6 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 Ford Grilliparzer Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project Editor: Suzanne M. Bourgoin Managing Editor: Neil E. Walker Editorial Staff: Luann Brennan, Frank V. Castronova, Laura S. Hightower, Karen E. Lemerand, Stacy A. McConnell, Jennifer Mossman, Maria L. Munoz, Katherine H. Nemeh, Terrie M. Rooney, Geri Speace Permissions Manager: Susan M. Tosky Production Director: Mary Beth Trimper Permissions Specialist: Maria L. Franklin Production Manager: Evi Seoud Permissions Associate: Michele M. Lonoconus Production Associate: Shanna Heilveil Image Cataloger: Mary K. Grimes Product Design Manager: Cynthia Baldwin Senior Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski Research Manager: Victoria B. Cariappa Research Specialists: Michele P. LaMeau, Andrew Guy Malonis, Barbara McNeil, Gary J. Oudersluys Research Associates: Julia C. Daniel, Tamara C. Nott, Norma Sawaya, Cheryl L. Warnock Research Assistant: Talitha A. Jean Graphic Services Supervisor: Barbara Yarrow Image Database Supervisor: Randy Bassett Imaging Specialist: Mike Lugosz Manager of Data Entry Services: Eleanor M. Allison Manager of Technology Support Services: Theresa A. Rocklin Data Entry Coordinator: Kenneth D. Benson Programmers/Analysts: Mira Bossowska, Jeffrey Muhr, Christopher Ward Copyright © 1998 Gale Research 835 Penobscot Bldg. Detroit, MI 48226-4094 ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2546-9 (Volume 6) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne Michele Bourgoin and Paula Kay Byers]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: Presents brief biographical sketches which provide vital statistics as well as information on the importance of the person listed. ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (set : alk. paper) 1. Biography—Dictionaries—Juvenile literature. [1. Biography.] I. Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele, 1968- . II. Byers, Paula K. (Paula Kay), 1954- . CT 103.E56 1997 920’ .003—dc21 97-42327 CIP AC While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research Inc. does not guar- antee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. a This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences— Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair compe- tition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 06 9/10/02 6:23 PM Page iv 6 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 06 9/10/02 6:23 PM Page v Ford Madox Ford The English author Ford Madox Ford (1873-1939) is best known for his novels The Good Soldier and Parade’s End. An outstanding editor, he published works by many significant writers of his era. F ord Madox Ford was born Ford Madox Hueffer in Merton, England, on Dec. 17, 1873, the son of Dr. Francis Hueffer, a German, who was once music editor of the Times . His maternal grandfather, Ford Madox Brown, the painter, had been one of the founders of the Pre- Raphaelite movement, and an aunt was the wife of William Rossetti. In 1919 he changed his name from Hueffer to Ford, for reasons that were probably connected with his compli- cated marital affairs. He was educated in England, Ger- many, and especially France, and it is said that he first thought out his novels in French. By the age of 22 Ford had written four books, including a fairy tale, The Brown Owl, written when he was 17 and published when he was 19. In 1898 Joseph Conrad, on the recommendation of William Ernest Henley, suggested that Ford become his collaborator, and the result was collabora- tion on The Inheritors (1901), Romance (1903), parts of Nostromo, and The Nature of a Crime . Ford’s Joseph Con- rad (1924) discusses the techniques they used. In 1908 Ford began the periodical English Review in order to publish Thomas Hardy’s ‘‘The Sunday Morning Tragedy,’’ which had been rejected everywhere else. Other contributors included Conrad, William James, W. H. Hud- son, John Galsworthy, T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Norman Douglas, Wyndham Lewis, H. G. Wells, D. H. Lawrence, and Anatole France. After World War I Ford founded the Transatlantic Review, which numbered among its contribu- tors James Joyce and Ernest Hemingway. In 1914 Ford published what he intended to be his last novel, The Good Soldier . Out of his experiences in wartime England and service in a Welsh regiment, he then wrote the series of novels that is chiefly responsible for his high repu- tation: Some Do Not, No More Parades, and A Man Could Stand Up, published in 1924-1926, and the final volume, The Last Post, published in 1928. The view of war in these has been described as detached and disenchanted, and the novels are innovative as well as traditional. His novels were not widely read, but a revival of interest in his work began with New Directions 1942, a symposium by distinguished writers, dedicated to his memory. His war tetralogy was republished in 1950-1951 as Parade’s End, along with The Good Soldier . In his later years Ford preferred life in Provence and the United States, spending his last years as a teacher at Olivet College in Michigan with the professed aim of restoring the lost art of reading. Ford wrote more than 60 books. Among these works were volumes of poetry, critical studies ( The English Novel: From the Earliest Days to the Death of Joseph Conrad, 1929; Return to Yesterday, 1932), and memoirs ( It Was the Nightingale, 1933; Mightier Than the Sword, 1938). Ford Madox Ford died at Beauville, France, on July 26, 1939. Further Reading An excellent critical study of Ford’s career is R. W. Lid, Ford Madox Ford: The Essence of His Art (1964). Arthur Mizener, The Saddest Story: A Biography of FordMadox Ford (1971), is a thorough study. See also Douglas Goldring, The Last Pre- Raphaelite: A Record of the Life and Writings of Ford Madox Ford (1948; published as Trained for Genius, 1949); John A. Meixner, Ford Madox Ford’s Novels: A Critical Study (1962); F 1 Paul L. Wiley, Novelist of Three Worlds: Ford Madox Ford (1962); and H. Robert Huntley, The Alien Protagonist of Ford Madox Ford (1970). For discussions of particular novels see Robie Macaulay’s introduction to Parade’s End (1950) and Mark Schorer’s introduction to The Good Soldier (1951). Additional Sources Ford, Ford Madox, It was the nightingale, New York: Octagon Books, 1975, 1933. Judd, Alan, Ford Madox Ford, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1991. Saunders, Max, Ford Maddox Ford: a dual life, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Ⅺ Gerald Ford Gerald Ford (born 1913) served as Republican leader in the House of Representatives before being selected by President Nixon to replace Spiro Agnew as vice president in 1973. A year later he replaced Nixon himself, who resigned due to the Watergate crisis. In the 1976 presidential election Ford lost to Jimmy Carter. G erald Ford was born Leslie Lynch King, Jr., in Omaha, Nebraska, on July 14, 1913. Shortly after- ward, his mother divorced and moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan. After she remarried, he was adopted by and legally renamed for his stepfather, becoming Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. Ford’s personality and career were clearly shaped by his family and community. Though not wealthy, the family was by Ford’s later account ‘‘secure, orderly, and happy.’’ His early years were rather ideal: handsome and popular, Gerald worked hard and graduated in the top five percent of his high school class. He also excelled in football, winning a full athletic scholarship to the University of Michigan, where he played center and, in his final year, was selected to participate in the Shrine College All-Star game. His foot- ball experiences, Ford later contended, helped instill in him a sense of fair play and obedience to rules. Ford had a good formal education. After graduation from the University of Michigan, where he developed a strong interest in economics, he was admitted to Yale Law School. Here he graduated in the top quarter percent of the class (1941), which included such future luminaries as Pot- ter Stewart and Cyrus Vance. Immediately after graduation, Ford joined with his college friend Philip Buchen in a law partnership in Grand Rapids; in early 1942 he enlisted in the Navy, serving throughout World War II and receiving his discharge as a lieutenant commander in February 1946. FORD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 2 Early Political Career Ford was now ideally positioned to begin the political career which had always interested him. His stepfather was the Republican county chairman in 1944, which was cer- tainly an advantage for Ford. A staunch admirer of Grand Rapids’ conservative-but-internationalist senator Arthur Vandenberg, young Ford re-established himself in law prac- tice and took on the Fifth District’s isolationist congressman, Bartel Jonkman, in the 1948 primary for a seat in the House of Representatives. He won with 62 percent of the primary vote and repeated that generous margin of victory against his Democratic foe in the general election. From the outset of his House career Gerald Ford dis- played the qualities—and enjoyed the kind of help from others—which led to his rise to power in the lower house. His loyal adherence to the party line and cultivation of good will in his personal relations was soon rewarded with a seat on the prestigious Appropriations Committee. When Dwight Eisenhower gained the White House in 1952, Ford again found himself in an advantageous position since he had been one of 18 Republican congressmen who had initially written Eisenhower to urge him to seek the nomina- tion. Rise to House Leadership During the 1950s Ford epitomized the so-called ‘‘Eisenhower wing’’ of the GOP (‘‘Grand Old Party’’) in both his active support for internationalism in foreign policy (coupled with a nationalistic and patriotic tone) and his basic conservatism on domestic issues. He also developed close associations with other young GOP congressmen such as Robert Griffin of Michigan and Melvin Laird of Wisconsin who were rising to positions of influence in the House. Meanwhile, he continued to build his reputation as a solid party man with expertise on defense matters. In 1963 he reaped the first tangible rewards of his party regularity, hard work, and good fellowship as he was ele- vated to the chairmanship of the House Republican Confer- ence. Two years later, at the outset of the 89th Congress, a revolt led by his young, image-conscious party colleagues (prominent among them Griffin, Laird, Charles Goodell of New York, and Donald Rumsfeld of Illinois) propelled Ford into the post of minority leader. Minority Leader In a sense, Ford was fortunate to be in the minority party throughout his tenure as floor leader, for those years (1965-1973)—dominated by the Vietnam War and Water- gate—presented nearly insurmountable obstacles to con- structive policymaking. He tried to maintain a ‘‘positive’’ image for the GOP, initially supporting President Johnson’s policies in Vietnam while attempting to pose responsible alternatives to Great Society measures. Gradually he broke from Johnson’s Vietnam policy, calling for more aggressive pursuit of victory there. During the Nixon years, Ford gained increasing visibil- ity as symbol and spokesman for GOP policies. His party loyalty as minority leader made him a valuable asset to the Nixon administration. He was instrumental in securing pas- sage of revenue-sharing, helped push the ill-fated Family Assistance (welfare reform) Plan, and took a pragmatic, es- sentially unsympathetic stance on civil rights issues— especially school bussing. He made perhaps his greatest public impact in these years when in 1970—seemingly in retaliation for the Senate’s rejection of two conservative Southerners nominated by Nixon for seats on the Supreme Court—he called for the impeachment of the liberal Justice William O. Douglas, claiming Douglas was guilty of corrup- tion and inappropriate behavior. The impeachment effort was unsuccessful, and when the ailing Douglas eventually retired from the Court in 1975 Ford issued a laudatory public statement. Ford also enhanced his reputation as a ‘‘hawk’’ on defense matters during these years. He was one of the few members of Congress who was kept informed by Nixon of the bombings of Cambodia before the controversial inva- sion of that country in the spring of 1970. Even after the Watergate scandal broke in 1973, Ford remained doggedly loyal long after many of his party colleagues had begun to distance themselves from President Nixon. Ford retained his personal popularity with all elements of the GOP even while involving himself deeply in these controversial areas. His reputation for non-ideological prac- ticality (‘‘a Congressman’s Congressman,’’ he was some- times labeled), coupled with personal qualities of openness, geniality, and candor, made him the most popular (and uncontroversial) of all possible choices for nomination by Nixon to the vice presidency in late 1973, under the terms of the 25th Amendment, to succeed the disgraced Spiro T. Agnew. Loyal Vice President The appropriate congressional committees conducted thorough hearings on even the well-liked Ford, but discov- ered no evidence linking him to Watergate. He was con- firmed by votes of 92 to three in the Senate and 387 to 35 in the House, becoming the nation’s first unelected vice presi- dent on December 6, 1973. At his swearing-in, Ford charmed a public sorely in need of discovering a lovable politician, stating with humility, ‘‘I am a Ford, not a Lin- coln.’’ He promised ‘‘to uphold the Constitution, to do what is right . . . , and . . . to do the very best that I can do for America.’’ Nixon and Ford were never personally close, but the latter proved to be a perfect choice for the job. His charac- teristic loyalty determined his course: during the eight-plus months he served as vice president, Ford made approxi- mately 500 public appearances in 40 states, traveling over 100,000 miles to defend the president. He was faithful to Nixon to the end; even in early August of 1974, after the House Judiciary Committee had voted a first article of im- peachment against the president, Ford continued to defend Nixon and condemned the committee action as ‘‘partisan.’’ Always a realist, however, Ford allowed aides to lay the groundwork for his possible transition to the White House. When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, the unelected Volume 6 FORD 3 vice president was prepared to become the nation’s first unelected president. The White House Years Once in the White House, Ford displayed a more con- sistently conservative ideology than ever before. While holding generally to the policies of the Nixon administra- tion, he proved more unshakably committed than his prede- cessor to both a conservative, free market economic approach and strongly nationalistic defense and foreign pol- icies. In attempting to translate his objectives into policy, however, President Ford was frequently blocked by a Democratic Congress intent on flexing its muscles in the wake of Watergate and Nixon’s fall. The result was a run- ning battle of vetoes and attempted overrides throughout the brief Ford presidency. Ford made two quick tactical errors, whatever the mer- its of the two decisions. On September 8, 1974 he granted a full pardon to Richard Nixon, in advance, for any crimes he may have committed while in office, and a week later he announced a limited amnesty program for Vietnam-era de- serters and draft evaders which angered the nationalistic right even while, in stark contrast to the pardon of Nixon, it seemed to many others not to go far enough in attempting to heal the wounds of the Vietnam War. Gerald Ford governed the nation in a difficult period. Though president for only 895 days (the fifth shortest tenure in American history), he faced tremendous problems. After the furor surrounding the pardon subsided, the most impor- tant issues faced by Ford were inflation and unemployment, the continuing energy crisis, and the repercussions—both actual and psychological—from the final ‘‘loss’’ of South Vietnam in April 1975. Ford consistently championed legis- lative proposals to effect economic recovery by reducing taxes, spending, and the federal role in the national econ- omy, but he got little from Congress except a temporary tax reduction. Federal spending continued to rise despite his call for a lowered spending ceiling. By late 1976 inflation, at least, had been checked somewhat; on the other hand, unemployment remained a major problem, and the 1976 election occurred in the midst of a recession. In energy matters, congressional Democrats consistently opposed Ford’s proposals to tax imported oil and to deregulate do- mestic oil and natural gas. Eventually Congress approved only a very gradual decontrol measure. Ford believed he was particularly hampered by Con- gress in foreign affairs. Having passed the War Powers Reso- lution in late 1973, the legislative branch first investigated, and then tried to impose restrictions on, the actions of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). In the area of war pow- ers, Ford clearly bested his congressional adversaries. In the Mayaquez incident of May 1975 (involving the seizure of a U.S registered ship of that name by Cambodia), Ford retaliated with aerial attacks and a 175-marine assault with- out engaging the formal mechanisms required by the 1973 resolution. Although the actual success of this commando operation was debatable (39 crew members and the ship rescued, at a total cost of 41 other American lives), Ameri- can honor had been vindicated and Ford’s approval ratings rose sharply. Having succeeded in defying its provisions, Ford continued to speak out against the War Powers Resolu- tion as unconstitutional even after he left the White House. Ford basically continued Nixon’s foreign policies, and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger was a dominant force in his administration as he had been under Nixon. Under in- creasing pressure from the nationalist right, Ford stopped using the word ‘‘detente,’’ but he continued Nixon’s efforts to negotiate a second SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty), and in 1975 he signed the Helsinki Accords, which recognized political arrangements in Eastern Europe which had been disputed for more than a generation. The 1976 Election Ford had originally stated he would not be a candidate on the national ticket in 1976, but he changed his mind. He faced a stiff challenge for the nomination, however; former Governor Ronald Reagan of California, champion of the Republican right, battled him through the 1976 primary sea- son before succumbing narrowly at the convention. Run- ning against Democrat Jimmy Carter of Georgia in November, Ford could not quite close the large gap by which he had trailed initially. He fell just short of victory. He received over 39 million popular votes to Carter’s 40.8 million, winning 240 electoral votes to his opponent’s 297. At the age of 63 he left public office—at the exact time he had earlier decided that he would retire. Gerald Ford prospered as much after leaving the White House as any president had ever done. Moving their pri- mary residence to near Palm Springs, California, he and his popular wife Betty (the former Elizabeth Warren, whom he married in 1948) also maintained homes in Vail, Colorado, and Los Angeles. Besides serving as a consultant to various businesses, by the mid-1980s Ford was on the boards of directors of several major companies, including Shearson/ American Express, Beneficial Corporation of New Jersey, and Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation. Estimated to be earning $1 million per year, Ford shared a number of investments with millionaire Leonard Firestone and busied himself with numerous speaking engagements. Some criti- cized him for trading on his prestige for self-interest, but Ford remained clear of charges of wrongdoing and saw no reason to apologize for his success. Long a spokesman for free enterprise and individual initiative, it is somehow fitting that he became a millionaire in his post-presidential years. In December, 1996 Business Week said that the former President had amassed a fortune of close to $300 million over the past two decades, largely from buying and selling U.S. banks and thrifts. Still, his fiscal success didn’t diminish his concern over Congress’s decision to cut off funds for all living former Presidents as of 1998. In July 1996 Ford paid a visit to several Congressmen, in the hope of urging a Con- gressional change of heart. Unfortunately for Presidents Carter, Reagan, and Ford, it appears that the Congressional decision is firm, especially in this era of scrutinizing every item in the Federal budget. In 1997 Ford participated in ‘‘The Presidents’ Summit on America’s Future,’’ along with former presidents Bush and Carter, and President Clinton, as well as General Colin FORD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 Powell, and former first ladies Nancy Reagan and Lady Bird Johnson. The purpose of the gathering was to discuss volun- teerism and community service, and marked the first occa- sion when living former presidents convened on a domestic policy. Further Reading Richard Reeves’s A Ford Not a Lincoln (1975) and Jerald F. ter Horst’s Gerald Ford and the Future of the Presidency (1974) provide interesting coverage of his pre-presidential years; the former is more critical than the latter. Ford’s autobiography, A Time to Heal (1979), is the best source available on his early life, while Robert Hartmann’s Palace Politics: An Inside Ac- count of the Ford Years (1980) and Ron Nessen’s It Sure Looks Different from the Inside (1978) give interesting glimpses of Ford as president. The most systematic treatment of Ford’s presidency is in A. James Reichley, Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations (1981). Also see Robert Hartman’s Palace Politics: An Inside Account of the Ford Years (1990). Ⅺ Henry Ford After founding the Ford Motor Company, the Ameri- can industrialist Henry Ford (1863-1947) developed a system of mass production based on the assembly line and the conveyor belt which produced a low- priced car within reach of middle-class Americans. T he oldest of six children, Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863, on a prosperous farm near Dearborn, Mich. He attended school until the age of 15, mean- while developing a dislike of farm life and a fascination for machinery. In 1879 Ford left for Detroit. He became an apprentice in a machine shop and then moved to the Detroit Drydock Company. During his apprenticeship he received $2.50 a week, but room and board cost $3.50 so he labored nights repairing clocks and watches. He later worked for Westinghouse, locating and repairing road engines. His father wanted Henry to be a farmer and offered him 40 acres of timberland, provided he give up machinery. Henry accepted the proposition, then built a first-class ma- chinist’s workshop on the property. His father was disap- pointed, but Henry did use the 2 years on the farm to win a bride, Clara Bryant. Ford’s First Car Ford began to spend more and more time in Detroit working for the Edison Illuminating Company, which later became the Detroit Edison Company. By 1891 he had left the farm permanently. Four years later he became chief engineer; he met Thomas A. Edison, who eventually be- came one of his closest friends. Ford devoted his spare time to building an automobile with an internal combustion engine. His first car, finished in 1896, followed the attempts, some successful, of many other innovators. His was a small car driven by a two- cylinder, four-cycle motor and by far the lightest (500 pounds) of the early American vehicles. The car was mounted on bicycle wheels and had no reverse gear. In 1899 the Detroit Edison Company forced Ford to choose between automobiles and his job. Ford chose cars and that year formed the Detroit Automobile Company, which collapsed after he disagreed with his financial back- ers. His next venture was the unsuccessful Henry Ford Auto- mobile Company. Ford did gain some status through the building of racing cars, which culminated in the ‘‘999,’’ driven by the famous Barney Oldfield. Ford Motor Company By this time Ford had conceived the idea of a low- priced car for the masses, but this notion flew in the face of popular thought, which considered cars as only for the rich. After the ‘‘999’’ victories Alex Y. Malcomson, a Detroit coal dealer, offered to aid Ford in a new company. The result was the Ford Motor Company, founded in 1903, its small, $28,000 capitalization supplied mostly by Malcomson. However, exchanges of stock were made to obtain a small plant, motors, and transmissions. Ford’s stock was in return for his services. Much of the firm’s success can be credited to Ford’s assistants—James S. Couzens, C. H. Wills, and John and Horace Dodge. By 1903 over 1,500 firms had attempted to enter the fledgling automobile industry, but only a few, such as Ran- som Olds, had become firmly established. Ford began pro- duction of a Model A, which imitated the Oldsmobile, and Volume 6 FORD 5 followed with other models, to the letter S. The public responded, and the company flourished. By 1907 profits exceeded $1,100,000, and the net worth of the company stood at $1,038,822. Ford also defeated the Selden patent, which had been granted on a ‘‘road engine’’ in 1895. Rather than challenge the patent’s validity, manufacturers secured a license to produce engines. When Ford was denied such a license, he fought back; after 8 years of litigation, the courts decided the patent was valid but not infringed. The case gave the Ford Company valuable publicity, with Ford cast as the underdog, but by the time the issue was settled, the situa- tions had been reversed. New Principles In 1909 Ford made the momentous decision to manu- facture only one type of car—the Model T, or the ‘‘Tin Lizzie.’’ By now he firmly controlled the company, having bought out Malcomson. The Model T was durable, easy to operate, and economical; it sold for $850 and came in one color—black. Within 4 years Ford was producing over 40,000 cars per year. During this rapid expansion Ford adhered to two prin- ciples: cutting costs by increasing efficiency and paying high wages to his employees. In production methods Ford believed the work should be brought by conveyor belt to the worker at waist-high level. This assembly-line technique re- quired 7 years to perfect. In 1914 he startled the industrial world by raising the minimum wage to $5 a day, almost double the company’s average wage. In addition, the ‘‘Tin Lizzie’’ had dropped in price to $600; it later went down to $360. World War I Ford was now an internationally known figure, but his public activities were less successful than his industrial ones. In 1915 his peace ship, the Oskar II, sailed to Europe to seek an end to World War I. His suit against the Chicago Tribune for calling him an anarchist received unfortunate publicity. In 1918 his race for the U.S. Senate as a Democrat met a narrow defeat. Ford’s saddest mistake was his ap- proval of an anti-Semitic campaign waged by the Ford- owned newspaper, the Dearborn Independent . When the United States entered World War I, Ford’s output of military equipment and his promise to rebate all profits on war production (he never did) silenced critics. By the end of the conflict his giant River Rouge plant, the world’s largest industrial facility, was nearing completion. Ford gained total control of the company by buying the outstanding stock. In the early 1920s the company continued its rapid growth, at one point producing 60 percent of the total United States output. But clouds stirred on the horizon. Ford was an inflexible man and continued to rely on the Model T, even as public tastes shifted. By the middle of the decade Ford had lost his dominant position to the General Motors Company. He finally saw his error and in 1927 stopped production of the Model T. However, since the new Model A was not produced for 18 months, there was a good deal of unemployment among Ford workers. The new car still did not permanently overtake the GM competition, Chevrolet; and Ford remained second. Final Years Ford’s last years were frustrating. He never accepted the changes brought about by the Depression and the 1930s New Deal. He fell under the spell of Harry Bennett, a notorious figure with underworld connections, who, as head of Ford’s security department, influenced every phase of company operations and created friction between Ford and his son Edsel. For various reasons Ford alone in his industry refused to cooperate with the National Recovery Administration. He did not like labor unions, refused to recognize the United Automobile Workers, and brutally repressed their attempts to organize the workers of his com- pany. Ford engaged in some philanthropic activity, such as the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit. The original purpose of the Ford Foundation, established in 1936 and now one of the world’s largest foundations, was to avoid estate taxes. Ford’s greatest philanthropic accomplishment was the Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Mich. A stroke in 1938 slowed Ford, but he did not trust Edsel and so continued to exercise control of his company. Dur- ing World War II Ford at first made pacifist statements but did retool and contribute greatly to the war effort. Ford’s grandson Henry Ford II took over the company after the war. Henry Ford died on April 7, 1947. Further Reading Ford’s own books, written in collaboration with Samuel Crowther, provide useful information: My Life and Work (1922), Today and Tomorrow (1926), and Moving Forward (1930). The writings on Ford are voluminous. The most au- thoritative on the man and the company are by Allan Nevins and Frank E. Hill, Ford: The Times, the Man, the Company (1954), Ford: Expansion and Challenge, 1915-1933 (1957), and Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1962 (1963). The best short studies are Keith Theodore Sward, The Legend of Henry Ford (1948), and Roger Burlingame, Henry Ford: A Great Life in Brief (1955). More recent works are Booton Herndon, Ford: An Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their Times (1969), and John B. Rae, Henry Ford (1969). Of the books by men who worked with Ford, Charles E. Sorensen, My Forty Years with Ford (1956), is worth reading. See also William Adams Simonds, Henry Ford: His Life, His Work, His Genius (1943), and William C. Richards, The Last Billionaire: Henry Ford (1948). Ⅺ Henry Ford II Henry Ford II (1917-1987) was an American indus- trialist. He turned his grandfather’s faltering auto- mobile company into the second largest industrial corporation in the world. FORD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 [...]... recent serious critical studies are H J Oliver, The Art of E M Forster (1 960 ); J B Beer, The Achievement of E M Forster (1 962 ); and Frederick C Crews, E M Forster: The Perils of Humanism (1 962 ) Ⅺ ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Abe Fortas A noted civil libertarian, Abe Fortas (1910-1982) served only four years on the Supreme Court before a series of charges led to his resignation A be Fortas, who was... about a group of pioneers seeking a young girl captured by the Indians Ford next turned to the conflicts of ward politics in the Irish section of Boston in The Last Hurrah (1958) With the exception of Sergeant Rutledge (1 961 ) and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1 963 ), Ford’s films of the 1 960 s were not on the same level as his earlier work Cheyenne Autumn (1 964 ), treating the tragedy of the American... editing of The Works of Thomas Jefferson in 10 volumes (1892-1899), The Political Writings of John Dickinson, 1 764 -1774 (1895), and The Federalist (1898) 9 10 FORMAN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Ford turned from bibliography to literary endeavors His two popular biographical studies were The True George Washington (18 96) and The Many-sided Franklin (1899) Less idolatrous than previous studies of the... as minister of foreign affairs and director of political education in 1 968 (Early in 1 967 SNCC and the BPP had coordinated a number of ventures and activities.) This alliance soon ended, and Forman even left SNCC in 1 969 when he was essentially deposed by H Rap Brown, then chairman of the committee Before Forman left, he delivered one of the most provocative challenges to come out of the 1 960 s In a speech... no biography of Ford The best account of his life and early business career is found in Allan Nevins and Frank E Hill, Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933-1 962 (1 963 ) Less scholarly but more recent is Booton Herndon, Ford: An Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their Times (1 969 ), which offers many revealing insights into Ford’s personality and character Ⅺ John Ford The English author John Ford (15 86- 163 9?)... (1819-1 868 ) is remembered for the Foucault pendulum, by which he demonstrated the diurnal rotation of the earth, and for the first accurate determination of the velocity of light L eon Foucault, son of a Paris bookseller, was born on ´ Sept 18, 1819 He began to study medicine but turned to physics, probably as a result of becoming assistant to Alfred Donne, who was developing a pho´ ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY. .. editor of the scientific section of the Journal de debats In 1855 he was appointed physicist at the ´ Paris Observatory; in 1 864 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society of London; and in 1 865 he became a member of the Academie des Sciences ´ Rotating Frames of Reference Foucault’s first important experimental demonstration was of the earth’s rotation, for which he used a pendulum The plane of. .. full discussion of Fourier’s work in The Teaching of Charles Fourier (1 969 ) Other views of his ideas and their early-19th-century environment are found in J L Talmon, The Rise of Totalitarian Democracy (1952), and Frank E Manuel, The Prophets of Paris (1 962 ) Additional Sources Beecher, Jonathan, Charles Fourier: the visionary and his world, Berkeley: University of California Press, 19 86 Ⅺ Baron Jean... and guides, as the subtitle of the first suggests But fundamentally they present the comments of a liberal, thoughtful, and Hellenistic mind on human manners and traditions This characteristic bent of mind is evident in all of Forster’s subsequent essays Perhaps the most noted and influential of these is the volume of criticism Aspects of the Novel, the text of the 15 16 FORTAS Clark Lectures which... writer He was most noted for: 1 967 : High Tide of Black Resistance (1 967 ); Sammy Younge, Jr.: The First Black College Student to Die in the Black Liberation Movement (1 968 ); Liberation: Viendra d’une Chose Noir (1 968 ); ‘‘The Black Manifesto’’ (1 969 ); The Political Thought of James Forman (1970); The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972, 1985); and Self-Detertion: An Examination of the Question and its Applications . 6 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 Ford Grilliparzer Staff Senior Editor:. of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 06 9/10/02 6: 23 PM Page iv 6 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World