cctv surveillance analog and digital video practices and technology

The migration from legacy analog components to digital technology and the emergence of the Internet have accelerated the utilization of Internet protocol IP video and remote monitoring i

CCTV Surveillance

CCTV Surveillance

Analog and Digital Video

Practices and Technology

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Marketing Manager: Christian Nolin

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kruegle, Herman

CCTV surveillance : analog and digital video practices and technology / Herman Kruegle—2nd ed

p cm

ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-7768-4 (casebound : alk paper)

ISBN-10: 0-7506-7768-6 (casebound : alk paper) 1 Closed-circuit television—Design and construction

2 Television in security systems I Title

TK6680.K78 2005

621.389’28—dc22

2005022280

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-7768-4

ISBN-10: 0-7506-7768-6

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Photo Credits

The publisher and author would like to thank the listed manufacturers for the photographs used in the figures

Avida 2-7C, 2-7E, 2-7G, 2-7H, 2-16A, 2-16B, 2-17A, 2-17B, 2-17C, 2-17D, 2-17E,

2-17F, 4-18A, 4-27C, 4-27D, 4-27E, 4-30, 4-33A, 4-33B, 4-36, 4-37, 4-38, 4-40,15-2A, 15-2C, 15-8A, 15-8C, 15-10B, 15-12, 15-15A, 15-15B, 16-7, 18-5A,18-6A, 18-6B, 18-7, 18-10, 18-11A, 18-11B, 18-14A, 18-14B, 18-20A, 18-23D,18-24, 19-22A, 19-22B, 21-2A, 21-2B, 21-4A, 21-4B, 21-4C, 22-4A, 22-4C, 22-5,22-10B, 22-10C, 22-23A, 22-23B, 22-25, 22-26, 22-27

Axis Communications 5-14B, 7-28A, 7-34A, 7-34B, 7-35A, 7-35B

Remote Video Surveillance 9-12B

Sanyo Security Products Cover image (middle right), 2-27A, 5-14C, 8-5B, 8-9C, 9-12A, 14-1A, 15-6C,

Vicon 2-26B, 2-30A, 2-30C, 14-3, 14-5A, 14-5D, 14-6B, 15-1A, 15-1B, 15-5, 15-6A,

15-6B, 15-9B, 15-11, 15-14A, 15-14C, 15-19B, 17-1B, 17-10A, 17-11A

Videolarm 2-29E, 14-7A, 14-7B, 14-7C, 14-8A, 14-8B, 15-7A, 15-8B, 15-8D, 15-9C, 15-14D,

15-19A, 17-13, 17-15A, 17-15B, 22-4B

Chapter 16 Electronic Video Image Splitting, Reversal, and Annotation 405

ix

A few years ago I had the privilege of addressing a

Congres-sional Subcommittee on Technology and Procurement

Policy, chaired by Congressman Tom Davis In addition

to examining GSA’s efforts to secure federal buildings,

the Subcommittee was interested in hearing and

learn-ing about new physical security technology When I leaf

through the pages of this book, I again realize the

enor-mity of the task undertaken by the Subcommittee, the

necessity for doing so, and the importance of this type of

information to not only security professionals, but now to

IT professionals as well

Closed circuit television (CCTV) and other related video

security and surveillance technology has advanced

fur-ther and faster in the period from 2001 to 2005 than in

any prior comparable time period IP cameras, mapping,

servers, platforms, LANs, WANs, and VPNs, wireless,

dig-ital migration, algorithms, etc are all converging along

with other related security system technologies such as

access control, life safety, intrusion alarms, etc with the

intent to configure fully integrated systems This is the

new direction for the security industry as digital

technol-ogy has become pervasive across all product lines, opening

the door to more software-oriented control platforms on

the enterprise level

So who is the better person to chronicle, explain, and

put these terms and technology into perspective than

Herman Kruegle, one of the industry’s foremost experts

on video surveillance and related technologies I havehad the privilege of knowing and working with Hermanfor many years He is a consummate professional whohas the innate ability to explain the technical aspects ofthis emerging technology in a manner we can all under-

stand and put into practice Herman’s first book, CCTV

Surveillance – Video Practices and Technology, is considered,

by most of us in the industry, to be the bible of CCTV, and

I fully expect this revised edition will rise to even greaterpopularity

In the pages following, readers will find concise andintelligent descriptions of the analog and digital videopractices and technology we have all grown up with Butmore important, Herman has included, in this revised edi-tion, his explanation of the newest audio/video informa-tion technology (AV/IT) developments, products utilizingthe technology and applications for same Security pro-fessionals, system integrators, architects and engineers, ITmanagers, or end users who are looking for a resource

to help them navigate this complex field of IP VideoSecurity will not be disappointed The material is wellresearched and thoughtfully laid out to help insure thereader’s understanding and to hopefully allow them to go

on to designing, installing, and using digital video lance to its fullest capacity

surveil-Frank Abram

xi

Following the same philosophy contained in the first

edi-tion, the second edition is written for and contains

infor-mation valuable to the end-user as well as the technical

practitioner Each chapter begins with an overview and

then presents equipment available with their

characteris-tics, features, and application

The first edition of CCTV Surveillance in 1995 asked

the question “why write a CCTV surveillance book?” At

that time, analog CCTV had progressed from a vacuum

tube to a solid state technology that provided reliable,

longlife small cameras produced at prices affordable for

most security applications

A decade later, significant advances have been made in

camera sensors, computers, and digital transmission

tech-nology to warrant a complete review of CCTV’s role in

the security industry The migration from legacy analog

components to digital technology and the emergence of

the Internet have accelerated the utilization of Internet

protocol (IP) video and remote monitoring in security

The internet has permitted the widespread

interconnec-tion of other technologies including intrusion and fire and

intrusion alarm systems, access control, and other

commu-nications and control

The ease of interconnection afforded by digital

trans-mission of video and other pertinent security data

any-where in a facility, local environment or globally,

engen-ders a new meaning to video transmission and remote

viewing

The explosion of high-capacity magnetic disk, solid

state, and optical data storage memories has permitted

the generation of new products including digital video

recorders (DVR) and data compression algorithms to

com-press and store video images and replace the time-honored

magnetic video cassette recorder (VCR)

In this second edition of CCTV Surveillance, I have

attempted to add these new technologies to the

“non-changing” basic technologies covered in the first edition

Physics does not change—only the technology and

prod-ucts do

This new revised edition of CCTV Surveillance includesthe new digital video technology and contains eight newchapters:

Communications and Control

Chapter 7—Wired and wireless digital transmission resents possibly the most significant technology advance-ment in the video security industry It makes use of theInternet and intranets for remote video, data, and audiocommunication over existing hard wire communicationlinks Chapter 7 includes an analysis of digital wirelessvideo transmission using the family of 802.11x protocolspread spectrum technology (SST) Prior to 1995–98 theInternet was not available for commercial use and remotevideo monitoring and control was accomplished primar-ily over existing telephone lines or expensive satellitelinks with limited functionality Ease of installation, cam-era addressing, and identification using IP cameras hasopened a new vista in video transmission and remote mon-itoring

rep-Chapter 10—This chapter describes the new ical advances made in hard-copy printers that improve thequality and reduce the cost of monochrome and colorvideo printouts The advances in ink-jet and laser printertechnologies using inexpensive, large solid state memoriesand high resolution linear CCD imagers have been driven

technolog-by the consumer and business markets, and have given thesecurity industry access to low-cost, color, hard copy printsrivaling photographic resolution and quality

Chapter 12—While available in 1995, multiplexers havetaken on new importance because of the significant

xiii

increase in the number of cameras used in a typical

secu-rity installation and their ability to be integrated into DVRs

that were not available five years ago

Chapter 14—Dome cameras are now everywhere in

security systems In 1995 they were used primarily in

selected locations: casinos, department stores,

supermar-kets, malls, and in outdoor parking lot applications The

public at large has accepted their presence almost

every-where Domes are easy to install and can be small and

aesthetic Dome cameras are adjustable in pointing

direc-tion (manual or motorized, pan and tilt), and many have

motorized zoom lenses to change the camera field of view

(FOV) The use of small dome cameras has exploded

because of significant cost reduction and sophistication of

pointing and zooming capabilities Fast pan/tilt camera

modules with remote control via analog or digital

commu-nications over two-wire or wireless communication links

are reasons for their popularity

Chapter 20—Consoles and Control Rooms have become

more complex and require more design attention for their

successful implementation This chapter analyzes the

con-sole and security control room with regard to lighting,

monitor locations, operator control placement, and the

other human factors required for guard efficiency and

comfort

Chapter 21—There has always been a requirement for

a transportable Rapid Deployment Security (RDS) systems

having video and alarm intrusion equipment for

protect-ing personnel and assets The Post-911 era with real terror

threats has initiated the need for RDS equipment to

pro-tect military, government, business, and other personnel

on travel The majority of these systems consist of alarm

intrusion and analog or digital video viewing system These

RDS systems are carried from one location to another anddeployed quickly to set up an alarm perimeter and real-time video monitoring and recording Analog or digitaltransmission allows local or remote monitoring After use,the RDS equipment is disassembled and stored in its carry-ing case, ready for another deployment The much smallersize of the video and alarm equipment has accelerated itsuse and acceptance

Chapter 22—The Video Applications chapter has beenupdated and expanded to include digital video applica-tions including the combination of legacy analog and IPcameras One video monitoring application uses on-sitelocal networks and a second application uses the Inter-net and IP cameras, signal routers, and servers for remotesite video monitoring Security applications require com-plete integration of communication, video, alarm, accesscontrol, and fire to provide monitoring by the local secu-rity force, and corporate executives at a local or remotesite(s) The integration of these security functions pro-vides the safety and security necessary to protect personneland assets at any facility

Chapter 25—Installation and maintenance of videoequipment requires the use of video and computer testequipment Prior to the widespread use of digital technol-ogy in security systems, a limited range of test equipmentwas used Now with the many computer interfaces andInternet protocols and connection to the Internet, moresophisticated test equipment and some knowledge of soft-ware and computer programming is necessary Parameters

to be tested and monitored include: (a) video signal leveland quality; (b) control data signals for pan, tilt, zoom,focus; and (c) digital signal protocols for multiplexers, IPcameras, signal routers and servers, DVRs, etc

Over the years I have had opportunities to speak with

many individuals who provided technical insight in video

technology and electro-optics I particularly appreciate the

discussions with Stanley Dolin and Lee Gallagher, on the

subjects of optics, the physics of lighting, lenses, and

opti-cal sensors I found very helpful the techniopti-cal discussions

on cameras with Frank Abram, Sanyo Security Products,

and Victor Houk I thank Dr Gerald Herskowitz, Stevens

Institute of Technology for contributing to the fiber-optic

section in Chapter 6 and reviewing other sections on

video transmission I thank Robert Wimmer and Fredrick

Nilsson for their excellent technical articles in security

journals, company publications, as well as technical

sem-inars on many aspects of video security Thanks to

Char-lie Pierce for his interest in my book over the years and

enthusiasm and excellence in presenting stimulating

edu-cational video seminars Eric Kruegle, Avida Inc.,

con-tributed his expertise on various aspects of digital video In

particular I appreciate his help in wired and wireless video

transmission, compression, and encryption in Chapter 7

Eric was also instrumental in keeping my computer alive,

and I thank him for rescuing me late at night from missing

files and software surprises

I acknowledge the initial encouragement of Kevin Koppand editorial advice of Greg Franklin at Butterworth (nowElsevier) during the formative stages of the first edition ofCCTV Surveillance in 1995 I thank all staff at Elsevier forbringing out this second edition successfully: Pam Chesterfor her assistance in the formulation of this edition, MarkListewnik for his constant encouragement, professionalsuggestions, and diligence in bringing this large project

to a successful conclusion, Jeff Freeland for providing themeticulous final editing and effort in completing this largeendeavor

I gratefully acknowledge the dedication, patience, andskill of my wife, Carol, in assisting in the preparation ofthis book

I would like to thank the manufacturers for the use ofthe many photographs that illustrate the components used

in video security applications Each of them contribute tothe education of the security professional and assist theconsultant, systems integrator, and end user in designingand implementing the best security system possible

xv

1.2 The Role of Video in Asset Protection

1.2.1 Video as Part of the Emergency and

Disaster Plan

1.2.1.1 Protecting Life and Minimizing

Injury1.2.1.2 Reducing Exposure of Physical Assets

and Optimizing Loss Control1.2.1.3 Restoring Normal Operations

Quickly1.2.1.4 Documenting an Emergency

1.2.1.5 Emergency Shutdown and

Restoration1.2.1.6 Testing the Plan

1.2.1.7 Standby Power and Communications

1.2.2 Security Investigations

1.2.3 Safety

1.2.4 The Role of the Guard

1.2.5 Employee Training and Education

1.3 Synergy through Integration

1.3.1 Integrated Functions

1.3.2 System Hardware

1.4 Video’s Role and Its Applications

1.4.1 Video System Solutions

1.4.2 Overt vs Covert Video

1.4.3 Security Surveillance Applications

1.4.4 Safety Applications

1.4.5 Video Access Control

1.5 The Bottom Line

1.1 PROTECTION OF ASSETS

The protection of personnel and assets is a

manage-ment function Three key factors governing the planning

of an assets protection program are: (1) an adequateplan designed to prevent losses from occurring, (2) ade-quate countermeasures to limit unpreventable losses, and(3) support of the protection plan by top management

1.1.1 Overview

Most situations today require a complete safety/securityplan The plan should contain requirements for intrusiondetection, video assessment, fire detection, access control,and full two-way communication Critical functions andlocations must be monitored using wired and wirelessbackup communications

The most significant driving force behind the explosion

in the use of closed-circuit television (CCTV) has been theworldwide increase in theft and terrorism and the com-mensurate concern and need to protect personnel andassets The terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, broughtabout a quantum jump and a complete reevaluation of thepersonnel and asset security requirements to safe-guard afacility To meet this new threat, video security has taken

on the lead role in protecting personnel and assets Todayevery state-of-the-art security system must include video as

a key component to provide the “remote eyes” for security,fire, and safety

The fateful day of September 11, 2001, has dramatizedthe importance of reliable communications and remotevisualization of images via remote video cameras Manylives were saved (and lost) as a consequence of the voice,video, alarm, and fire equipment in place and in use at thetime of the fateful attack on the World Trade Center in

New York The availability of operational wired and wireless

two-way communication between command and controlheadquarters and responders (police, fire, emergency)played a crucial role in life and death The availability(or absence) at command posts of real-time video images

1

at crucial locations in the Twin Towers during the attack

and evacuation contributed to the action taken by

com-mand personnel during the tragedy The use (or absence)

of wireless transmission from the remote video cameras in

the Twin Towers clearly had an impact on the number of

survivors and casualties

recorders, monitors, etc.) technology matured from the

legacy analog to a digital imaging technology and became

compatible with computers and now forms an essential

part of the security solution In the late 1990s,

digi-tal cameras were introduced into the consumer market,

thereby significantly reducing price and as a result found

widespread use in the security industry Simultaneously,

powerful microprocessors, large hard disk computer

mem-ory storage, and random access memmem-ory (RAM) became

available from the personal computer/laptop industry,

thereby providing the computing power necessary to

con-trol, view, record, and play back digital CCTV cameras in

the security system

The home run came with the availability and explosive

acceptance and use of the Internet (and intranet) as a

new means of long distance two-way communication of

voice, data, and most importantly video For over a decade

the long distance transmission of video was limited to slow

telephone transmission of video images—snap-shots

(slow-scan video) The use of dedicated high speed

(expen-sive) land lines or expensive satellite communications was

limited to government and large-clientele users Now the

Internet provides near-live (near real-time) video

transmis-sion communications over an inexpensive, easily accessible

worldwide transmission network

The application and integration of video into safety and

security systems has come of age as a reliable, cost-effective

means for assessing and responding to terrorist attacks

and other life-threatening situations Video is an effective

means for deterring crimes and protecting assets and for

apprehending and prosecuting offenders

Security personnel today have the responsibility for

mul-tifaceted security and safety systems in which video often

plays the key role With today’s increasing labor costs and

the need for each security officer to provide more

func-tionality, video more than ever before is earning its place

as a cost-effective means for improving security and safety

while reducing security budgets

Loss of assets and time due to theft is a growing

can-cer on our society that eats away at the profits of every

organization or business, be it government, retail, service,

or manufacturing The size of the organization makes no

difference to the thief The larger the organization, the

more the theft occurs and the greater the opportunity for

losses The more valuable the product, the greater the

temptation for a thief to steal it A properly designed and

applied video system can be an extremely profitable

invest-ment for an institution to cut losses The prime objective

of the video system should not be the apprehension of

thieves but rather the deterrence of crime through rity A successful thief needs privacy—a video system candeny that privacy

secu-As a security by-product, video has emerged as an tive training tool for managers and security personnel.Every installation/establishment should have a security

effec-plan in place prior to an incident Video-based training

is easy to implement using the abundance of sive camcorders and playback equipment available andthe commercial video production training video servicesavailable The use of training videos results in standard-ized procedures and improved employee efficiency andproductivity

inexpen-The public at large has accepted the use of video systems

in most public facilities Video is being applied to reduceasset losses and increase corporate profits and bottomline Many case histories show that after the installation ofvideo, shoplifting and employee thefts drop sharply Thenumber of thefts cannot be counted exactly but shrinkagecan be measured It has been shown that video is an effec-tive psychological deterrent to crime and an effective toolfor criminal prosecution

Theft is not only the unauthorized removal of valuableproperty but also the removal of information, such as com-puter software, CDs, magnetic tape and disks, optical disks,microfilm, and hard copy Video surveillance systems pro-vide a means for successfully deterring such thievery and/ordetecting or apprehending offenders The use of video pre-vents the destruction of property, vandalizing buildings,defacing elevator interiors, painting graffiti on art objectsand facilities, stealing computers, and demolishing furni-ture or other valuable equipment Video offers the greatestpotential benefit when integrated with other sensing sys-tems and used to view remote areas Video provides the

“eyes” for many security devices and functions such as:(1) fire sensors: smoke detector alarms, (2) watching forpresence (or absence) of personnel in an area, (3) evac-uation of personnel—determining route for evacuation,access (emergency or intruder) to determine response,respond, and monitor response When combined with fireand smoke detectors, CCTV cameras in inaccessible areascan be used to give advance warning of a fire

Video is the critical link in the overall security of afacility but organizations must develop a complete securityplan rather than adopt piecemeal protection measures

To optimize use of video technology, the practitioner andend user must understand all of its aspects—from lightsources to video monitors and recorders The capabilitiesand limitations of video during daytime and nighttimeoperation must also be understood

1.1.2 Background

Throughout history, humans have valued their own lifeand the lives of their loved ones above all else Next

in value has been their property Over the centuries

many techniques have been developed to protect

prop-erty against invaders or aggressors threatening to take or

destroy it

In the past as in the present, manufacturing, industrial,

and government organizations have hired “watchmen” to

protect their facilities These private security personnel

wearing uniforms and using equipment much like the

police do are hired to prevent crime and bodily harm,

and deter or prevent theft on the premises The very early

guard companies were Pinkerton’s and Burns Contract

protection organizations were hired to safeguard their

employees and assets in emergency and personal threat

situations

A significant increase in guard use came with the start of

World War II Many guards were employed to secure

indus-trial work sites manufacturing military equipment and

doing classified work, and to guard government facilities

Private corporations obtained such protection through

contract agencies to guard classified facilities and work

In the early 1960s, as electronic technology advanced,

alarm systems and video were introduced Radio

Corpo-ration of America (RCA), Motorola, and General Electric

were the pioneering companies that began manufacturing

vacuum-tube television cameras for the security industry

The use of video cameras during the 1960s and 1970s grew

rapidly because of increased reliability, lower cost, and

technological improvements in the tube-type camera

tech-nology In the 1980s growth continued at a more modest

level with further improvements in functions and

availabil-ity of other accessories for video securavailabil-ity systems

The most significant advance in video technology

dur-ing the 1980s was the invention and introduction of the

solid-state video camera By the early 1990s the solid-state

camera using the charged coupled device (CCD) image

sensor was the choice for new security installations and

was rapidly replacing the tube cameras In the past, the

camera—in particular, the vidicon tube sensor—was the

critical component in the video system The camera

deter-mined the overall performance and quality of visual

intel-ligence obtainable from the security system The vidicon

tube was the weakest link in the system and was

sub-ject to degradation with age and usage The complexity

and variability of the image tube and its analog

electri-cal nature made it less reliable than the other solid-state

components Performance varied considerably between

different camera models and camera manufacturers, and

as a function of temperature and age By contrast, the

solid-state CCD sensor and newer metal oxide

semicon-ductor (MOS) and complimentary MOS (CMOS) sensor

cameras have long life and are stable over all operating

conditions Another factor in the explosive use of video

in security systems has been the rapid improvement in

equipment capability at affordable prices This has been

the result of the widespread use of solid-state camcorders

by consumers (lower manufacturing costs), and the ability of low-cost video cassette recorders (VCRs), digitalvideo recorders (DVRs), and personal computer (PC)-based equipment

avail-The 1990s saw the integration of computer technologywith video security technology All components were solidstate Digital video technology needed large-scale digitalmemories to manipulate and store video images and thecomputer industry had them To achieve satisfactory videoimage transmission and storage, the video signal had to be

“compressed” to transmit it over the existing narrowbandphone line networks The video-computer industry alreadyhad compression for broadcast, industrial, and govern-ment requirements The video industry needed a fast andlow-cost means to transmit the video images to remotelocations and the US government’s Defense AdvancedResearch Projects Agency (DARPA) had already devel-oped the Internet, the predecessor of the World WideWeb (WWW) The Internet (and intranet) communica-tions channels and the WWW now provide this extraordi-nary worldwide ability to transmit and receive video andaudio, and communicate and control data anywhere

1.2 THE ROLE OF VIDEO IN ASSET PROTECTION

Video provides multiple functions in the overall securityplan It provides the function of asset protection by moni-toring location of assets and activity in their location It isused to detect unwanted entry into a facility beginning at

a perimeter location and following an unauthorized son throughout a facility Figure 1-1 shows a typical singlesite video system using either legacy analog or digital, or

per-a combinper-ation of both technologies

In a perimeter protection role, video is used withintrusion-detection alarm devices as well as video motiondetection to alert the guard at the security console that

an intrusion has occurred If an intrusion occurs, ple CCTV cameras located throughout the facility followthe intruder so that there is a proper response by guardpersonnel or designated employees Management mustdetermine whether specific guard reaction is required andwhat the response will be

multi-Video monitoring allows the guard to be more tive, but it also improves security by permitting the camerascene to be transmitted to other control centers or per-sonnel The video image can be documented with a VCR,DVR, and/or printed out on a hard copy video printer.The video system for the multiple site application is bestimplemented using a combination of analog/digital or anall-digital solution (Figure 1-2)

effec-Local site installations already using analog video eras, monitors, etc can be retained and integrated withnew digital Internet Protocal (IP) cameras, local area net-works (LANs), intranets, and the Internet to facilitateremote site video monitoring The digital transmission

SECURITY ROOM CCTV MONITORS/RECORDERS AUDIO COMMUNICATIONS COMMAND AND CONTROL

PERIMETER

PARKING LOT

SURVEILLANCE

LOBBY SURVEILLANCE

LOADING DOCK SURVEILLANCE

INTRUDER PATH

FACILITY ENTRANCE

FENCE LINE

SURVEILLANCE PARKING LOT PERIMETER

FIGURE 1-1 Single site video security system

network provides two-way communications of audio and

controls and excellent video image transmission to remote

sites The digital signals can be encrypted to prevent

eavesdropping by unauthorized outside personnel Using

a digital signal backbone allows adding additional

cam-eras to the network or changing their configuration in the

system

In the relatively short history of CCTV and video there

have been great innovations in the permanent

record-ing of video images These new technologies have been

brought about by the consumer demand for video

cam-corders, the television broadcast industry, and government

requirements for military and aerospace hardware and

software One result of these requirements was the

devel-opment of the VCR and DVR The ability to record video

images provided the video security industry with a new

dimension, i.e going beyond real-time camera

surveil-lance The availability of VCR and DVR technology

result-ing from the consumer market has made possible the

excellent time-lapse VCRs and large storage PC-based DVR

systems These technologies provide permanent

documen-tation of the video images in analog (magnetic tape) and

digital (solid state and hard disk drive) storage media

The use of time-lapse recorders, computer hard disks and

video printers give management the tools to present hard

evidence for criminal prosecution This ability to provide

a permanent record of evidence is of prime importance

to personnel responsible for providing security

Prior to the mid-1990s the CCTV security industry marily used monochrome solid-state cameras In the 1990sthe widespread use of color camcorders in the video con-sumer market accelerated the availability of these reliable,stable, long-life cameras for the security industry Whilemonochrome cameras are still specified in low light level(LLL) and nighttime security applications, color is nowthe norm in most security applications The increasedsensitivity and resolution of color cameras and the signif-icant decrease in cost of color cameras have resulted intheir widespread use Many monochrome cameras being

pri-used for LLL applications are being augmented with active

infrared (IR) illuminators Also coming into use is a new

generation of passive monochrome thermal IR imaging cameras that detect the differences in temperature of objects

in the scene, compared to the scene background Thesecameras operate in total darkness There has also been anexplosion in the use of covert video surveillance throughthe use of small, inexpensive color cameras

The development of smaller solid-state cameras hasresulted in a decrease in the size of ancillary video equip-ment Camera lenses, dome cameras, housings, pan/tilt

* COMPRESSED DIGITAL VIDEO

(MJPEG, MPEG-2, MPEG-4).

** SUFFICIENT STORAGE TO SUPPORT ALL

SITES WITH SECURITY AUTHENTICATION.

RAID LEVEL 5 CONTROLLER FOR EXPANDED STORAGE CAPACITY.

NETWORK**

VIDEO RECORDER

SITE 2

CAMERA(S) DIGITAL IP

CAMERA(S) ANALOG

*

*

KEYBOARD ALARM INPUT/

OUTPUT DEVICES ROUTER

DOMES CAMERAS

MONITORING STATION

ANALOG CAMERA(S)

DIGITAL IP CAMERA(S)

SERVER

ROUTER ROUTER

*

KEYBOARD KEYBOARD

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) WIRELESS (WiFi)

INTERNET INTRANET

*

SERVER

BNC RJ45

RJ45 BNC BNC RJ45

FIGURE 1-2 Multiple site system using analog/digital video

mechanisms, and brackets are smaller in size and weight

resulting in lower costs and providing more aesthetic

installations The small cameras and lenses satisfy covert

video applications and are easy to conceal

The potential importance of color in surveillance

appli-cations can be illustrated very clearly: turn off the color

on a television monitor to make it a monochrome scene

It is obvious how much information is lost when the

col-ors in the scene change to shades of gray Objects that

were easily identified in the color scene become difficult

to identify in the monochrome scene It is much easier to

pick out a person with a red shirt in the color image than

in a monochrome image

The security industry has long recognized the value of

color to enhance personnel and article identification in

video surveillance and access control One reason why

we can identify subjects more easily in color is that we

are used to seeing color, both in the real world and on

our TV at home When we see a monochrome scene we

have to make an additional effort to recognize certain

information (besides the actual missing colors) thereby

decreasing the intelligence available Color provides more

accurate identification of personnel and objects and leads

to a higher degree of apprehension and conviction ofcriminals

1.2.1 Video as Part of the Emergency and Disaster Plan

Every organization regardless of size should have an gency and disaster control plan that includes video as acritical component Depending on the organization ananti-terrorist plan should take highest priority Part of theplan should be a procedure for succession of personnel

emer-in the event one or more members of top managementare unavailable when disaster strikes In large organiza-tions the plan should include the designation of alternateheadquarters if possible, a safe document-storage facility,and remote (off-site if possible) video operations capabil-ity The plan must provide for medical aid and assure thewelfare of all employees in the organization Using video

as a source of information, there should be a method toalert employees in the event of a dangerous conditionand a plan to provide for quick police and emergencyresponse There should be an emergency shutdown plan

and restoration procedures with designated employees

act-ing as leaders There should be CCTV cameras stationed

along evacuation routes and instructions for practice tests

The evacuation plan should be prepared in advance and

tested.

A logical and effective disaster control plan should do

the following:

• Define emergencies and disasters that could occur as

they relate to the particular organization

• Establish an organization and specific tasks with

person-nel designated to carry out the plan immediately before,

during, and immediately following a disaster

• Establish a method for utilizing the organization’s

resources, in particular video, to analyze the disaster

situation and bring to bear all available resources

• Recognize a plan to change from normal operations

into and out of the disaster emergency mode as soon as

possible

Video plays a very important role in any emergency,

disaster and anti-terrorist plan:

• Video helps protect human life by enabling security or

safety officials to see remote locations and view first hand

what is happening, where it is happening, what is most

critical, and what areas must be attended to first

• Aids in minimizing personal injury by permitting

“remote eyes” to get to those people who require

imme-diate attention, or to send personnel to the area being

hit hardest to remove them from the area, or to bring

in equipment to protect them

• Video reduces the exposure of physical assets to

oncom-ing disaster, such as fire or flood, and prevents or at

least assesses document removal (of assets) by intruders

or any unauthorized personnel

• Video documents the equipment and assets that were in

place prior to the disaster, recording them on VCR, DVR

or storage on an enterprise network to be compared

to the remaining assets after the disaster has occurred

It also documents personnel and their activities before,

during, and after an incident

• Probably more so than any other part of a security

sys-tem, video will aid management and the security force

in minimizing any disaster or emergency It is useful in

restoring an organization to normal operation by

deter-mining that no additional emergencies are in progress

and that procedures and traffic flow are normal in those

restored areas

1.2.1.1 Protecting Life and Minimizing Injury

Through the intelligence gathered from the video

sys-tem, security and disaster control personnel should move

all personnel to places of safety and shelter Personnel

assigned to disaster control and remaining in a threatened

area should be protected by using video to monitor their

safety, and the access and egress at these locations By suchmonitoring, advance notice is available to provide a means

of support and assistance for those persons if injured, andpersonnel that must be rescued or relieved

1.2.1.2 Reducing Exposure of Physical Assets

and Optimizing Loss ControlAssets should be stored or secured properly before an emer-gency so that they will be less vulnerable to theft or loss Video

is an important tool for continually monitoring safe areasduring and after a disaster to ensure that the material is notremoved In an emergency or disaster, the well-documentedplan will call for specific personnel to locate highly valuedassets, secure them, and evacuate personnel

1.2.1.3 Restoring Normal Operations QuicklyAfter an emergency situation has been brought undercontrol, security personnel can monitor and maintain thesecurity of assets and help determine that employees aresafe and have returned to their normal work routine

1.2.1.4 Documenting an EmergencyFor purposes of: (1) future planning, (2) liability andinsurance, and (3) evaluation by management and secu-rity personnel, video coverage of critical areas and oper-ations during an emergency is an excellent tool and canreduce financial losses significantly Video recordings ofassets lost or stolen or personnel injured or killed can sup-port a company’s claim that it was not negligent and that

it initiated a prudent emergency and disaster plan prior to

the event Although video can provide crucial tation of an event, it should be supplemented with high-resolution photographs of specific instances or events

documen-If perimeter fences or walls were destroyed or aged in a disaster, video can help prevent and documentintrusion or looting by employees, spectators, or otheroutsiders

dam-1.2.1.5 Emergency Shutdown and Restoration

In the overall disaster plan, shutting down equipmentsuch as machinery, utilities, processes, and so on, must beconsidered If furnaces, gas generators, electrical powerequipment, boilers, high-pressure air or oil systems, chem-ical equipment, or rapidly rotating machinery could causedamage if left unattended they should be shut down assoon as possible Again, video surveillance can be crucial

to determine if the equipment has been shut down erly, if personnel must enter the area to do so, or if it must

prop-be shut down by other means

1.2.1.6 Testing the Plan

While a good emergency plan is essential, it should not

be tested for the first time in an actual disaster situation

Deficiencies are always discovered during testing Also, a

test serves to train the personnel who will carry out the

plan if necessary Video can help evaluate the plan to

identify shortcomings and show personnel what they did

right and wrong Through such peer review a practical

and efficient plan can be put in place to minimize losses

to the organization

1.2.1.7 Standby Power and Communications

During any emergency or disaster, primary power and

communications between locations will probably be

dis-rupted Therefore, a standby power-generation system

should be provided for emergency monitoring and

response This standby power comprised of a backup

gas-powered generator or an uninterruptible power supply

with DC batteries to extend backup operation time will

keep emergency lighting, communications, and strategic

video equipment online as needed Most installations use

a power sensing device that monitors the normal supply

of power at various locations When the device senses that

power has been lost, the various backup equipments

auto-matically switch to the emergency power source

A prudent security plan anticipating an emergency will

include a means to power vital, audio, video, and other

sen-sor equipment to ensure its operation during the event

Since emergency video and audio communications must

be maintained over remote distances, alternative

commu-nication pathways should be supplied in the form of either

auxiliary hard-wired cable (copper wire or fiber optics) or a

wireless (RF, microwave, infrared) transmission system It is

usually practical to provide a backup path to only the critical

cameras, not all of them The standby generator

supply-ing power to the video, safety, and emergency equipment

must be sized properly For equipment that normally

oper-ates on 120 volt AC, inverters are used to convert the low

voltage from the backup DC batteries (typically 12 or 24

volts DC) to the required 120 volts AC (or 230 volts AC)

1.2.2 Security Investigations

Security investigators have used video very successfully with

respect to safeguarding company assets and preventing

theft, negligence, outside intrusion, and so on By using

small, low-cost, covert CCTV (hidden camera and lens), it

is easy to positively identify a person or to document an

event without being noticed Better video image quality,

smaller lenses and cameras, wireless video transmission,

and easier installation and removal of such equipment

have led to this high success Many lenses and cameras that

can be hidden in rooms, hallways, or stationary objects are

available today Equipment to provide such surveillance isavailable for indoor or outdoor locations in bright sunlight

or in no light (IR-illuminated or thermal cameras)

1.2.3 Safety

Closed circuit television equipment is installed not alwaysfor security reasons alone but also for safety purposes aswell Security personnel can be alerted to unsafe practices

or accidents that require immediate attention An attentiveguard can use CCTV cameras distributed throughout afacility in stairwells, loading docks, around machinery, etc

to observe and immediately document any safety violations

or incidents

1.2.4 The Role of the Guard

Security guards are employed to protect plant assets andpersonnel Security and corporate management are awarethat guards are only one element of an organization’scomplete security plan As such, the cost to implement theguard force and its ability to protect assets and personnelare analyzed in relation to the costs and roles of othertechnological security solutions In this respect video hasmuch to contribute: increased security for relatively lowcapital investment and low operating cost, as comparedwith a guard Guards using video can increase the securitycoverage or protection of a facility Alternatively, installingnew CCTV equipment enables guards to monitor remotesites, allowing guard count and security costs to be reducedsignificantly

1.2.5 Employee Training and Education

Video can be used as a powerful training tool It is usedwidely in education and the training of security personnelbecause it can demonstrate lessons and examples vividly

to the trainee In this post-9/11 era, security personnelshould receive professional training by all means includingreal video footage Video is an important tool for the secu-rity trainer Example procedures of all types can be shownconveniently in a short time period, and with instructionsgiven during the presentation Videotaped real-life situa-tions (not simulations or performances) can demonstratethe consequences of mis-applied procedures and the ben-efits of proper planning and execution by trained andknowledgeable personnel

Every organization can supplement live training witheither professional training videos or actual scenes fromtheir own video system, demonstrating good and poorpractices as well as proper guard reaction in real cases

of intrusion, unacceptable employee behavior, and so on.Such internal video systems can also be used in training

exercises: trainees may take part in videotaped simulations,

which are later critiqued by their supervisor Trainees can

then observe their own actions to find ways to improve

and become more effective Finally, such internal video

systems are very important tools during rehearsals or tests

of an emergency or disaster plan After the run-through,

all team members can monitor their own reactions, and

managers or other professionals can critique them

1.3 SYNERGY THROUGH INTEGRATION

Video equipment is most effective when integrated with

other security hardware and procedures to form a

coher-ent security system When video is combined with the

other security sensors the total security system is more than

the individual subsystems Synergy obtains when video

assessment is combined with intrusion and motion alarm

sensors, electronic access control, fire alarms,

communi-cations, and security guard personnel (Figure 1-3)

1.3.1 Integrated Functions

Functionally the integrated security system is designed as

a coordinated combination of equipment, personnel, and

procedures that: (a) uses each component in a way that

enhances the use of every other component and (b)

opti-mally achieves the system’s stated objective

In designing a security system, each element’s

poten-tial contribution to loss prevention, asset protection, or

personnel safety must be considered The security plan

must specify as a minimum: (a) where and when unusualbehavior should be detected, (b) what the response should

be, and (c) how it should be reported and recorded Ifthe intruder has violated a barrier or fence the intrusion-detection system should be able to determine that aperson—not an animal, bird, insect, leaf, or other object—passed through the barrier Video provides the most pos-itive means for establishing this information This breech

in security must then be communicated by some means tosecurity personnel so that a reaction force has sufficientinformation to permit an appropriate response

In another scenario, if material is being removed by

an unauthorized person in an interior location, a videosurveillance system activated by a video motion detector(VMD) alarm should alert a guard and transmit the videoinformation to security personnel for appropriate action

In both cases a guard force would be dispatched and theevent recorded on a VCR, DVR or network storage and/orprinted as hard copy for guard response, documentation,and prosecution

In summary, it is the combination of sensors, nication channels, monitoring displays, documentationequipment and a guard force that provides the synergy tomaximize the security function The integration of video,intrusion-detection alarms, access control, and securityguards increases the overall security asset protection andemployee safety at a facility

commu-1.3.2 System Hardware

Since a complete video security system may be assembledfrom components manufactured by different companies,

INTEGRATED SECURITY SYSTEM

VIDEO SURVEILLANCE COMMUNICATIONS

SECURITY PERSONNEL

INTEGRATED SECURITY SYSTEM SYNERGY:

• MAXIMIZE ASSET AND PERSONNEL PROTECTION

• OPTIMIZE RECOVERY PLAN

• PROVIDE DISASTER CONTROL

FIGURE 1-3 Integrated security system

all equipment must be compatible The video equipment

should be specified by one consulting or

architec-ture/engineering firm, and the system and service should

be purchased, installed, and maintained through a single

system integrator, dealer/installer, or general contractor

If a major supplier provides a turnkey system, including

all equipment, training, and maintenance, the

responsi-bility of system operation resides with one vendor, which

is easier to control Buying from one source also

per-mits management to go back to one installer or general

contractor if there are any problems instead of having

to point fingers or negotiate for service among several

vendors

Choosing a single supplier obviously requires thorough

analysis to determine that the supplier: (1) will provide a

system that meets the requirements of the facility, (2) will

be available for maintenance when required, and (3) will

still be in business in 5 or 10 years There are many

com-panies that can supply complete video systems including

cameras and housings, lenses, pan/tilt mechanisms,

mul-tiplexers, time-lapse VCRs or DVRs, analog and digital

networks, and other security equipment required for an

integrated video system If the end user chooses

compo-nents from various manufacturers, care must be taken by

the system designer and installer to be aware of the

differ-ences and interface the equipment properly

If the security plan calls for a simple system with

poten-tial for later expansion the equipment should be modular

and ready to accept new technology as it becomes

avail-able Many larger manufacturers of security equipment

anticipate this integration and expansion requirement and

design their products accordingly

Service is a key ingredient for successful system

oper-ation If one component fails, repair or replacement

must be done quickly, so that the system is not shut

down Near-continuous operation is accomplished by the

direct replacement method, immediate maintenance by

an in-house service organization, or quick-response

ser-vice calls from the installer/contractor Serser-vice

considera-tion should be addressed during the planning and initial

design stages, as they affect choice of manufacturer and

service provider Most vendors use the replacement

tech-nique to maintain and service equipment If part of the

system fails, the vendor replaces the defective equipment

and sends it to the factory for repair This service policy

decreases security system downtime

The key to a successful security plan is to choose the

right equipment and service company, one that is

cus-tomer oriented and knowledgeable about reliable,

techno-logically superior products that satisfy the customer needs

1.4 VIDEO’S ROLE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

In its broadest sense, the purpose of CCTV in any

secu-rity plan is to provide remote eyes for a secusecu-rity operator:

to create live-action displays from a distance The videosystem should have recording means—either a VCR or

a DVR, or other storage media—to maintain permanentrecords for training or evidence Following are some appli-cations for which video provides an effective solution:

• When overt visual observation of a scene or activity isrequired from a remote location

• An area to be observed contains hazardous material orsome action that may kill or injure personnel Such areasmay have toxic chemicals, biological or radioactive mate-rial, substances with high potential for fire or explosion,

or items that may emit X-ray radiation or other nuclearradiation

• Visual observation of a scene must be covert It is mucheasier to hide a small camera and lens in a target loca-tion than to station a person in the area

• There is little activity to watch in an area, as in anintrusion-detection location or a storage room, but sig-nificant events must be recorded in the area when theyoccur Integration of video with alarm sensors and atime-lapse/real-time VCR or DVR provides an extremelypowerful solution

• Many locations must be observed simultaneously by oneperson from a central security location

• Tracing a person or vehicle from an entrance into afacility to a final destination The security force can pre-dict where the person or vehicle can be interdicted

• Often a guard or security officer must only review ascene for activity periodically The use of video elimi-nates the need for a guard to make rounds to remotelocations, which is wasteful of the guard’s time

• When a crime has been committed, capturing the sceneusing the video camera and recorder to have a perma-nent record and hard copy printout of the activity andevent The proliferation of high-quality printed imagesfrom VCR/DVR equipment has clearly made the casefor using video for creating permanent records

1.4.1 Video System Solutions

The most effective way to determine that a theft hasoccurred, when, where, and by whom, is to use videofor detection and recording The particular event can

be identified, stored, and later reproduced for display orhard copy Personnel can be identified on monochrome

or color CCTV monitors Most security installations usecolor CCTV cameras that provide sufficient information

to document the activity and event or identify personnel

or articles The color camera permits easier identification

of personnel and objects

If there is an emergency or disaster and security nel must see if personnel are in a particular area, video canprovide an instantaneous assessment of personnel locationand availability

person-In many cases during normal operations, security

per-sonnel can help ensure the safety of perper-sonnel in a facility,

determine that employees or visitors have not entered the

facility, or confirm that personnel have exited the

facil-ity Such functions are used for example where dangerous

jobs are performed or hazardous material is handled

The synergistic combination of audio and video

infor-mation from a remote site provides for effective

secu-rity Several camera manufacturers and installers combine

video and audio (one-way or duplex) using an

exter-nal microphone or one installed directly in the camera

The video and audio signals are transmitted over the

same coaxial, unshielded-twisted-pair (UTP), or fiber-optic

cable, to the security monitoring location where the scene

is viewed live and/or recorded When there is activity in

the camera area the video and audio signals are switched

to the monitor and the guard sees and hears the activity

in the scene and initiates a response

1.4.2 Overt vs Covert Video

Most video installations use both overt and covert

(hid-den) CCTV cameras, with more cameras overt than covert

Overt installations are designed to deter crime and

pro-vide general surveillance of remote areas such as parking

lots, perimeter fence lines, warehouses, entrance lobbies,

hallways, or production areas When CCTV cameras and

lenses are exposed, all managers, employees, and visitors

realize that the premises are under constant video

surveil-lance When the need arises, covert installations are used

to detect and observe clandestine activity While overt

video equipment is often large and not meant to be

con-cealed, covert equipment is usually small and designed

to be hidden in objects in the environment or behind a

ceiling or wall Overt cameras are usually installed

per-manently whereas covert cameras are usually designed to

be installed quickly, left in place for a few hours, days,

or weeks, and then removed Since minimizing

installa-tion time is desirable when installing covert cameras, video

signal transmission often is wireless rather than wired

1.4.3 Security Surveillance Applications

Many video applications fall broadly into two types,

indoor and outdoor This division sets a natural boundary

between equipment types: those suitable for controlled

indoor environments and those suitable for harsher

out-door environments The two primary parameters are

envi-ronmental factors and lighting factors The indoor system

requires artificial lighting that may or may not be

aug-mented by daylight The indoor system is subject to

only mild indoor temperature and humidity variations,

dirt, dust, and smoke The outdoor system must

with-stand extreme temperatures, precipitation (fog, rain, and

snow), wind, dirt, dust, sand, salt, and smoke The door systems use natural daylight and artificial lighting

out-at night supplied either by parking lights or by a located infrared (IR) source Some cameras can auto-matically switch from color operation during daylight, tomonochrome when the lighting decreases below somespecified level for nighttime operation

co-Most video security applications use fixed, permanentlyinstalled video equipment These systems are installed formonths and years and left in place until they are super-seded by new equipment or they are no longer required.There are many cases, however, where there is a require-

ment for a rapid deployment of video equipment to be used for a short period of time: days, weeks, or sometimes

months, and then removed to be used again in anotherapplication Chapter 21 describes some of these trans-portable rapid deployment video systems

1.4.4 Safety Applications

In public, government, industrial, and other facilities, asafety, security, and personnel protection plan must guardpersonnel from harm caused by accident, human error,sabotage, or terrorism Security forces are expected tomonitor the conditions and activities at all locations in thefacility through the use of CCTV cameras

In a hospital room or hallway the video cameras mayserve a dual function: monitoring patients while also deter-mining the status and location of employees, visitors, andothers A guard can watch entrance and exit doors, hall-ways, operating rooms, drug dispensaries, and other vitalareas

Safety personnel can use video for evacuation and todetermine if all personnel have left the area and are safe.Security personnel can use video for remote traffic mon-itoring and control and to ascertain high-traffic locationsand how best to control them Video plays a critical role

in public safety, as a tool for monitoring vehicular traffic

on highways and city streets, in truck and bus depots, atpublic rail and subway facilities, airports, power plants, just

to name a few

1.4.5 Video Access Control

As security requirements become more complex anddemanding, video access control and electronic accesscontrol equipments should work synergistically with eachother For medium- to low-level access control secu-rity requirements, electronic card-reading systems areadequate after a person has first been identified at someexterior perimeter location For higher security, personalbiometric descriptors (iris scanning, fingerprint, etc.)and/or video identification are necessary

Video surveillance is often used with electronic or video

access control equipment Video access control uses video

to identify a person requesting access at a remote

loca-tion, on foot or in a vehicle A guard can compare the

live image and the photo ID carried by the person on a

video monitor and then either allow or deny entry For

the highest level of access control security the guard uses

a system to compare the live image of the person to an

image of the person retrieved from a video image database

or one stored in a smart card The two images are

dis-played side by side on a split-screen monitor along with

other pertinent information The video access control

sys-tem can be combined with an electronic access control

system to increase security and provide a means to track

all attempted entries

There are several biometric video access control systems

which can positively identify a person enrolled in the

sys-tem using iris, facial, or retina identification

1.5 THE BOTTOM LINE

The synergy of a CCTV security system implies the

follow-ing functional scenario:

• An intrusion alarm sensor or VMD will detect an

unau-thorized intrusion or entry or attempt to remove

equip-ment from an area

• A video camera located somewhere in the alarm area

is viewing the area at the location or may be pointed

manually or automatically (from the guard site) to view

the alarm area

• The information from the alarm sensor and/or camera

is transmitted immediately to the security console,

mon-itored by personnel, and/or recorded for permanent

documentation

• The security operator receiving the alarm information

has a plan to dispatch personnel to the location or to

take some other appropriate action

• After dispatching a security person to the alarm area

the guard resumes normal security duties to view the

response, give additional instruction, and monitor any

future event

• After a reasonable amount of time the person

dis-patched should neutralize the intrusion or other event

The security guard resumes monitoring that situation to

bring it to a successful conclusion and continues

moni-toring the facility

The use of video plays a crucial role in the overall

secu-rity system plan During an intrusion, disaster or theft,

the video system provides information to the guard, who

must make some identification of the perpetrator, assess

the problem, and respond appropriately An installation

containing suitable and sufficient alarm sensors and video

cameras permits the guard to follow the progress of theevent and assist the response team in countering theattack

The use of video and the VMD capability to track anintruder is most effective With an intrusion alarm andvisual video information, all the elements are in place for

a timely, reliable transfer of information to the securityofficer For maximum effectiveness, all parts of the securitysystem must work together synergistically If an intrusionalarm fails, the command post may not see the intruderwith sufficient advance notice If the video fails, the guardcannot identify the perpetrator or evaluate the extent ofthe security breech even though he may know that anintrusion has occurred It is important that the securityofficer be alert and that proper audio and visual cues areprovided to alert the guard when an alarm has occurred Ifinadequate alarm annunciation is provided and the guardmisses or misinterprets the alarm and video input, the datafrom either or both are not acted upon and the systemfails

In an emergency such as a terrorist attack, fire, flood,malfunctioning machinery, burst utility pipeline, etc theoperation of video, safety sensors, and human response

at the console are all required Video is an inexpensiveinvestment for preventing accidents and minimizing dam-

age when an accident occurs Since the reaction time to

a terrorist attack, fire or other disaster is critical, havingvarious cameras at the critical locations before personnelarrive is very important Closed circuit television camerasact as real-time eyes at the emergency location, permit-ting security and safety personnel to send the appropriatereaction force with adequate equipment to provide opti-mum response In the case of a fire, while a sprinkler mayactivate or a fire sensor may produce an alarm, a CCTVcamera can quickly ascertain whether the event is a falsealarm, a minor alarm, or a major event The automaticsprinkler and fire alarm system might alert the guard tothe event but the video “eyes” viewing the actual sceneprior to the emergency team’s dispatch often save livesand reduce asset losses

In the case of a security violation, if a sensor detects

an intrusion the guard monitoring the video cameras candetermine if the intrusion requires the dispatch of per-sonnel or some other response In the event of a major,well-planned attack on a facility by a terrorist organiza-tion or other intrusion, a diversionary tactic such as a falsealarm can quickly be discovered through the use of videothereby preventing an inappropriate response

To justify expenditures on security and safety ment an organization must expect a positive return oninvestment The value of assets protected must be greaterthan the amount spent on security, and the security sys-tem must adequately protect personnel and visitors Aneffective security system reduces theft, saves money, andsaves lives

equip-Chapter 2

Video Technology Overview

CONTENTS

2.1 Overview

2.2 The Video System

2.2.1 The Role of Light and

Reflection

2.2.2 The Lens Function

2.2.3 The Camera Function

2.2.4 The Transmission Function

2.2.5 The Monitor Function

2.2.6 The Recording Function

2.7.3 Fiber Optics2.8 Switchers

2.8.1 Standard2.8.2 Microprocessor-Controlled2.9 Quads and Multiplexers

2.10 Monitors2.10.1 Monochrome2.10.2 Color2.10.3 CRT, LCD, Plasma Displays2.10.4 Audio/Video

2.11 Recorders2.11.1 Video Cassette Recorder (VCR)2.11.2 Digital Video Recorder (DVR)2.11.3 Optical Disk

2.12 Hard-copy Video Printers2.13 Ancillary Equipment2.13.1 Camera Housings2.13.1.1 Standard-rectangular2.13.1.2 Dome

2.13.1.3 Specialty2.13.1.4 Plug and Play2.13.2 Pan/Tilt Mounts2.13.3 Video Motion Detector (VMD)2.13.4 Screen Splitter

2.13.5 Camera Video Annotation2.13.5.1 Camera ID2.13.5.2 Time and Date2.13.6 Image Reversal

2.14 Summary

13

2.1 OVERVIEW

The second half of the 1990s has witnessed a quantum

jump in video security technology This technology has

manifest with a new generation of video components,

i.e digital cameras, multiplexers, DVRs, etc A second

sig-nificant activity has been the integration of security systems

with computer-based LANs, wide area networks (WANs),

wireless networks (WiFi), intranets and, Internet and the

World Wide Web (WWW) communications systems

Although today’s video security system hardware is based

on new technology which takes advantage of the great

advances in microprocessor computing power, solid-state

and magnetic memory, digital processing, and wired and

wireless video signal transmission (analog, digital over the

Internet, etc.), the basic video system still requires the

lens, camera, transmission medium (wired cable, wireless),

monitor, recorder, etc This chapter describes current

video security system components and is an introduction

to their operation

The primary function of any video security or safety

system is to provide remote eyes for the security force

located at a central control console or remote site The

video system includes the illumination source, the scene

to be viewed, the camera lens, the camera, and the means

of transmission to the remote monitoring and recording

equipment Other equipment often necessary to completethe system include video switchers, multiplexers, VMDs,housings, scene combiners and splitters, and charactergenerators

This chapter describes the technology used to: (1) ture the visual image, (2) convert it to a video signal,(3) transmit the signal to a receiver at a remote location,(4) display the image on a video monitor, and (5) recordand print it for permanent record Figure 2-1 shows thesimplest video application requiring only one video cam-era and monitor

cap-The printer and video recorder are optional cap-The era may be used to monitor employees, visitors, or peopleentering or leaving a building The camera could belocated in the lobby ceiling and pointed at the receptionarea, the front door, or an internal access door The mon-itor might be located hundreds or thousands of feet away,

cam-in another buildcam-ing or another city or country with thesecurity personnel viewing that same lobby, front door, orreception area The video camera/monitor system effec-tively extends the eyes, reaching from observer location tothe observed location The basic one-camera system shown

in Figure 2-1 includes the following hardware components

• Lens Light from the illumination source reflects off

the scene The lens collects the light from the scene

CONSOLE MONITORING SITE CAMERA SITE

SCENE

ILLUMINATION SOURCE

UTP (UNSHILDED TWISTED PAIR) OPTICAL

VIDEO VIDEO

(NATURAL,

VIDEO RECORDER (CRT/LCD)

FIGURE 2-1 Single camera video system

and forms an image of the scene on the light-sensitive

camera sensor

• Camera The camera sensor converts the visible scene

formed by the lens into an electrical signal suitable

for transmission to the remote monitor, recorder, and

printer

• Transmission Link The transmission media carries

the electrical video signal from the camera to the

remote monitor Hard-wired media choices include:

(a) coaxial, (b) two-wire unshielded twisted-pair (UTP),

(c) fiber-optic cable, (d) LAN, (e) WAN, (f) intranet,

and (g) Internet network Wireless choices include:

(a) radio frequency (RF), (b) microwave, or (c) optical

infrared (IR) Signals can be analog or digital

• Monitor The video monitor or computer screens

dis-play (CRT, LCD or plasma) the camera image by

con-verting the electrical video signal back into a visible

image on the monitor screen

• Recorder The camera scene is permanently recorded

by a real-time or TL VCR onto a magnetic tape cassette

or by a DVR using a magnetic disk hard drive

• Hard-copy Printer The video printer produces a

hard-copy paper printout of any live or recorded video

image, using thermal, inkjet, laser, or other printingtechnology

The first four components are required to make a ple video system work The recorder and/or printer isrequired if a permanent record is required

sim-Figure 2-2 shows a block diagram of a multi-cameraanalog video security system using these components plusadditional hardware and options to expand the capability

of the single-camera system to multiple cameras, monitors,recorders, etc providing a more complex video securitysystem

Additional ancillary supporting equipment for morecomplex systems includes: camera switchers, quads, multi-plexers, environmental camera housings, camera pan/tiltmechanisms, image combiners and splitters, and sceneannotators

• Camera Switcher, Quad, Multiplexer When a CCTV

security system has multiple cameras, an electronicswitcher, quad, or multiplexer is used to select differ-ent cameras automatically or manually to display theimages on a single or multiple monitors, as individual

or multiple scenes The quad can digitally combine four

MONITOR (CRT/LCD)

• COAXIAL

• UTP

• OPTICAL

1 2 3 4 QUAD

SEQUENCE 1

FIGURE 2-2 Comprehensive video security system

cameras The multiplexer can digitally combine 4, 9, 16,

and even 32 separate cameras

• Housings The many varieties of camera/lens housings

fall into three categories: indoor, outdoor and integral

camera/housing assemblies Indoor housings protect

the camera and lens from tampering and are usually

constructed from lightweight materials Outdoor

hous-ings protect the camera and lens from the environment:

from precipitation, extremes of heat and cold, dust, dirt,

and vandalism

• Dome Housing The dome camera housing uses a

hemispherical clear or tinted plastic dome enclosing

a fixed camera or a camera with pan/tilt and zoom

lens capability

• Plug and Play Camera/Housing Combination To

sim-plify surveillance camera installations many

manufac-turers are now packaging the camera-lens-housing as

a complete assembly These plug-and-play cameras are

ready to mount in a wall or ceiling and to connect the

power in and the video out

• Pan/Tilt Mechanism When a camera must view a large

area, a pan and tilt mount is used to rotate it tally (panning) and to tilt it, providing a large angularcoverage

horizon-• Splitter/Combiner/Inserter An optical or electronic

image combiner or splitter is used to display morethan one camera scene on a single monitor

• Annotator A time and date generator annotates the

video scene with chronological information A cameraidentifier puts a camera number (or name—FRONTDOOR, etc.) on the monitor screen to identify thescene displayed by the camera

The digital video surveillance system includes most of thedevices in the analog video system The primary differ-ences manifest in using digital electronics and digital pro-cessing within the video devices Digital video componentsuse digital signal processing (DSP), digital video signalcompression, digital transmission, recording and viewing.Figure 2-3 illustrates these devices and signal paths and theoverall system block diagram for the digital video system

* COMPRESSED DIGITAL VIDEO

(MJPEG, MPEG-2, MPEG-4).

** SUFFICIENT STORAGE TO SUPPORT ALL SITES

WITH SECURITY AUTHENTICATION.

RAID LEVEL 5 CONTROLLER FOR

EXPANDED STORAGE CAPACITY.

NETWORK **

VIDEO RECORDER

SITE 2

CAMERA(S) DIGITAL IP

CAMERA(S) ANALOG

*

*

KEYBOARD ALARM INPUT/

OUTPUT DEVICES ROUTER

DOMES CAMERAS

MONITORING STATION

ANALOG CAMERA(S)

DIGITAL IP CAMERA(S)

SERVER

ROUTER ROUTER

INTERNET INTRANET

*

SERVER

POTS DSL OTHER

ALTERNATE LAND LINE SITE TO SITE CONNECTION

2.2 THE VIDEO SYSTEM

Figure 2-4 shows the essentials of the CCTV camera

environment: illumination source, camera, lens, and the

camera–lens combined field of view (FOV), that is the

scene the camera–lens combination sees

2.2.1 The Role of Light and Reflection

A scene or target area to be viewed is illuminated by

nat-ural or artificial light sources Natnat-ural sources include the

sun, the moon (reflected sunlight), and starlight Artificial

sources include incandescent, sodium, metal arc,

mer-cury, fluorescent, infrared, and other man-made lights

Chapter 3 describes all of these light sources in detail

The camera lens receives the light reflected from the

scene Depending on the scene to be viewed the amount

of light reflected from objects in the scene can vary from

5 or 10% to 80 or 90% of the light incident on the

scene Typical values of reflected light for normal scenes

such as foliage, automobiles, personnel, and streets fall in

the range from about 25–65% Snow-covered scenes may

reach 90%

The amount of light received by the lens is a function

of the brightness of the light source, the reflectivity of thescene, and the transmission characteristics of the interven-ing atmosphere In outdoor applications there is usually aconsiderable optical path from the source to the scene andback to the camera; therefore the transmission throughthe atmosphere must be considered When atmosphericconditions are clear, there is generally little or no atten-uation of the reflected light from the scene However,when there is precipitation (rain, snow, or sleet, or whenfog intervenes) or in dusty, smoky, or sand-blown envi-ronments, this attenuation might be substantial and must

be considered Likewise in hot climates thermal effects(heat waves) and humidity can cause severe attenuationand/or distortion of the scene Complete attenuation ofthe reflected light from the scene (zero visibility) canoccur, in which case no scene image is formed

Since most solid-state cameras operate in the visible andnear-infrared wavelength region the general rule of thumbwith respect to visibility is that if the human eye cannotsee the scene neither can the camera Under this situa-tion, no amount of increased lighting will help; however,

if the visible light can be filtered out of the scene and onlythe IR portion used, scene visibility might be increased

NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION SOURCE

FIGURE 2-4 Video camera, scene, and source illumination

CAMERA SENSOR FOV

SOLID STATE

CAMERA CCTV

FIGURE 2-5 Video scene and sensor geometry

somewhat This problem can often be overcome by using a

thermal infrared (IR) imaging camera that works outside

of the visible wavelength range These thermal IR cameras

produce a monochrome display with reduced image

qual-ity and are much more expensive than the charge coupled

device (CCD) or complimentary metal oxide

semiconduc-tor (CMOS) cameras (see Section 2.6.4) Figure 2-5

illus-trates the relationship between the viewed scene and the

scene image on the camera sensor

The lens located on the camera forms an image of the

scene and focuses it onto the sensor Almost all video

systems used in security systems have a 4-by-3 aspect ratio

(4 units wide by 3 units high) for both the image sensor

and the field of view The width parameter is designated

as h, and H, and the vertical as v, and V Some cameras

have a 16 units wide by 9 units high definition television

(HDTV) format

2.2.2 The Lens Function

The camera lens is analogous to the lens of the human

eye (Figure 2-6) and collects the reflected radiation from

the scene much like the lens of your eye or a film camera

The function of the lens is to collect reflected light from

the scene and focus it into an image onto the CCTV

cam-era sensor A fraction of the light reaching the scene from

the natural or artificial illumination source is reflected

toward the camera and intercepted and collected by thecamera lens As a general rule, the larger the lens diame-ter, the more light will be gathered, the brighter the image

on the sensor, and the better the final image on the itor This is why larger-aperture (diameter) lenses, having

mon-a higher opticmon-al throughput, mon-are better (mon-and more sive) than smaller-diameter lenses that collect less light.Under good lighting conditions—bright indoor light-ing, outdoors under sunlight—the large-aperture lensesare not required and there is sufficient light to form

expen-a bright imexpen-age on the sensor by using smexpen-all-diexpen-ameterlenses

Most video applications use a fixed-focal-length (FFL)lens The FFL lens like the human eye lens covers a con-stant angular field of view (FOV) The FFL lens images

a scene with constant fixed magnification A large variety

of CCTV camera lenses are available with different focallengths (FLs) that provide different FOVs Wide-angle,medium-angle, and narrow-angle (telephoto) lenses pro-duce different magnifications and FOVs Zoom and vari-focal lenses can be adjusted to have variable FLs and FOVs.Most CCTV lenses have an iris diaphragm (as doesthe human eye) to adjust the open area of the lens andchange the amount of light passing through it and reach-ing the sensor Depending on the application, manual orautomatic-iris lenses are used In an automatic-iris CCTVlens, as in a human eye lens, the iris closes automaticallywhen the illumination is too high and opens automatically

EYE FIELD OF VIEW

AT SCENE

CAMERA SENSOR FIELD OF VIEW LENS

FIGURE 2-6 Comparing the human eye to the video camera lens

when it is too low, thereby maintaining the optimum

illu-mination on the sensor at all times Figure 2-7 shows

rep-resentative samples of CCTV lenses, including FFL,

vari-focal, zoom, pinhole, and a large catadioptric lens for long

range outdoor use (which combines both mirror and glass

optical elements) Chapter 4 describes CCTV lens

charac-teristics in detail

2.2.3 The Camera Function

The lens focuses the scene onto the camera image

sen-sor which acts like the retina of the eye or the film in a

photographic camera The video camera sensor and

tronics convert the visible image into an equivalent

elec-trical signal suitable for transmission to a remote monitor

Figure 2-8 is a block diagram of a typical analog CCTV

camera

The camera converts the optical image produced by

the lens into a time-varying electric signal that changes

(modulates) in accordance with the light-intensity

distri-bution throughout the scene Other camera electronic

circuits produce synchronizing pulses so that the

time-varying video signal can later be displayed on a monitor or

recorder, or printed out as hard copy on a video printer

While cameras may differ in size and shape depending on

specific type and capability, the scanning process used by

most cameras is essentially the same Almost all cameras

must scan the scene, point by point, as a function of time

(An exception is the image intensifier.) Solid-state CCD

or CMOS color and monochrome cameras are used in

most applications In scenes with low illumination, tive CCD cameras with infrared (IR) illuminators are used

sensi-In scenes with very low illumination and where no activeillumination is permitted (i.e covert) low-light-level (LLL)intensified CCD (ICCD) cameras are used These camerasare complex and expensive (Chapter 19)

Figure 2-9 shows a block diagram of a the analog camerawith (a) digital signal processing (DSP) and (b) the alldigital internet protocol (IP) video camera

In the early 1990s the non-broadcast, tube-type colorcameras available for security applications lacked long-term stability, sensitivity, and high resolution Color cam-eras did not find much use in security applications untilsolid-state color CCTV cameras became available throughthe development of solid-state color sensor technologyand widespread use of consumer color CCD cameras used

in camcorders Color cameras have now become dard in security systems and most CCTV security cameras

stan-in use today are color Figure 2-10 shows representativeCCTV cameras including monochrome and color solid-state CCD and CMOS cameras, a small single board cam-era, and a miniature remote head camera Chapters 5, 14,

15 and 19 describe standard and LLL security CCTV eras in detail

cam-2.2.4 The Transmission Function

Once the camera has generated an electrical video signalrepresenting the scene image, the signal is transmitted to

a remote security monitoring site via some transmission

(A) MOTORIZED ZOOM (B) CATADIOPTRIC LONG FFL (C) FLEXIBLE FIBER OPTIC

PINHOLE LENSES

FIGURE 2-7 Representative video lenses

means: coaxial cable, two-wire twisted-pair, LAN, WAN,

intranet, Internet, fiber optic, or wireless techniques The

choice of transmission medium depends on factors such

as distance, environment, and facility layout

If the distance between the camera and the monitor is

short (10–500 feet), coaxial cable, UTP, and fiber optic

or wireless is used For longer distances (500 to several

thousand feet) or where there are electrical disturbances,

fiber-optic cable and UTP are preferred For very long

distances and in harsh environments (frequent lightning

storms) or between separated buildings where no

electri-cal grounding between buildings is in place, fiber optics is

the choice In applications where the camera and monitor

are separated by roadways or where there is no

right-of-way, wireless systems using RF, microwave or optical mission is used For transmission over many miles or fromcity to city the only choice is the digital or Internet IPcamera using compression techniques and transmittingover the Internet and WWW Images from these Internetsystems are not real-time but sometimes come close toreal-time Chapters 6 and 7 describe all of these videotransmission media

trans-2.2.5 The Monitor Function

At the monitoring site a cathode ray tube (CRT), LCD

or plasma monitor converts the video signal back into a

VIDEO OUTPUT ANALOG/

DIGITAL

VIDEO OUT

75 ohm

TIMING AND SCANNING

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

OPTICAL IMAGE FOCUSED ONTO IMAGE SENSOR

SYNCHRONIZING

SYNC OUT (OPTIONAL)

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP)

ANALOG

INFRARED

IN OUT

COLUMN/ROW PIXEL SCANNING

INTENSIFIER,

INTENSIFIER,

SCANNING PIXEL COLUMN/ROW

INFRARED

TIMING AND SYNCHRONIZING

CCD, CMOS SENSOR:

LENS

COMPRESSION MJPEG, MPEG-4

WIRELESS PORT 802.11 a/b/g WIRED ETHERNET PORT

ALARM TRIGGERS ALARM OUTPUTS

LAN/WAN

INTERFACE LOGIC

SDRAM/FLASH MEMORY

VIDEO PROCESSOR

LCD DISPLAY (DSP)

LENS, P/T DRIVERS

AF, IRIS, ZOOM,

P/T, SHUTTER

VIDEO SIGNAL

DIGITAL VIDEO RECORDER

INTERNET INTRANET

ANALOG

DIGITAL

NTSC/PAL PORT

FIGURE 2-9 Analog camera with DSP and all digital camera block diagram

(A) INTENSIFIED CCD CAMERA

(ICCD)

(B) 1/3" FORMAT CS MOUNT COLOR CAMERA

(C) 1/2" FORMAT CS MOUNT MONOCHROME CAMERA

FIGURE 2-10 Representative video cameras

visual image on the monitor face via electronic circuitry

similar but inverse to that in the camera The final scene

is produced by a scanning electron beam in the CRT in

the video monitor This beam activates the phosphor on

the cathode-ray tube, thereby producing a representation

of the original image onto the faceplate of the monitor

Alternatively the video image is displayed point by point

on an LCD or plasma screen Chapter 8 describes monitor

and display technology and hardware A permanent record

of the monitor video image is made using a VCR tape or

DVR hard disk magnetic recorder and a permanent hard

copy is printed with a video printer

2.2.6 The Recording Function

For decades the VCR has been used to record

monochrome and color video images The real-time and

TL VCR magnetic tape systems have been a reliable and

efficient means for recording security scenes

Beginning in the mid-1990s the DVR was developed

using a computer hard disk drive and digital

electron-ics to provide video image recording The availability of

large memory disks (hundreds of megabytes) made these

machines available for long duration security recording

Significant advantages of the DVR over the VCR are the

high reliability of the disk as compared with the cassette

tape, its ability to perform high speed searches (retrieval

of images) anywhere on the disk, absence of image

dete-rioration after many copies are made

2.3.1 Natural Light

During daytime the amount of illumination and spectraldistribution of light (color) reaching a scene depends onthe time of day and atmospheric conditions The colorspectrum of the light reaching the scene is important ifcolor CCTV is being used Direct sunlight produces thehighest-contrast scene, allowing maximum identification

of objects On a cloudy or overcast day, less light is received

by the objects in the scene resulting in less contrast Toproduce an optimum camera picture under the wide vari-ation in light levels (daytime to nighttime), an automatic-iris camera system is required Table 2-1 shows the lightlevels for outdoor illumination under bright sun, partialclouds, and overcast day down to overcast night

Scene illumination is measured in foot candles (Fc)and can vary over a range of 10,000 to 1 (or more) Thisexceeds the dynamic operating range of most camera sen-sors for producing a good-quality video image After thesun has gone below the horizon and if the moon is over-head, reflected sunlight from the moon illuminates the

ILLUMINATION CONDITION

.01 001 0001 00001

107,500 10,750 1,075 107.5 10.75 1.075

.1075 01075 001075 0001075 (FtCd)

NOTE: 1 lux = 093 FtCd

COMMENTS

DAYLIGHT RANGE

LOW LIGHT LEVEL RANGE

Table 2-1 Light Levels under Daytime and Nighttime Conditions

scene and may be detected by a sensitive monochrome

camera Detection of information in a scene under this

condition requires a very sensitive camera since there is

very little light reflected into the camera lens from the

scene As an extreme, when the moon is not overhead

or is obscured by cloud cover, the only light received is

ambient light from: (1) local man-made lighting sources,

(2) night-glow caused by distant ground lighting reflecting

off particulate (pollution), clouds, and aerosols in the

lower atmosphere, and (3) direct light caused by starlight

This is the most severe lighting condition and requires

either: (1) ICCD, (2) monochrome camera with IR LED

illumination, or (3) thermal IR camera Table 2-2

summa-rizes the light levels occurring under daylight and these

LLL conditions and the operating ranges of typical

cam-eras The equivalent metric measure of light level (lux)

compared with the foot candle (Fc) is given One Fc is

equivalent to approximately 9.3 lux

2.3.2 Artificial Light

Artificial illumination is often used to augment outdoor

lighting to obtain adequate video surveillance at night

The light sources used are: tungsten, tungsten-halogen,

metal-arc, mercury, sodium, xenon, IR lamps, and light

emitting diode (LED) IR arrays Figure 2-11 illustrates

sev-eral examples of these lamps

The type of lighting chosen depends on architectural

requirements and the specific application Often a

partic-ular lighting design is used for safety reasons so that

per-sonnel at the scene can see better, as well as for improving

the video picture Tungsten and tungsten halogen lamps

have by far the most balanced color and are best for color

cameras The most efficient visual outdoor light types are

the low- and high-pressure sodium-vapor lamps to whichthe human eye is most sensitive These lamps, however,

do not produce all colors (missing blue and green) andtherefore are not good light sources for color cameras.Metal-arc lamps have excellent color rendition Mercuryarc lamps provide good security illumination but are miss-ing the color red and therefore are not as good as themetal-arc lamps at producing excellent-quality color videoimages Long-arc xenon lamps having excellent color ren-dition are often used in outdoor sports arenas and largeparking areas

Light emitting diode IR illumination arrays eithermounted in monochrome video cameras or located nearthe camera are used to illuminate scenes when sufficientlighting is not available Since they only emit energy inthe IR spectrum they can only be used with monochromecameras They are used at short ranges (10–25 feet)

long ranges (25–200 feet) with medium to narrow FOV

an automatic-iris lens or electronically shuttered camera isrequired The illumination level from most indoor light-ing is significantly lower by 100–1000 times than that ofsunlight Chapter 3 describes outdoor natural and artificiallighting and indoor man-made lighting systems availablefor video surveillance use