role in encouraging and supporting households to increase their income in order to enhance their ability to afford early childhood education, ensuring equity in access to education between regions and among households with different socio-economic backgrounds 2.2.4.2 Early Childhood Education Institutions Educational institutions play a crucial role in ensuring the quality of early childhood education by providing formal education programs or after-school programs that meet the needs of households Additionally, schools closely collaborate with households in raising awareness about the care and education of young children 2.2.4.3 Households Households play a significant role in caring for and educating their children at home, while also creating favorable conditions for children to attend early childhood education institutions at the appropriate age Furthermore, households have the responsibility to coordinate with schools in nurturing, caring for, and educating children at the school 2.3 The model for assessing impact factors on household expenditure on early childhood education 2.3.1 The model for assessing impact factor on expenditure intention of household on early childhood education Figure Research model on factors influencing household expenditure intention for early childhood education in Vietnam 2.3.2 The model for assessing impact factor on expenditure behavior of household on early childhood education Figure Research model on factors influencing household expenditure behavior for early childhood education in Vietnam 9 2.4 International experiences towards factors impacting household expenditures on early childhood education 2.4.1 Singapore's experiences 2.4.2 Philippines' experiences 2.4.3 Australia's experiences 2.4.4 Lessons for Vietnam Firstly, raising awareness of the importance of investing in education in general and early childhood education in particular in enhancing the quality of the national workforce and bringing economic and non-economic benefits to the learners themselves and their families This motivates them to allocate more funds for early childhood education Secondly, providing programs and projects to enhance the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of parents in the process of caring for and educating young children, with diverse forms to reach a wide range of households Thirdly, mobilizing the participation of various entities in providing education programs and services for young children, such as businesses, social organizations, and non-profit organizations Fourthly, diversifying child care programs (full-day, half-day, or at-home care) to encourage women, especially those with young children, to participate in the labor market and increase family income Fifthly, the state has a role in monitoring and evaluating preschools and providing information to parents so that they can choose a suitable school for their children Lastly, the state provides tax incentives, allowances, and subsidies to families with young children, especially those with middle and low incomes, to help them have additional funds to care for and educate their children Additionally, the state supports some preschools to ensure equal opportunities for accessing education for all families, especially those with low incomes CHAPTER THE CURRENT SITUATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN VIETNAM 3.1 The current situation of household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam 3.1.1 Characteristics of Households with Children in the Early Childhood Age Based on the analysis of data from the 2020 VHLSS, households with children in the early childhood age exhibit the following notable characteristics: i) The majority of these households are headed by males; ii) The head of the household predominantly has an educational level of middle school (THCS), followed by high school (THPT) On the other hand, households with a head who has a university-level education or above account for less than 3%; iii) In comparison to the national average per capita income of 4.249 million Vietnamese Dong per month, the average per capita income of households with children in the early childhood age is lower, reaching 3.490 million Vietnamese Dong per month Among them, 75% of households have income lower than the national average However, when considering a subset of provinces in the North 10 in the study sample, the average per capita income of households with children in the early childhood age is higher than the overall average of households nationwide, reaching 4.860 million Vietnamese Dong per month 3.1.2 Characteristics of Children in the Early Childhood Age in Households Data on children in the early childhood age, studied from the VHLSS dataset, reveal the following characteristics: In terms of the residence area, the proportion of children in the early childhood age in rural areas accounts for over 70%, while in urban areas, it represents nearly 30% The ratio of male children is approximately 52%, while female children account for about 48% Examining the age groups, the proportions of children in each age group are relatively equal, ranging from 13-16% Based on a survey sample of 727 children in the early childhood age, in terms of gender, there are 405 male children (accounting for 55.7%) and 322 female children (accounting for 44.3%) Considering the living area, households with children in the early childhood age in urban areas account for 66.9%, while in rural areas, they represent 33.1% 3.1.3 Household expenditure on early childhood education The research results show that the average total expenditure on early childhood education per preschool child in the surveyed households is 11.45 million Vietnamese dong per year In terms of structure, households spend approximately 5.75 to 7.31 million Vietnamese dong per year on educating children in schools Among them, the majority of households have expenditure levels below million Vietnamese dong per month The amount of money that households spend on additional education for preschool children ranges from 5.08 to 6.39 million Vietnamese dong per year In contrast, compared to the analysis of the current situation of household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam based on the Household Living Standards Survey (VHLSS) data, the average expenditure on education by households for each preschool child has tended to increase over the period 2016-2020, with an increase of nearly 64% in 2020 compared to 2016 3.1.4 Household expenditure capacity on early childhood education In general, the expenditure on early childhood education is not a financial burden for the majority of households The survey data shows that the average expenditure on early childhood education per preschool child accounts for approximately 5.46% to 6.62% of the household income, with a 95% confidence level If only considering the expenditure on education within schools, this proportion is even lower, ranging from 3.02% to 3.76% In contrast, the expenditure on education outside schools for preschool children by households accounts for a very small proportion, ranging from 1.07% to 1.50% Compared with the data from the household living standards survey, the analysis results also indicate a similar observation Each household spends about 2% of their annual income on early childhood education for children in the preschool age group 11 3.2 Factors affecting household expenditure intention on early childhood education in Vietnam 3.2.1 Current situation of factors influencing household expenditure intention on early childhood education in Vietnam 1) Attitude of households about expenditure on early childhood education Research results indicate that all households agree that "investing in early childhood education is a worthwhile investment" (ranging from 5.94 to 6.10 points) 2) Subjective norms of households regarding expenditure on early childhood education The results show that factors related to traditional cultural values in the living environment, family, and opinions of acquaintances, as well as their behaviors, all support households in making decisions to invest in education for children The evaluation scores range from 6.23 to 6.58/7.00 points 3) Perceived behavioral control of households regarding expenditure on early childhood education Survey results show that households believe they can "easily obtain information about early childhood education programs" (6.07/7.00 points) and "have knowledge about the cognitive and psychosocial development stages of young children" (5.93/7.00 points) However, the aspects of having sufficient financial resources to invest in education according to the family's desires and being able to easily choose suitable schools and subjects for children are rated at a lower level, corresponding to 5.80/7.00 points and 5.75/7.00 points, respectively 4) Expectations of households on their children The surveyed households have high expectations for their children from an early age 5) Household expenditure intention on early childhood education Research results show that surveyed households always strive to "improve their expenditure on education for children" (6.54/7.00 points) Additionally, households are "willing to allocate money for educational expenses at school" (6.29/7.00 points) and "willing to spend time educating their children outside of school hours" (6.20/7.00 points) However, the willingness to "spend money on children's extra learning activities" has a lower level of agreement (5.81/7.00 points) 3.2.2 Estimating the model to evaluate the factors affecting the household expenditure intention on early childhood education in Vietnam 3.2.3.1 Testing the reliability of the scale The results of Cronbach's Alpha reliability analysis of the scales indicate that the scales used have sufficient reliability to proceed with further analysis (the overall Cronbach's Alpha coefficient is greater than 0.6, and the inter-item correlation coefficient for each observed variable in each scale is greater than 0.3) 3.2.3.2 Exploratory factor analysis After conducting exploratory factor analysis (EFA), 17 out of a total of 19 observed variables form factor groups according to the theoretical model, meeting the required conditions These factors are "attitude towards expenditure on early childhood education," "subjective norms regarding expenditure on early childhood education," "perceived behavioral control regarding 12 expenditure on early childhood education," and "expectations for the child." The dependent variable (outcome variable) is "expenditure intention of households for early childhood education" (abbreviated as YD) 3.2.3.3 Multivariable linear regression equation The results of linear regression analysis show that all four independent variables included in the model (TĐ, CM, KS, KV) are statistically significant (sig < 0.05) and not violate the assumption of multicollinearity (variance inflation factor - VIF < 2) The factors included in the model explain 52.4% of the variation in the dependent variable (adjusted R-squared = 0.524), which is statistically significant at the 5% level (sig < 0.05) The unnormalized regression equation is as follows: YĐ = 0,646+0,154*TĐ+0,321*CM+ 0,144*KS + 0,281*KV + ε (3.1.1) The normalized regression equation is as follows: YĐ = 0,193*TĐ + 0,286*CM + 0,182*KS + 0,285*KV + ε (3.1.2) 3.2.3 The impact level of factors on household expenditure intention on early childhood education in Vietnam based on the estimated model In terms of the level of impact of the factors, the conclusions drawn from equation (3.1.2) are as follows: The factor "Subjective norm" (CM) has the strongest impact on “the household expenditure intention on early childhood education” (YĐ) (standardized beta coefficient of 0.286) The factor "Expectation" (KV) has the second strongest impact on “the household expenditure intention on early childhood education” (YĐ) (standardized beta coefficient of 0.285) The factor "Attitude towards educational expenditure" (TĐ) has the third strongest impact on “the household expenditure intention on early childhood education” (YĐ) (standardized beta coefficient of 0.193) The factor "Perceived behavioral control" (KS) has the fourth strongest impact “the household expenditure intention on early childhood education” (YĐ) (standardized beta coefficient of 0.182) 3.3 Factors affecting household expenditure behavior on early childhood education in Vietnam 3.3.1 Current situation of factors influencing household expenditure behavior on on early childhood education in Vietnam 1) Household’s living area According to the sample survey results, the average expenditure on early childhood education for urban households is 12.881 million VND per year (approximately 1.3 million VND per month), including both school-based learning and out-of-school educational activities In contrast, rural households spend an average of 8.263 million VND per year (equivalent to around 826 thousand VND per month) Comparing with the calculated results from the VHLSS dataset, the expenditure levels for early childhood education in both urban and rural areas show an increasing trend 2) Gender of household head The analysis of the survey sample indicates that households with female heads spend an average of 13.63 million VND per child per year, which is 1.25 13 times higher than households with male heads (10.87 million VND per child per year) Similarly, the analysis of survey data on living standards over the years also shows that households with female heads have higher expenditures on early childhood education compared to households with male heads, ranging from 1.2 to 1.5 times higher 3) Education level of parents The survey results reveal that households where the child's father has a postgraduate degree spend an average of 19.15 million VND per child per year on early childhood education Correspondingly, households where the father has a university degree, college degree, intermediate level, high school level, and lower secondary level spend 11.94 million VND, 6.77 million VND, 9.36 million VND, 8.95 million VND, and 8.31 million VND per child per year, respectively On the other hand, households where the mother has a postgraduate degree spend an average of 25.83 million VND per child per year, higher than households where the mother has a university degree, college degree, intermediate level, high school level, and lower secondary level, which spend 11.22 million VND, 12.56 million VND, 8.77 million VND, 8.53 million VND, and 5.47 million VND per child per year, respectively Computed data from the VHLSS also shows similar results, indicating that households with higher educational attainment of the household head tend to spend more on early childhood education Moreover, the expenditure gap for education among households tends to increase over time 4) Age of parents Households where the children's father is between 35 and 39 years old spend the most on early childhood education (13.04 million VND per child per year), while households with fathers under 25 years old have the lowest expenditure On the other hand, households with older mothers tend to have higher expenditures on early childhood education 5) Household’s income Higher-income households have more financial resources to allocate for their children's education, including expenditures on school-based learning, out-ofschool activities, and overall expenditure in general Comparing with the analysis results from the VHLSS data in 2020, on a nationwide scale, households in the highest income group - the rich group (group 5) spend more than times on early childhood education compared to the lowest income group - the poor group (group 1); 3.2 times more than the near-poor group (group 2); about 2.7 times more than the average group (group 3), and 2.1 times more than the well-off group (group 4) In some provinces in the North, the expenditure on early childhood education for households in group is times higher than group 2; 3.4 times higher than group 3, and 2.8 times higher than group 6) Household’s shocks There is no significant difference in early childhood education expenditure between households regardless of whether they experience shocks or not 14 7) Gender of children The computed results from the research sample show that households spend an average of 11.12 million VND per year for boys and 11.79 million VND per year for girls in the preschool age group The results from the VHLSS show that the expenditure on early childhood education has increased over the years, from 2,345,456 VND per year to 3,849,692 VND per year for boys and from 2,342,416 VND per year to 3,824,082 VND per year for girls during the period 2016-2020 In absolute terms, there is no significant difference in the expenditure on early childhood education between girls and boys in the preschool age group 8) Age of children According to the survey data of 545 preschool children aged to 6, the average expenditure on education for 3-year-old children is 10.42 million VND per child per year, for 4-year-old children is 8.86 million VND per child per year, and for 5-year-old children is 12.41 million VND per child per year The computed results from the VHLSS 2020 dataset show that the expenditure of households with preschool children at different ages does not differ significantly, commonly ranging from 3.8 to 4.2 million VND per child per year However, when considering some provinces in the North, households tend to spend the most on 2-year-old children, followed by 5-year-old and 6year-old children 3.3.2 Estimating the model to evaluate the factors affecting the household expenditure behavior on early childhood education in Vietnam 1) Estimating the model of factors affecting expenditure on education in schools The unnormalized regression equation is as follows: Ln(HVtt) = -0,471 + 0,629*KhV + 0,425*HVMCĐ + 0,817*HVMSĐH + 0,253*Ln(TN) + ε (3.2.1) The normalized regression equation is as follows: Ln(HVtt) = 0,324*KhV + 0,075*HVMCĐ + 0,243*HVMSĐH + 0,162*Ln(TN) + ε (3.2.2) This is a suitable model (with a significance level less than 0.05) but it only explains 24% of the variation in the level of expenditure on education within the school, while the remaining portion is explained by other factors 2) Estimating the model of factors affecting expenditure on out-of-school education The unnormalized regression equation is as follows: Ln(HVnt)= -1,966 – 0,435*GTch + 0,477*Ln(TN) + 0,223*ĐTt + ε (3.2.3) The normalized regression equation is as follows: Ln(HVnt)= – 0,152*GTch + 0,225*Ln(TN) + 0,171*ĐTt + ε (3.2.4) This is a suitable model (with a significance level less than 0.05) but only explains 9.3% of the change in household expenditure on early childhood education out-of- school 3) Model estimation of factors affecting total expenditure on education The unnormalized regression equation is as follows: Ln(HVth)= -0,545 + 0,688*KhV + 0,707*HVMSĐH + 0,280*Ln(TN) + 0,111*ĐTt + ε (3.2.5) The normalized regression equation is as follows: 15 Ln(HVth)= 0,303*KhV+ 0,192*HVMSĐH + 0,156*Ln(TN) + 0,104*ĐTt+ ε (3.2.6) This is a suitable model (with a significance level less than 0.05) and explains 19.4 % of the change in total household education expenditure on early childhood education Analysis of VHLSS 2020 data also finds similar results The regression equation is as follows: Ln(HVth)= -0,959 + 0,650*KhV+ 0,881*HVCHĐH + 0,711*Ln(TN) + ε (3.2.7) (In which, HVCHĐH is the educational level of the household head with a university degree) The model explains 40% of the variation in the average total household expenditure on early childhood education 3.3.3 The degree of impact of factors on household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam based on the model estimation results Table Conclusions on factors influencing household expenditure behavior for early childhood education in Vietnam Factors Conclusion on factors affecting household expenditure on early childhood education (95% confidence level) Living area - Has an impact on in-school eduction expenditure and total education expenditure Gender of - No impact on in-school education expenditure and total household head education expenditure - Impact on out-of-school education expenditure Father's - No overall impact according to the estimated model education level - Significant differences observed when considering individual factors Mother's - Has a positive impact on education expenditure ineducation level school, out-of-school, and total education expenditure Father's age - No overall impact according to the estimated model - If considering individual factors, there is a positive correlation, but the magnitude is not significant Mother's age - No overall impact according to the estimated model - If considering individual factors, there is a positive correlation, but the magnitude is not significant Household’s - Has a positive impact on education expenditure inincome school, out-of-school, and total education expenditure Household’s - No overall impact according to the estimated model shocks - No significant differences when considering individual factors Gender of - No overall impact according to the estimated model children - No significant differences when considering individual factors Age of children - No overall impact according to the estimated model - Has an impact on out-of-school expenditure and total education expenditure (Source: compiled from the author's research results) 16 3.4 Some comments derived from evaluating factors influencing expenditure intentions and behavior on early childhood education in Vietnam 3.4.1 Findings 1) Expenditure intentions are positively related to household expenditure behavior for early childhood education 2) Expenditure for early childhood education is always a concern for households 3) Expenditure for early childhood education is not a financial burden for households 4) The education level of parents has a positive role in expenditure for early childhood education 5) Differences in household’s living areas lead to variations in expenditure for early childhood education 6) There is no gender inequality in access to education for children in the early childhood stage 7) Household education expenditure increases with the age of the children 3.4.2 Challenges 1) Enhancing policy mechanisms to develop early childhood education 2) Increasing the awareness of households and communities about the importance of expenditure on early childhood education 3) Seeking information and selecting suitable early childhood education programs 4) Continuing improving the educational qualifications of parents of young children 5) Improving household income to ensure the necessary expenditure for early childhood education CHAPTER SOLUTIONS TARGETING THE AFFECTING FACTORS TO ENCOURAGE HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN VIETNAM 4.1 Context and trends in expenditure on early childhood education 4.1.1 International context In today's context, child development programs in general, and early childhood education in particular, are issues of concern in most countries They have been addressed in numerous international conventions and commitments regarding children's rights Countries are increasingly recognizing the importance of early childhood education and are increasing their expenditure in this area However, the level of expenditure varies among countries, and some countries still face financial challenges in improving the quality of early childhood education In addition to public funding, household expenditure on early childhood education also plays an important role in increasing school enrollment rates and ensuring the quality of education However, household expenditure on early childhood education differs across countries In recent years, the Covid-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on household expenditure on early childhood education globally, especially in developing countries This requires flexible support and response from governments and 17 international organizations to ensure that children have the best possible access to early childhood education 4.1.2 Vietnamese context The context of expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam has the following notable characteristics: Firstly, education and training play a crucial role in improving the quality of the national workforce and are a priority for the Party, the State, and the entire population Secondly, the state plays a leading role in education expenditure However, the state encourages other sources of education funding by creating a favorable and preferential legal environment Thirdly, the state has issued numerous policies prioritizing economically and socially disadvantaged areas, as well as ethnic minority areas, to ensure equal access to education opportunities for children, especially those from more vulnerable groups in society Fourthly, household contributions to education expenditure depend on the economic conditions of the family, region, and locality For public preschools, the provincial people's council determines the tuition fee rates 4.2 Perspectives and orientations on expenditure on early childhood education in the coming period 4.2.1 Perspectives Expenditure on early childhood education is an investment that brings long-term benefits for children Expenditure on early childhood education is the responsibility of the state, families, and society Ensuring equity in access to basic early childhood education among different regions, localities, and family circumstances, as well as between boys and girls, to create favorable conditions for children to receive complete education Expenditure on early childhood education is constrained by the financial capacity of spending entities (the state, families), so budget allocation needs to be prioritized and timely to avoid waste and achieve the highest efficiency Household expenditure on early childhood education is influenced by various factors Therefore, to improve the efficiency of expenditure on early childhood education, proposed solutions should focus on addressing those influencing factors 4.2.2 Orientations The proposed solutions must be based on legal provisions and comply with the current laws of the state and the education sector, taking into account the context and practical situation The proposed solutions are based on research conclusions and practical experiences that have been tested for effectiveness, ensuring scientific, accurate, and objective approaches The proposed solutions should be suitable for the context of Vietnam and the world regarding education expenditure in general and early childhood education expenditure in particular, as well as the current influencing factors on household education expenditure 18 The proposed solutions should be consistent, non-contradictory, and mutually supportive in adjusting the influencing factors to encourage increased household expenditure on early childhood education The proposed solutions should be feasible and applicable in practice in Vietnam to achieve tangible results 4.3 Solutions targeting the influencing factors to increase household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam 4.3.1 Solutions towards improving policy mechanisms for the development of early childhood education 1) Improving overall planning for the development of early childhood education institutions 2) Establishing mechanisms and policies to allocate financial resources equitably and reasonably for early childhood education 3) Developing mechanisms and policies to diversify types of early childhood education institutions 4) Establishing mechanisms and policies to attract and enhance the quality of early childhood education teachers 5) Establishing policy mechanisms to ensure quality control of early childhood education institutions 4.3.2 Solutions towards raising awareness of households and communities about expenditure on early childhood education 1) Government's role: The government should coordinate various departments, organizations, and local authorities to promote and raise awareness among households and communities about the importance of education in general and early childhood education specifically Organizing programs, conferences, workshops, and training courses to educate parents and the community about children's rights to education, the developmental stages of early childhood, and the responsibilities of families and society in caring for and educating young children Promoting digital transformation, enhance the use of information and communication technology, and improve access to legal information related to education, children's rights, gender equality, etc This will help people understand the role of education and their children's right to education, leading to a change in behavior towards expenditure on education, particularly for early childhood education In remote and disadvantaged areas, including ethnic minority regions, mountains, islands, and rural areas, the government should provide policies and support initiatives that offer training on ethnic minority languages and cultures for early childhood education teachers, border guard forces, local officials, and volunteers This will enhance the effectiveness of awareness campaigns, knowledge dissemination, and encourage children's school attendance, while establishing a strong connection between families and schools 19 2) Early childhood education institutions’ role Organizing activities that involve parents and children, allowing them to participate together in events organized by the school This provides parents with a firsthand experience of the benefits of sending their children to school and investing in early childhood education Utilizing pick-up and drop-off times or parent meetings as opportunities to provide guidance and instructions to parents on scientifically proven methods of child-rearing, emphasizing the importance of appropriate expenditure for children's development Additionally, schools can regularly communicate with families, sharing information about their children's progress and development when expenditure is directed correctly and effectively 3) Households’ role Parents and guardians of young children should actively participate in local programs and workshops organized by schools and communities on early childhood education Conducting thorough research on information about early childhood education institutions before enrolling their children, ensuring that the chosen institution provides an appropriate and proportional education program based on the family's expenditure level 4.3.3 Solutions towards enhancing the availability of information and early childhood education programs Early childhood education institutions should establish and operate official electronic information channels (websites, social media platforms, mobile applications) to provide detailed information, answer inquiries, and receive feedback about educational programs and the institution Organizing direct meetings with parents to introduce information about the educational program and address their questions Schools can also provide instructional materials, operating licenses, certificates, and relevant credentials to affirm their credibility and quality In addition to online media channels, early childhood education institutions can disseminate information through traditional means such as print media, television, radio, local associations/organizations Ensuring transparency in developing plans and utilizing funding contributions from organizations, individuals, and parents Diversifying early childhood education programs and services to meet the needs and conditions of different households 4.3.4 Solutions towards improving the educational qualifications of parents in households with young children 1) The Role of Government and educational institutions Expanding the network of regular schools and educational centers, especially in disadvantaged areas, to increase access to education for households 20 Providing guidance and counseling on general education and vocational education-related issues, as well as career counseling programs to help households see the potential and opportunities for improving employment, income, and quality of life after completing courses Designing and develop flexible and diverse learning programs such as studying at regular education centers, vocational training centers, or distance learning through online platforms to enable parents to participate in courses flexibly, reducing geographical and transportation challenges Designing flexible learning programs and schedules (e.g., evening or weekend classes) to accommodate parents' work and family responsibilities Establishing and implement policies for tuition fee waivers or lowinterest study loans to alleviate financial pressure and encourage parents to continue their education 2) The role of Community and social organizations Organizing courses, counseling sessions, and educational activities within the community to encourage and motivate young individuals to engage in the learning process Collaborating with social organizations to provide support in childcare and psychological counseling for women, enabling them to reduce family pressures and manage their time for education Establishing community learning networks involving individuals with higher educational qualifications to share knowledge, experiences, and motivation to enhance the educational level of others 3) The role of Households Setting goals for improving educational levels, research suitable programs and courses, allocate time and resources according to the planned learning trajectory Seeking out free or affordable learning materials and resources for selfstudy, including books, online lectures, self-paced videos, mobile applications, and online courses Self-directed learning provides opportunities for lifelong education and personal educational growth Actively participating in clubs, seminars, and other events to share knowledge and learning experiences, thereby engaging in mutual learning to enhance one's educational level 4.3.5 Solutions towards improving household income to ensure necessary expenditure for early childhood education 1) The role of Government and local authorities The Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs and local People's Committees should organize projects and vocational training courses for unemployed or underemployed individuals of working age 21 Local People's Committees should gather information about households in their jurisdiction, identify those facing difficulties, poverty, or near poverty, and collaborate with the Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs to allocate budget resources from poverty reduction programs Local banks should provide guidance on loan procedures and support production activities to increase income levels Enhance support from party committees, authorities, functional agencies, organizations, and businesses in mobilizing capital and integrating scientific and technological advancements into production This should include the development of collective economic models in agriculture, handicrafts, and suitable services based on the economic and social characteristics and advantages of the locality This will help create on-site employment opportunities, thereby increasing household income and contributing to sustainable community economic development Provide financial subsidies, goods, or housing support to households with young children who are categorized as poor or facing difficulties This reduces their daily living costs (such as food and accommodation expenses) and increases available income for their children's education The government and local authorities should issue policies to encourage businesses and organizations to provide employment opportunities and ensure income for workers with young children through policies such as paid leave, allowances, housing support, or assistance with childcare and education expenses 2) The role of Households For poor or low-income families, they should seek information and access local government authorities, the Fatherland Front, and women's unions to participate in projects and loan support programs for production They should be willing to enroll in vocational training courses organized by local authorities and establish production partnerships, participate in cooperatives to produce goods and have market access This will contribute to increasing household income Family members should actively pursue lifelong learning to improve their qualifications and engage in productive work, business, or services to achieve higher income levels Additionally, households should rely on their income to plan and manage their finances effectively and decide on the expenditure level for their children's education to ensure sustainable and efficient use of resources, even during income fluctuations CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions Spending on education for children, especially those in early childhood education, is one of the best strategies to reduce poverty, promote sustainable economic development, and create better opportunities for the future In addition to the primary role of the State in financially supporting childcare and early education programs, households also play an important role in sharing the costs of education for children Although most households in Vietnam want their children 22 to have full access to education and high-quality care programs, their educational expenditures are still influenced by various factors The thesis has theoretically systematized the fundamental principles of educational expenditure and the factors influencing household spending on early childhood education It has proposed an appropriate approach, research methods, and a research model to identify and evaluate the factors affecting household educational expenditures The thesis has identified the factors influencing household spending on early childhood education, including four factors affecting "intention to spend on early childhood education" (attitude towards spending on early childhood education, subjective norms on spending on early childhood education, perceived behavioral control over spending on early childhood education, expectations for children) and ten factors influencing "educational expenditure behavior" (residential area, head of household gender, father's education level, mother's education level, father's age, mother's age, household income, household events, child's gender, and child's age) Through studying the experiences of some countries around the world such as Singapore, the Philippines, and Australia, several lessons can be drawn, including: i) raising awareness of the importance of investing in education in general and early childhood education in particular for enhancing the quality of the national workforce, bringing economic and non-economic benefits to the learners and their families; ii) providing programs and projects to enhance knowledge, skills, and attitudes of parents in the process of caring for and educating young children through diverse forms of accessibility to many households; iii) mobilizing the participation of various entities in providing childcare and early education programs and services, such as businesses, social organizations, and non-profit organizations; iv) diversifying childcare programs to encourage women, especially women with young children, to participate in the labor market to increase household income; v) the state playing a role in monitoring, evaluating early childhood institutions and providing information to parents so that they can choose appropriate schools for their children; vi) providing some tax incentives, allowances, and subsidies for families with young children, especially those with average and low incomes, to help them afford the costs of caring for and educating their children Based on these findings, the dissertation has a basis to propose solutions to encourage households to enhance educational expenditure for early childhood in Vietnam Regarding the current situation, the thesis has clarified and answered the research questions as follows: (i) The status of factors influencing household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam has been identified and analyzed; (ii) The thesis has discovered the factors that influence the "Intention of Household Expenditure on Early Childhood Education," which include "attitudes towards expenditure on early childhood education," "subjective norms regarding expenditure on early childhood education," "perceived behavioral control over expenditure on early childhood education," and "expectations for children." Among these factors, "perceived behavioral control over expenditure on early childhood education" has the strongest impact on the "Intention of Household Expenditure on Early Childhood Education”; (iii) The dissertation has found that "household income" has an impact on the expenditure behavior for early 23 childhood education in three aspects: expenditure within educational institutions, expenditure outside educational institutions, and total expenditure on education Additionally, factors such as "mother's education level," "place of residence," "child's age," and "gender of the household head" also influence the expenditure levels of households for education in specific contexts; (iv) The stronger the "Intention of Household Expenditure on Early Childhood Education" is, the higher the expenditure behavior of households for early childhood education The dissertation has proposed groups of solutions to increase household expenditure on early childhood education in Vietnam, targeting various influencing factors These solutions are as follows: i) Solutions towards improving the mechanisms and policies for the development of early childhood education; ii) Solutions to raise the awareness of households and the community about spending on early childhood education; iii) Solutions to enhance the availability of information and early childhood education programs; iv) Solutions to improve the educational qualifications of parents in households with young children; v) Solutions to improve household income to ensure necessary expenditure for early childhood education These solution groups should be implemented in a coherent manner with the coordination of relevant stakeholders Some limitations of the dissertation Although the research questions outlined in the beginning of the thesis have been addressed to a certain extent, surveying data on income and expenditure of households is a sensitive issue and not easy, as respondents may have difficulty accurately recalling their expenditures over the course of a year Therefore, the factors included in the research model on household expenditure behavior for early childhood education can only explain about 20% of the variations in the level of education expenditure In addition, the households selected in the sample are concentrated in a few provinces and cities in Northern Vietnam The research has not had the opportunity to explore households in other regions and localities, so there may be some issues that have not been discovered yet If more comprehensive data and a larger sample size can be collected, the thesis has the potential to uncover more insights Recommendations for future research Based on the achievements and limitations of the thesis, several directions for future research can be suggested, such as: Investigating the factors influencing education expenditure for early childhood among households on a broader research scope, including larger sample sizes, different geographical areas, and longer research periods Evaluating the effectiveness of education expenditure for early childhood in relation to academic achievements, income, and educational attainment of children in the future LIST OF PUBLISHED WORKS RELATED TO THE DISSERTATION Nguyen Thanh Thuy (2017), Benefits of early childhood education investment, Journal of Education Management, Vol.9, No.4, pp 29-33 Nguyen Thanh Thuy (2019), Household investment in private tutoring for children – implications for school governors, Journal of Education Management, Vol.11, No.11A, pp 152-158 Nguyen Thanh Thuy (2021), Literature review of factors that influence household investment in children education, Journal of Education Management, Vol.13, No.1, pp 19-25 Nguyen Thanh Thuy (2021), Household investment in education for children in pre-primary age in Vietnam, Economic Studies, Vol.515, No.4A, pp 33-42 Nguyen Thanh Thuy (2022), Determinants of Vietnam household’s investment in early childhood education, Economy and Forecast Review, Vol.811, July