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IN œ4 # KHOA NGOAI NGU BAI GIANG NGU AM VA AM VI HOC Gidng vién: ThS Nguyén Thanh Truc Unit 1: INTRODUCTION aetna JJ2=S2-necE2 It is very important to understand the relationship between sounds and letters in order to assist learners at the early stages of literacy development The sounds of speech are studied in phonetics and phonology Phonetics is the study of articulation and acoustic phenomena which make it possible to produce and perceive speech sounds It provides us with tools and descriptive terms to describe as minutely as is necessary any speech sound, regardless of the language system It uses insights from anatomy, physiology, physics, and psychology Phonology is more strictly linguistics It is the study of the sound systems of particular languages and develops general principles that are applicable to sound systems of all languages Phonology in speech and graphology in writing are the study of the smallest elements of the respective codes Each speech code has a finite set of sounds, called phonemes It appears that there is a bank of human speech sounds Different languages use some of the sounds and not the others, and sometimes they use these sounds differently from other languages For example, in Aboriginal languages there are six nasals whereas English has only three; in the Aboriginal languages /r/ cannot normally occur initially, and there are three vowels which usually don’t occur initially in a word In New Zealand English there is very little difference in the pronunciation of the words “six” and “sex” Where in Australian English the vowel sound in “six” is represented [I] and that in “sex” is [ ], in New Zealand English they would both be [ ] The use of different phonemes, among other factors, makes it difficult to learn another language, especially as an adult As adults we find it difficult to hear new sound and produce them For example, because the sounds /r/ and /I/ are not distinctive phonemes in Japanese, native Japanese speakers often interchange them when writing in English Unit2: THE ORGAN OF SPEECH AND THEIR WORK GĐ#2GĐđ%2G8#2 I How are speech sounds produced? The sounds of English are made when we expel air (in some languages speech sounds can be made when inhaling) It is a little like blowing through a tube If you change the shape of the tube you obtain different sounds If you open your mouth and make a sound, you will produce a vowel sound If you change the shape of your mouth, you will produce the different vowel sounds If you block the airflow in any way, for example, by closing and then opening your mouth, you will produce a consonant sound The sounds of a speech code can be described by referring to how the sounds are produced Generally speech sounds are produced by air being expelled from the lungs, passing through the vocal cords, and out through the mouth and /or nose Modification to the airflow produces the different sounds of a language II Description of the speech organs Hard Palate Oesophagus Trachea The organs of speech 2.1 The lungs The lungs are two sack-like respiratory organs located in the thorax As speech organs, they furnish the airstream that is necessary to produce sounds 2.2 The larynx The larynx, usually called the voice box, is a structure composed of cartilage It contains the vocal cords, and this is where sounds are produced The larynx 2.3 The vocal cords and glottis The vocal cords are a pair of elastic bands attached to the wall of the larynx just behind the Adam’s apple The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis The most important quality of the vocal cords is their elasticity They can be stretched to varying degrees of tension, drawn back together or apart When they are drawn apart, the opening between them — the glottis — is open In this position, the air passage can go through without causing any vibration; so voiceless sounds are produced When the vocal cords are drawn together just close enough for the air to get out, we can produce voiced sounds In that state, the edges of the vocal cords are touching each other, or nearly touching, and the air passing through the glottis usually causes vibration When they are firmly drawn together, the glottis is completely closed When this position is released suddenly, the glottal stop [?] is produced 2.4 The Pharynx The Pharynx is the cavity located in the throat immediately behind the mouth 2.5 The oral cavity The oral cavity is in the mouth This is where sounds produced in the larynx are resonated The size and shape of this resonance chamber can be changed according to the tongue and the lips And it is precisely that these changes control the quality of the speech sounds The oral cavity includes the following parts: 2.5.1 The alveolar ridge: This is the portion of the roof of the mouth that lies just behind the front teeth; it is convex in shape, and it is not movable 2.5.2 The hard palate: This is the portion of the roof of the mouth just behind the alveolar ridge; it is a plate of bone thinly covered by other tissues Like the alveolar ridge, it is also movable 2.5.3 The velum or soft palate: This is the portion of the roof of the mouth just behind the hard palate It is muscular and movable, and the end of it may be raised to close the nasal passage This is called velic closure 2.5.4 The uvula: This is the portion of the roof of the mouth just behind the velum It is a small, flexible part hanging down from the posterior edge of the velum 2.5.5 The teeth: The term teeth, when used unqualified, refers to the upper front teeth only The lower teeth are much less important 2.5.6 The tongue: This is the most important organ of speech For studying purposes, the tongue is divided into four parts when we need to describe lingual consonants The apex is the tip of the tongue This active articulator, which is the very end or front most part of the tongue, is moved by the tongue blade The blade is also the active articulator it is about the first cm of the tongue behind which there is a point where the tongue can be bend and flex The front is the portion that lies at rest opposite the fore part of the hard palate it can articulate against or near the alveolar ridge The back or dorsum is the portion that lies at rest opposite the velum or the back part of the hard palate It can articulate against the posterior part of the hard palate, or any part of the velum 2.5.7 The lips: The lips are the two parts forming the margins of the mouth Both lips are movable and important in speech However, the lower lip is more flexible and more variously used Therefore, when used without qualification, the term lip refers to the lower lip 2.6 The nasal cavity The nasal cavity is situated on the top of the oral cavity, and is separated from the oral cavity by the palate Like the oral cavity, the nasal cavity can act as a resonance chamber Sounds that are resonated here are said to have a nasal quality or nasal sounds EXERCISES What are considered as the organs of speech? Why? How are voiced and voiceless sounds produced in theory? Unit3: ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS *‡********% The organs of speech are capable of uttering many different kinds of sounds, There are 26 letters (5 vowel letters and 21 consonant letters) in the English alphabet which give 44 speech sounds All the English speech sounds are divided into two big groups: vowel sounds (vowels) and consonant sounds (consonants) Five vowel letters give 20 vowel sounds, 21 consonant letters give 24 consonant sounds Vowels are voiced sounds produced without any obstruction in the supra- glottal cavities and consequently have no noise component Vowel sounds are often given in dictionaries and textbooks under the following numbers: 1—[i:] 6—[?] 2| 713: ] HT] 12—[2] l6—[ mi ] 17—[ 1e ] 3—[¢] 8—[v] 13—[er] 18—[ 0a ] 1#] 9—[u: ] 14—[ aø ] 19—[ ea ] 5-[a:] I0 15—[ar] 20 —[av ] | In the articulation of consonants a kind of noise producing obstruction is formed in the supra-glottal cavities Such sounds may be pronounced with or without vocal cords vibration In the chart below you can see the phonemic symbols used in English It is important to learn the phonemic alphabet because the relationship between spelling and pronunciation is so irregular in English So, with the phonemic alphabet, you can work out pronunciation for yourself, using a dictionary The phonemic symbols used in this material are the same as those in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary PRONUNCIATION: PHONEMIC CHART CONSONANTS VOWELS Symbol — Example | Symbol — Example | Symbol | Example | Symbol pen |/s/ /b/ back |/z/ cheese | /1/ him | / 90/ no f ty tea |/f/ fish | /e/ bed | /ar/ write /d/ day |/3/ television | / / bad | /v1/ boy /k/ key | /h/ hot car | /10/ here igi get hot | /øa/ poor sun | /9:/ saw | /ea/ there English | /ö/ put | /à/ now /¥/ /ds/ /f/ chair | /n/ jam |/n/ fat | /1/ |/a:/ come | /D/ lamp | /u: / see | /eI/ Example /p/ |/m/ son | /i:/ DIPHTHONGS you /v/ very |/r/ red /9/ thing | /j/ yogurt jeu bird wet la! China /6/ then |/w/ |/^ / cut Exercises Ask at least 20 people how they produce the sound /t/ Which articulator does their tip of the tongue touch? How are consonants / vowels classified? make Unit4: ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS | Ee ae Seen I/ Principles of classification A vowel is a speech sound pronounced with no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth or throat, and usually with vibration of the vocal cords Vowels don’t have exact points of articulation The tongue does not touch anywhere performs a very general role Anyway, vowels can be classified and it by the following ways Tongue height (or Jaw height) According to how far the tongue is raised (or the height of the jaw), vowels are classified as high, mid, and low High vowels Mid vowels Low vowels [i:, 1, 3:, G, uz] [e, 9, 9:] [£, 02; (3Ï Tongue position According to the fronting or retracting of the tongue, vowels are classified as front, central, or back - Front vowels - Central vowels [9, 3:, “ ] are produced with the central part of the tongue raised Back vowels [p 9:, 6, u:, a: ] are produced with the back of the tongue [ i:, 1, e, @ ] are produced with the front part of the tongue raised to the hard palate - raised toward the soft palate Blade Front Back Root Blad ~ Tip Figure 4.1 The parts of the tongue, side view (left) and top view (right) Lip position According to the shape of the lips, vowels are classified as rounded and unrounded - Rounded vowels - [ p, 9:, 5, u:, a:] are produced with the lips rounded Unrounded vowels [ is, 1, @, e, a, 3:, “ ] are produced with the lips neutral or spread Length According to the time during which a vowel is produced and sustained English vowels are classified into groups - Shortvowels - For [I,œ,e,s,p,ø, Long vowels easy [935 reference, quadrangle the ^] ds, 1:,:3: | 12 vowels are displayed on a chart called the vowel The position of each vowel on the chart indicates the manner articulation required to produce that vowel TONGUE Front Central POSITION Back High JAW HEIGHT Mid Low Unrounded LIPS POSITION The vowels quadrangle Rounded of IT Types We differentiate three types of sentence stress: II.2.a Normal sentence stress Normal sentence stress affects content words, which convey the necessary information to listeners, e.g We have ‘plenty of 'time Normal sentence stress is used to arrange words phonetically Together with the lexical and grammatical into intonation means, groups it expresses the general idea of the sentence and indicates its communicative centre The nucleus syllable is generally associated with the last content word of the group E.g He is very ’well-to-'do II.2.b Logical sentence stress By shifting the position of the last stress, we can change the place of the communicative centre The type of sentence stress which gives special prominence to a new element in a sentence or an intonation group is called logical stress The word which is singled out by the logical stress is the most important in the sentence E.g I "ke "Tom I like Tom *T like Tom I.2.c Emphatic sentence stress Most human utterances express not only the speaker thought but also his feelings and attitudes to reality and to the contents of the sentence Both normal and logical stresses can be unemphatic or emphatic Emphatic sentence stress manifests itself mainly on the High Fall or the Rise-Fall of the nuclear syllable E.g You are ’wrong >You are wrong HI.3 The distinctive function of sentence stress Sentence stress is capable of differentiating sentence and its syntactical structure E.g I ’thought he was ’married 44 the actual meaning of the I *thought he was married Sentence stress very often differentiates the attitude of the speakers E.g I’like Betty I like Betty * NOTES: (1) The English negative particle “NOT” is generally stressed E.g He did ’not ’say a word (2) The final stress does not fall on the last element in the combinations: and so on, and so forth, in a day or two, in a week or two (3) The word “GOOD” is not generally stressed in the expressions: good *morning, good ’afternoon, good ’evening; but it is on leave taking, e.g ’good night See | eee EXERCISES What are different kinds of sentence stress? What is the main function of the sentence stress? Explain: “Sentence stress helps us express situations.” Put on sentence-stress: A: The lady is young and pretty B: She is young but I wouldn’t call her pretty A: I don’t think that you are right 45 ideas exactly in different REVIEW EXERCISES A Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F) cee ones All English vowels are voiced lồn English consonants are produced with no obstruction of the airstream and no clear points of articulation 3n If an oral vowel is substituted for a nasalized vowel in bean, the meaning of the word could be changed Ae LS An allophone is a predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme 5v The difference between not and got, is due only to the position of the tongue in producing the first sounds of the words 658,5 nh A minimal pair is a pair that distinguishes by only one sound or feature nô, Seed and Soup belong to a minimal pair Lm The word phone has five phonemes eo The number of phonemes in a word is determined by the number of letters presenting the word 10322205 The description of a consonant is usually based on three main phonetic aspects Des rote Sounds may have some phonetic features in common la The vibration of vocal cords may determine whether a sound is voiced or voiceless IS 0P The position of hard palate during the production of a sound may classify the nasality of that sound LA ees Palatals are specified as [-anterior] LS rat tà: All sonorants are voiced LÔ eae A stop may be specified as [-coronal] 17 A vowel itself may be phonetically oral in some cases and nasalized in others 46 183 Bee In describing articulation, we should know which articulators are involved in sound production LOS pre es One diphthong is found in the word “backbone” 20S eae Sounds produced are influenced by the shapes of the cavities 21 When the vocal cords are wide apart, the sounds produced are voiced sounds 22 tSS6sken A vowel is a sound in the production of which there is a complete closure in the vocal tract 23 Si A sonorant may be a syllabic sound 2451-61 A letter presents only one sound 25 The lip shape is important in producing either rounded or unrounded vowels 26 B Wiese The main divisions of the roof of the mouth are dental, alveolar, hard palate, soft palate 272) Roast es The phoneme is a distinctive unit of sounds 28 dees The allophones of the same phoneme must occur in the same phonetic context 29oo i22 suy Speech sounds are divided into pure vowels and diphthongs In SIDE The word “learn” contains a diphthong aryst Consonants may be classified according to the organs of speech and the manner of articulation O2 li h0 A plosive is a stop sound When the edges of the vocal cords touching or nearly touching, the air passing through the glottis will usually cause vibration, which produces voiced sounds TW on de The allophones of a phoneme are concrete realizations of that phoneme The phoneme is an abstract unit 15510667 All phonemes can be regarded distinctive features 47 as being made up of a number of 361.4 Allophones are made up of only non-distinctive features 2A Thnaiiaans53 The allophones of a phoneme are predictable phonetic variants of that phoneme 2010 SếP Dài /e/ is a long vowel 0c y5 sài A consonant is a sound in the production of which no obstruction is formed in the mouth by the active organs of speech A217 Vowels can be long or short 41 The syllable may be defined as one or more speech sounds, forming a word or part of a word, containing one vowel sound, with or without a consonant or consonants events If we classify the consonants according to the state of vibration of AD the vocal cords, they can be voiced or voiceless AD Piensa The stress falls on the initial syllable in the word “syllable” AA ee hice The syllable structure of “learn” is CVC ese In English, the stress always falls on the last syllable of any word ` AO PR alee “sun” is a word of two syllables Ae seeks Vowels are less sonorous than consonants ARE rei se “or” is a syllable made up of one phoneme 4Ó su sac If the second syllable of a two-syllable verb contains a long vowel or diphthong, that second syllable is stressed 20 All vowels are syllabic 48 PART B-Multiple choice: Choose the best answer When the vocal cords are touching or nearly touching, the sounds produced might be A /p, t k/ they B:/s;k;tU‹-44Œ:/p;'sil/2621./a:,d; 1⁄ Which of the following words form a minimal pair? A bat-bite B thin-free C.bat-she D.ship-three How many phonemes are there in the word “teaching”? A Which B.3 C.4 D.5 of the following criteria cannot be used as a classifying criterion for consonant classification? A The place of articulation C The voicing B The manner of articulation D The shape of the lip /iz/ isan A diphthong /at/ isia B consonant C pure vowel D syllable B consonant C pure vowel D glide Rea ee A diphthong Which syllable is formed by a vowel + a consonant? A she D eye C sit B eat Which syllable is formed by a consonant + a vowel? A she D eye Cait B eat Which syllable is formed by a consonant + a vowel + a consonant? A he D eye C sit B eat 10 Which word contains a syllabic consonant? A meat B seat C run D little 11 In English a syllable is generally not formed by A a vowel C One consonant + one vowel B one vowel + one consonant _D two stops 49 12 How many syllables are there in the word “garden”? A D.4 G3 B.2 13 Which of the following syllable has the structure of CV? A learn D at Crsit B sea 14 How many syllables are there in the word “ordinarily”? A.2 ID C.4 B 15 Which of the following words contains a syllable of the structure of C+syllabic C A button D eye C can B read 16 Which of the words has the stress on the last syllable A mountaineer B teaching C photography D perfection 17 The larynx is situated in the upper part of the A mouth B windpipe C eye D ear 18 Where does the stress fall on the words “family, cinema”? A on the first syllable C on the last syllable B on the second syllable D on the first and the last syllables 19 Which of the following is / are the articulators above the larynx? A the lungs C the tongue B the stomach D the eyes 20 Which of the following states of the vocal cords is important in the production of vibration A wide apart C touching or nearly touching each other B narrow glottis D half apart 21 We use the term “glottis” to refer to the opening between A the eyes B the ears C.the vocal cords D the mouth 22 Which of the following pairs of phonemes differ by the feature [+nasal] A /p-b/ C /t-d/ B /b-m/ 50 D /t-g/ D3 pe Road85 sấy vowels are the ones in the production of which the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round A Round B Unrounded C Long D Short 24, Which of the following words does not contain a diphthong? A hear B sure C day D very 25 Which of the following syllables has the structure of V? A talk B learn GC.or D at PART C-Complete the following sentences: When a voiceless oral stop occur at the beginning of a stressed syllable, it PCCOIDGSEE 0S A vowel may become eet when it occurs before a nasal Dv Rw consonant Another word for a single vowel is According to voicing, consonants can be Ôn An affricate is a combination of AN ei 2262 11x yenskes rte tains _We can classify by the height of the jaw, the position of the tongue and the position of the lips When change two in sounds the occur meaning in the same of the environment, word, they are but does said to not cause be a 9, THẾ 792332 áen: 1s between the alveolar and the soft palate 10 The production of different speech sounds through the use of the organs of speech is KNOWN as I1 Lateral and nasals can be 12COFOTI8]S'CODSISL.OT 1.62122072001),b'8ối tân :h ôn catiats - - transcription js 13 When the word “mean” is transcribed as /mi:H/, -used 14 Speech sounds are divided into vowels and - ++++++is the combination of two vowels pronounced within iter 1S Ase cee one syllable 1g c6 205155 259 ng 00102 s07 are sounds articulated by the lower lip against the upper teeth Hước deals with how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived IS.1H16 5= AI escent are considered as articulators 19 The speech sounds have function when they are used as distinctive units of sounds 20.According to the_ of the lips, vowels can be rounded or unrounded 21.Letters not have , but they can represent sounds in words 22.There is not a one-to-one correspondence between 4- and sounds 210 ÔÔÔỒÔỒ eames in English can be classified according to distinctive features 24 The use of phonemes is controlled by rules 2911 T679 513001061 g sec provide the most usual source of energy 52 MOCK TESTS MOCK TEST I Are these statements True (T) or False (F)? (Im) All English vowels are voiced 22 Nho na English consonants are produced with no obstruction of the airstream and no clear points of articulation .A sonorant may be a syllabic sound Ae ma iniacaniates The syllable structure of “learn” is CVC II Fill in the missing words in the following sentences (Im) We can classify «2.2 Jie by the height of the jaw, the position of the tongue and the position of the lips There is not a one-to-one correspondence between and sounds An affricate is a combination of and palatal Another word for a single vowel is III Choose the correct answer (1m) Which of the following states of the vocal cords is important in the production of vibration? A wide apart C touching or nearly touching each other B narrow glottis D half apart Which of the following pairs of phonemes differ by the feature [+nasal] A /p-b/ B /b-m/ C /t-d/ D /t-g/ Which of the following is / are the articulators above the larynx? A the lungs B the stomach C the tongue D the eyes In English a syllable is generally not formed by A a vowel C one consonant + one vowel B one vowel + one consonant D two stops 53 IV What is the transcription of sounds? Describe the kinds of transcription in English? (2ms) V Find a minimal pair for the following pairs of sounds (1m) /p/ & /b/ 2./U&1 VI Match the sounds in A with one or more features in B (2ms) A B /u:/ a [+voiced] /t/ b [-anterior] 3./2/ c [+nasal] /n/ d [+sonorant] e [+coronal] f [+long] g [-continuant] VII What are three diphthongs ending in /o/ (Im) VIII Give the vowel-consonant (V-C) sound patterns for the following words (Im) a Christian b Umbrella The end! Good Luck to you! 54 MOCK TEST I Are these statements True (T) or False (F)? (Im) ` 2211 The word phone has five phonemes n 02g biệt If we classify the consonants according to the state of vibration of the vocal cords, they can be voiced or voiceless Bees eres All phonemes can be regarded as being made up of a number of distinctive features "` In English, the stress always falls on the last syllable of any word II Fill in the missing words in the following sentences (Im) When the word “mean” is transcribed as /mi:n/, - transcription is used De are esl Ani eat ee is the combination of two vowels pronounced within one syllable According to the_ of the lips, vowels can be rounded or unrounded A vowel may become when it occurs before a nasal consonant III Choose the correct answer (Im) Which of the following words does not contain a diphthong? A hear B sure € day D very Which of the following words contains a syllable of the structure of C + syllabic C A button B read C can D eye The larynx is situated in the upper part of the A.mouth — B windpipe C eye D ear Which of the following words form a minimal pair? A bat-bite B.thin-free C bat-she 55 D.ship-three IV Why is nasality predictable for vowels in English? (2ms) V Transcribe these words phonemically (Im) work read spoon robe VI Give words for each of the free variation rules (2ms) 1./q/——> /aí DUN ea aes 22/21ll VII Find two English words that fit each of the following vowel-consonant (VC) sound patterns (1m) c CEVE d CVCCVC VIII Give the symbol that corresponds to each of the following articulatory descriptions, then give an English word that contains this sound (1m) e palatal glide f voiceless labio-dental fricative The end! Good Luck to you! 56 REFERENCES t2G8 Abercrombie, D (1964) English phonetic texts Faber Abercrombie, D (1965) Studies in phonetics and linguistics Oxford U.P Abercrombie, D (1967) Elements of general phonetics Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ainsworth, W A (1976) Mechanisms of speech recognition Oxford: Pergamon Alan Cruttenden (1997) Intonation 2nd ed Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ball, M J., Miiller, N and Rutter, B (2010) Phonology for communication disorders New York: Psychology Press Blake, N F & J Moorhead, (1993) Introduction to English language Macmillan Press Ltd Bryan Gick, Ian Wilson Malden, and Donald Derrick (2013) Articulatory phonetics MA: Wiley-Blackwell Available at: https://www.vlebooks.com/vleweb/product/openreader?id=GlasgowUni&isbn= 9781118438039 Carlos Gussenhoven (2004) The phonology of tone and intonation Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 10.Carlos Gussenhoven and Haike Jacobs (2011) Understanding phonology 3rd ed London: Hodder Education 11.Carr, Philip, 1953- (2013) English phonetics and phonology: an introduction 2nd ed Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell 12 Daniel Jones (1972) An outline of English phonetics 9th ed Cambridge: Heffer 13, Daniel Jones (1986) The pronunciation of English Definitive ed Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 14 David Crystal (1969) Prosodic systems Cambridge University Press 57 and intonation in English London: 15.Denes, P B and Pinson, E N (1993) The speech chain: the physics and biology of spoken language 2nd ed New York, N.Y: W.H Freeman 16.Dennis Butler Fry (1979) The physics of speech Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 17.Gimson, A English: a C and Ramsaran, commemorative S (1990) Studies volume in honour in the pronunciation of A.C Gimson of London: Routledge 18.Goldrick, M A., Ferreira, V S and Miozzo, M (eds) (2014) The Oxford handbook of language production New York, NY: Oxford University Press 19.Gunnar Fant (1960) Acoustic theory of speech production: with calculations based on X-ray studies of Russian articulations ’s-Gravenhage: Mouton 20 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: a guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet (1999) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 21.Heinz J Giegerich (1992) English phonology: an introduction Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 22 Van der Hulst, H (ed.) (2014) Word stress: theoretical and typological issues Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Phonetic 23 International date) Alphabet (no Available at: https://www.internationalphoneticalphabet.org/ 24.IPA Trainer - Practice and transcribe phonetics using the IPA (no date) Available at: http://www ipatrainer.com/user/site/?language= 25 Yule, G., (2010) The Study of Language University Press 58 (4" ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge
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