Handbook of frozen foods
Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author(s) nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage, or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. The material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any specific situation. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: 0-8247-4712-7 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Headquarters Marcel Dekker, Inc., 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, U.S.A. tel: 212-696-9000; fax: 212-685-4540 Distribution and Customer Service Marcel Dekker, Inc., Cimarron Road, Monticello, New York 12701, U.S.A. tel: 800-228-1160; fax: 845-796-1772 Eastern Hemisphere Distribution Marcel Dekker AG, Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland tel: 41-61-260-6300; fax: 41-61-260-6333 World Wide Web http://www.dekker.com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright # 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 10987654321 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Preface For centuries, frozen foods have been available to consumers in countries that experience cold winters. In some areas with severe winters such as Alaska, Russia, and others, foods are routinely frozen by leaving them outside. Since 1875, with the development of mechanical ammonia freezing systems, the frozen food industry has grown steadily, especially in the past two decades. Frozen foods have the advantages of being very close in taste and quality to fresh foods as compared with other preserved or processed foods. Frozen foods are popular and accessible in most developed countries, where refrigerators and freezers are standard home appliances. Nowadays, frozen foods have become essential items in the retail food industries, grocery stores, convenience food stores, fast food chains, food services, and vending machines. This growth is accompanied by the frequent release of new reference books for the frozen food industry. Several updated books on freezing preservation of foods or frozen foods have been available in the past decade, and most of them are excellent books. The science and technology of food freezing can be viewed from several perspectives: Food engineering principles. These principles explain such phenomena as heat and mass transfer, freezing time, convective and conductive processes, and other processes and principles relevant to understanding the dynamics of freezing. Food science and technology principles. These principles explain the chemistry and biology of food components, their interactions during processing, and other principles relevant to understanding how foods behave before, during, and after the frozen stage. Food manufacturing principles. These principles explain how we can start with a raw ingredient and end with a finished frozen product. Food commodities, properties and applications. This approach takes an individual commodity of food (e.g., fruits, vegetables, dairy, muscle foods) and explains the whole spectrum of factors that involve cooling, refrigeration, freezing, and thawing unique to that category of food and its properties. Although the underlying principles are the same, freezing carrots is definitely different from freezing salmon. These data are a combination of the three principles above Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. and are the basis of our ability to enjoy winter vegetables during summer and 100 flavors of ice cream all year round. Over the past two decades, books have been published that cover some or all of the topics above. When it comes to books on frozen foods, it is an endless venture. The reason is simple: Every month and every year, food scientists, food technologists, and food engineers witness rapid development in the science and technology of frozen foods. We continually see new knowledge, new equipment, and new commercial applications emerging. Based on the above premises of principles and applications, the Handbook of Frozen Foods uses the following approaches to covering the data: Principles. Chapters 1 through 8 cover principles applicable to the processing of frozen foods, such as science, technology, and engineering. Topics include the physical processes of freezing and frozen storage, texture, color, sensory attributes, and packaging. Meat and poultry. Seven chapters (Chapters 9–15) discuss freezing beef and poultry meat, covering operations, processing, equipment, packaging, and safety. Seafoods’ Chapters 16 through 21 discuss frozen seafoods, covering principles, finfish, shellfish, secondary products, HACCP (Hazards Analysis and Critical Control Points), and product descriptions. Vegetables. Five chapters (Chapters 22–26) discuss frozen vegetables, covering product descriptions, quality, tomatoes, French fries, and U.S. grades and standards. Fruits. Chapters 27 through 29 discuss frozen fruits and fruit products, covering product descriptions, tropical fruits, and citrus fruits. Special product categories. Chapters 30, 31, and 32 provide details on some popular products: frozen desserts, frozen dough, and microwavable frozen foods. Safety. Chapters 33 through 36 discuss the safety of processing frozen foods covering basic considerations, sanitation of a frozen food plant, risk analysis in processing frozen desserts, and U.S. enforcement tools for frozen foods. This volume is the result of the combined effort of more than 50 contributors from 10 countries with expertise in various aspects of frozen foods, led by an international editorial team. The book contains eight parts and 36 chapters organized into eight parts. In sum, the approach for this book is unique and makes it an essential reference on frozen food for professionals in government, industry, and academia. We thank all the contributors for sharing their experience in their fields of expertise. They are the people who made this book possible. We hope you enjoy and benefit from the fruits of their labor. We know how hard it is to develop the content of a book. However, we believe that the production of a professional book of this nature is even more difficult. We thank the production team at Marcel Dekker, Inc., and express our appreciation to Ms. Theresa Stockton, coordinator of the entire project. You are the best judge of the quality of this book. Y. H. Hui Paul Cornillon Isabel Guerrero Legarreta Miang H. Lim K. D. Murrell Wai-Kit Nip iv Preface Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Contents Preface Contributors PART I. FREEZING PRINCIPLES 1.FreezingProcesses:PhysicalAspects Alain Le Bail 2.PrinciplesofFreeze-ConcentrationandFreeze-Drying J. Welti-Chanes, D. Bermu ´ dez, A. Valdez-Fragoso, H. Mu ´ jica-Paz, and S. M. Alzamora 3.PrinciplesofFrozenStorage Genevie ` ve Blond and Martine Le Meste 4.FrozenFoodPackaging Kit L. Yam, Hua Zhao, and Christopher C. Lai PART II. FROZEN FOOD CHARACTERISTICS 5.FrozenFoodComponentsandChemicalReactions Miang H. Lim, Janet E. McFetridge, and Jens Liesebach 6.FlavorofFrozenFoods Edith Ponce-Alquicira 7.FoodSensoryAttributes Patti C. Coggins and Roberto S. Chamul Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 8.TextureinFrozenFoods William L. Kerr PART III. FROZEN MEAT AND POULTRY 9.FrozenMuscleFoods:Principles,Quality,andShelfLife Natalia F. Gonza ´ lez-Me ´ ndez, Jose ´ Felipe Alema ´ n-Escobedo, Libertad Zamorano-Garcı ´ a, and Juan Pedro Camou-Arriola 10.OperationalProcessesforFrozenRedMeat M. R. Rosmini, J. A. Pe ´ rez-Alvarez, and J. Ferna ´ ndez-Lo ´ pez 11.FrozenMeat:ProcessingEquipment Juan Pedro Camou-Arriola, Libertad Zamorano-Garcı ´ a, Ana Guadalupe Luque-Alcara ´ z, and Natalia F. Gonza ´ lez-Me ´ ndez 12.FrozenMeat:QualityandShelfLife M. L. Pe ´ rez-Chabela and J. Mateo-Oyagu ¨ e 13.ChemicalandPhysicalAspectsofColorinFrozenMuscle-BasedFoods J. A. Pe ´ rez-Alvarez, J. Ferna ´ ndez-Lo ´ pez, and M. R. Rosmini 14.FrozenMeat:PackagingandQualityControl Alfonso Totosaus 15.FrozenPoultry:ProcessFlow,Equipment,Quality,andPackaging Alma D. Alarcon-Rojo PART IV. FROZEN SEAFOODS 16.FreezingSeafoodandSeafoodProductsPrinciplesandApplications Shann-Tzong Jiang and Tung-Ching Lee 17.FreezingFinfish B. Jamilah 18.FreezingShellfish Athapol Noomhorm and Punchira Vongsawasdi 19.FreezingSecondarySeafoodProducts Bonnie Sun Pan and Chau Jen Chow 20.FrozenSeafoodSafetyandHACCP Hsing-Chen Chen and Philip Cheng-Ming Chang 21.FrozenSeafood:ProductDescriptions Peggy Stanfield vi Contents Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. PART V. FROZEN VEGETABLES 22.FrozenVegetables:ProductDescriptions Peggy Stanfield 23.QualityControlinFrozenVegetables Domingo Martı ´ nez-Romero, Salvador Castillo, and Daniel Valero 24.Production,Freezing,andStorageofTomatoSaucesandSlices Sheryl A. Barringer 25.FrozenFrenchFriedPotatoesandQualityAssurance Y. H. Hui 26.FrozenPeas:StandardandGrade Peggy Stanfield PART VI. FROZEN FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS 27.FrozenFruitsandFruitJuices:ProductDescription Peggy Stanfield 28.FrozenGuavaandPapayaProducts Harvey T. Chan, Jr. 29.FrozenCitrusJuices Louise Wicker PART VII. FROZEN DESSERTS, FROZEN DOUGH, AND MICROWAVABLE FROZEN FOODS 30.IceCreamandFrozenDesserts H. Douglas Goff and Richard W. Hartel 31.EffectofFreezingonDoughIngredients Marı ´ a Cristina An ˜ o ´ n, Alain Le Bail, and Alberto Edel Leon 32.MicrowavableFrozenFoodorMeals Kit L. Yam and Christopher C. Lai PART VIII. FROZEN FOODS SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 33.SafetyofFrozenFoods Phil J. Bremer and Stephen C. Ridley 34.FrozenFoodPlants:SafetyandInspection Y. H. Hui Contents vii Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 35.FrozenDessertProcessing:Quality,Safety,andRiskAnalysis Y. H. Hui 36.FrozenFoodsandEnforcementActivities Peggy Stanfield Appendix A: FDA Standard for Frozen Vegetables: 21 CFR 158. Definitions: 21 CFR 158.3; FDA Standard for Frozen Vegetables: 21 CFR 158. Frozen Peas: 21CFR158.170 Appendix B: Frozen Dessert Processing: Quality, Safety, and Risk Analysis. SpecialOperations viii Contents Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Contributors Alma D. Alarcon-Rojo Universidad Auto ´ noma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico Jose ´ Felipe Alema ´ n-Escobedo Centro de Investigacio ´ n en Alimentacio ´ n y Desarrollo, A. C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico S. M. Alzamora Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina Marı ´ a Cristina An ˜ o ´ n Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Sheryl A. Barringer Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A. D. Bermu ´ dez Universidad de las Ame ´ ricas—Puebla, Puebla, Mexico Genevie ` ve Blond ENSBANA–Universite ´ de Bourgogne, Dijon, France Phil J. Bremer Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Juan Pedro Camou-Arriola Centro de Investigacio ´ n en Alimentacio ´ n y Desarrollo, A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Salvador Castillo Miguel Hernandez University, Orihuela, Spain Roberto S. Chamul California State University, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A. Harvey T. Chan, Jr. HI Food Technology, Hilo, Hawaii, U.S.A. Philip Cheng-Ming Chang National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Hsing-Chen Chen National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan Chau Jen Chow National Kaohsiung Institute of Marine Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan Patti C. Coggins Department of Food Science and Technology, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, U.S.A. J. Ferna ´ ndez-Lo ´ pez Miguel Hernandez University, Orihuela, Spain H. Douglas Goff Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada Natalia F. Gonza ´ lez-Me ´ ndez Centro de Investigacio ´ n en Alimentacio ´ n y Desarrollo, A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Richard W. Hartel Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A. Y. H. Hui Science Technology System, West Sacramento, California, U.S.A. B. Jamilah University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia Shann-Tzong Jiang National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan William L. Kerr Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, U.S.A. Christopher C. Lai Pacteco Inc., Kalamazoo, Michigan, U.S.A. Alain Le Bail ENITIAA–UMR GEPEA, Nantes, France Tung-Ching Lee Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A. Martine Le Meste ENSBANA–Universite ´ de Bourgogne, Dijon, France Alberto Edel Leon Universidad Nacional de Co ´ rdoba, Co ´ rdoba, Argentina Jens Liesebach Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Miang H. Lim Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Ana Guadalupe Luque-Alcara ´ z Centro de Investigacio ´ n en Alimentacio ´ n y Desarrollo, A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Domingo Martı ´ nez-Romero Miguel Hernandez University, Orihuela, Spain x Contributors Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. J. Mateo-Oyagu ¨ e Universidad de Leo ´ n, Leo ´ n, Spain Janet E. McFetridge Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand H.Mu ´ jica-Paz Universidad Auto ´ noma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico Athapol Noomhorm Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand Bonnie Sun Pan National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan J. A. Pe ´ rez-Alvarez Miguel Hernandez University, Orihuela, Spain M. L. Pe ´ rez-Chabela Universidad Auto ´ noma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico Edith Ponce-Alquicira Universidad Auto ´ noma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico Stephen C. Ridley College of Agriculture, Food, and Environmental Science, University of Wisconsin–River Falls, River Falls, Wisconsin, U.S.A. M. R. Rosmini Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina Peggy Stanfield Dietetic Resources, Twin Falls, Idaho, U.S.A. Alfonso Totosaus Universidad Auto ´ noma del Estado de Hidalgo, Hidalgo, Mexico A. Valdez-Fragoso Universidad Auto ´ noma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico Daniel Valero Miguel Hernandez University, Orihuela, Spain Punchira Vongsawasdi King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand J. Welti-Chanes Universidad de las Ame ´ ricas—Puebla, Puebla, Mexico Louise Wicker Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, U.S.A. Kit L. Yam Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A. Libertad Zamorano-Garcı ´ a Centro de Investigacio ´ n en Alimentacio ´ n y Desarrollo, A. C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Hua Zhao Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A. Contributors xi Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. [...]... and Refrigerated Surface Symposium of the International Institute of Refrigeration, Nantes, France A LeBail, et al (1998b) Influence of the freezing rate and of storage duration on the gassing power of frozen bread dough Symposium of the International Institute of Refrigeration, Nantes, France F Levy, (1958) Calculating freezing time of fish in airblast freezers Journal of Refrigeration 1(55) T Lucas, et... products Deep knowledge of the fundamentals of phase changes of water in foods and of the effect of the variables on the processes’ effectiveness and cost can open new opportunities for the application of both processes to obtain high-quality preserved foods REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 HAC Thijssen Freeze concentration In: A Spicer, ed Advances in Preconcentration and Dehydration of Foods London: Applied... temperature of the maximally freezeconcentrated system [2] The freezing of water is stopped at this temperature; the water still unfrozen at Tg0 is often called ‘‘unfreezable’’ water Since the water content of foods is often close to 80–90%, its behavior during the freezing process can be considered as that of an aqueous solution The proposed model is often a sucrose solution, which could be representative of. .. International Journal of Refrigeration 10:32–39 PG Creed, et al (1985) Heat transfer during the freezing of liver in a plate freezer Journal of Food Science 50:285–294 G Dalmau, (1987) Method for freezing citrus fruit portions Patent EP.0248.753.A2 L Donati, (1983) Freezing of foods Effects of freezing on thermophysical properties of foods Technologie-Alimentari 6(6):21–31 B Hoogstad, (1988) Method of preparing... properties of ice cream mix and ice cream International Dairy Journal 10(4):303–309 A Cleland, et al (1979b) A comparison of methods for predicting the freezing times of cylindrical and spherical foodstuffs Journal of Food Science 44:958 AC Cleland, (1990) Food refrigeration processes Analysis, design and simulation E Sciences, p 284 D Cleland, et al (1986) Prediction of thawing times for food of simple... specific adjustment of it during the treatment Undesirable side effects may occur such as spoilage of the product by the brine (requiring filtering and cleaning of the brine) and cross-contamination of pathogenic microorganisms, as shown by Berry et al (1998) The use of solid carbon dioyde as a refrigerant is an intermediate solution between contact freezing (contact of the solid flakes of CO2) and convective... is well adapted for mass production The presence of packaging is required for obvious handling reasons (removal of the frozen product from the refrigerated surface) but has a very negative impact on the efficiency of the process Direct freezing in cardboard should be avoided VII FREEZING RATE The freezing rate is central to the final quality of frozen foods A slow rate results in cell dehydration and... (J/m2 s), kd is the thermal conductivity of the dry layer (W/m K), Te is the temperature at slab surface (8C), Tf is the temperature of sublimation front (8C), L is the thickness of the slab (m), and x is the relative height of the ice front If heat is transferred through the frozen layer, À Á Tp À Tf ð3Þ q ¼ kf xL where kf is the thermal conductivity of the frozen layer (W/m K) and Tp is the heating... the rate of ice Figure 6 Schematic representation of freeze-drying of a slab Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc All Rights Reserved Principles of Freeze-Concentration and Freeze-Drying 21 sublimation (NW, kg/s m2) is given by NW ¼ eDK M w pf À pe RT ð1 À xÞL ð4Þ where e is the volume fraction of ice, DK is the Knudsen diffusion coefficient of water vapor (m2/s), Mw is the molecular mass of water... that might damage the texture of a food A fast freezing rate prevents the migration of water into the extracellular spacing and yields fine and numerous ice crystals Side effects such as the increasing of the concentration of the remaining aqueous solution might affect the integrity of cell membranes or of proteins The freezing rate is a very general statement used most of the time to compare freezing . popular products: frozen desserts, frozen dough, and microwavable frozen foods. Safety. Chapters 33 through 36 discuss the safety of processing frozen foods covering basic considerations, sanitation of a frozen. release of new reference books for the frozen food industry. Several updated books on freezing preservation of foods or frozen foods have been available in the past decade, and most of them are. technology of frozen foods. We continually see new knowledge, new equipment, and new commercial applications emerging. Based on the above premises of principles and applications, the Handbook of Frozen Foods