4 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 Chippendale Dickinson Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project Editor: Suzanne M. Bourgoin Managing Editor: Neil E. Walker Editorial Staff: Luann Brennan, Frank V. Castronova, Laura S. Hightower, Karen E. Lemerand, Stacy A. McConnell, Jennifer Mossman, Maria L. Munoz, Katherine H. Nemeh, Terrie M. Rooney, Geri Speace Permissions Manager: Susan M. Tosky Production Director: Mary Beth Trimper Permissions Specialist: Maria L. Franklin Production Manager: Evi Seoud Permissions Associate: Michele M. Lonoconus Production Associate: Shanna Heilveil Image Cataloger: Mary K. Grimes Product Design Manager: Cynthia Baldwin Senior Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski Research Manager: Victoria B. Cariappa Research Specialists: Michele P. LaMeau, Andrew Guy Malonis, Barbara McNeil, Gary J. Oudersluys Research Associates: Julia C. Daniel, Tamara C. Nott, Norma Sawaya, Cheryl L. Warnock Research Assistant: Talitha A. Jean Graphic Services Supervisor: Barbara Yarrow Image Database Supervisor: Randy Bassett Imaging Specialist: Mike Lugosz Manager of Data Entry Services: Eleanor M. Allison Manager of Technology Support Services: Theresa A. Rocklin Data Entry Coordinator: Kenneth D. Benson Programmers/Analysts: Mira Bossowska, Jeffrey Muhr, Christopher Ward Copyright © 1998 Gale Research 835 Penobscot Bldg. Detroit, MI 48226-4094 ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2544-2 (Volume 4) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available. While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research Inc. does not guar- antee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. a This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences— Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair compe- tition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 04 9/10/02 6:21 PM Page iv 4 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 04 9/10/02 6:21 PM Page v Thomas Chippendale Thomas Chippendale (1718-1779), an English cabi- netmaker, was one of the most distinguished of all furniture designers. His ‘‘Director’’ was the first comprehensive design book for furniture ever to ap- pear, and it remains probably the most important. T he son of a joiner and the grandson of a carpenter, Thomas Chippendale was born at Otley, Yorkshire, on June 5, 1718. There is a tradition that as a young apprentice he made the dollhouse at Nostell Priory, York- shire, and also worked at Farnley Hall near Otley. He moved to London and married in 1748; his eldest son, also named Thomas, was born in 1749. In 1753 Chippendale went into partnership with James Rannie and took residence on St. Martin’s Lane, where he remained until his death. Chippendale’s The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s Director appeared in 1754. This work, containing 160 plates and some descriptive notes, was intended to serve as a trade catalog and guide to clients. Its special significance is that it forms an important expression of the gay and lively rococo taste which became fashionable in the mid-18th century in the reaction against the somewhat ponderous character of early Georgian furniture. All three aspects of the rococo style were represented: the French, the Gothic, and the Chinese. At one time it was believed that many of the designs in the Director were not the work of Chippen- dale, but Anthony Coleridge (1968) suggests Chippendale himself was responsible for the original drawings. The Di- rector was so successful that a second edition appeared in 1755 and a third edition, revised and enlarged, in 1762. One of Chippendale’s important early commissions was the furnishing of Dumfries House in Scotland in 1759. This house was the first independent work of the architect Robert Adam, and it was probably here that the long associ- ation between the two men began. Both were members of C 1 the Society of Arts, to which Chippendale was elected in 1760. The Director was the principal inspiration behind the characteristic mahogany furniture of the mid-18th century, and Chippendale’s designs were used, often in greatly sim- plified form, by innumerable provincial and rural craftsmen. The most distinguished furniture produced from the Chip- pendale workshops, however, was the handsome mar- quetry pieces inspired by the neoclassic designs of Robert Adam. It was for many years hotly debated whether Chip- pendale ever actually made furniture to the architect’s de- signs, but that he did so is conclusively proved by Chippendale’s bill of July 9, 1765, for the supply to Sir Lawrence Dundas of armchairs and sofas which correspond exactly to an Adam design dated 1765. It appears that henceforth Chippendale absorbed the Adam manner so successfully that the architect had the fullest confidence in leaving the design of movable articles to Chippendale, who supplied furniture in the neoclassic style to Harewood House, Newbey Hall, and Nostell Priory, all in Yorkshire, and to other houses with which Adam was concerned. The pair of important satinwood and mahogany marquetry china cabinets at Firle Place, Sussex, is in Chippendale’s neoclassic style (ca. 1770). Chippendale died in London in November 1779. His eldest son continued the family business. Further Reading The first monograph on Chippendale was Oliver Brackett, Thomas Chippendale: A Study of His Life, Work, and Influ- ence (1924). This was superseded by the monumental study of Anthony Coleridge, Chippendale Furniture: The Work of Thomas Chippendale and His Contemporaries in the Rococo Taste (1968). Two volumes of selections of Chippendale de- signs were published by Alec Tiranti, with notes and preface by R. W. Symonds: Chippendale Furniture Designs (1948) and The Ornamental Designs of Chippendale (1949). The first systematic account of Chippendale and his contempo- raries was Ralph Edwards and Margaret Jourdain, Georgian Cabinet-Makers (1944; rev. ed. 1955); this work was partially superseded by later studies. Chippendale’s designs are dis- cussed in Peter Ward-Jackson, English Furniture Designs of the Eighteenth Century (1958). For the most comprehensive general account of Chippendale’s furniture in the Adam style see Clifford Musgrave, Adam and Hepplewhite and Other NeoClassical Furniture (1966). Other useful works are Ralph Fastnedge, English Furniture Styles from 1500 to 1830 (1955), and Helena Hayward, ed., World Furniture: An Illustrated History (1965). Additional Sources Gilbert, Christopher, The life and work of Thomas Chippendale, London: Studio Vista, 1978. Ⅺ Jacques Chirac Jacques Chirac (born 1932) was an influential French technocrat under Presidents Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou. He served as prime minister under President Vale´ry Giscard d’Estaing (1974-1976), was an unsuccessful presidential can- didate in 1981, became prime minister again in 1986 under President Franc¸ois Mitterrand, and was elected President of France in 1995. J acques Chirac was born in Paris on November 29, 1932. Young Jacques had a meteoric career. Like many upper middle class Parisians he first headed for the bureau- cracy. He graduated from the prestigious Institute for Politi- cal Studies and the National School for Administration, one of the training grounds for the French elite. In 1959 Chirac began his bureaucratic career in ac- counting at the Cour des Comptes. Like many bureaucrats of his day, he found his own commitment to growth and modernization coincided with the policies of the new Gaullist government. He was tapped to join a politician’s personal staff, in this case Prime Minister Pompidou’s, in 1962. For the remainder of Pompidou’s tenure, Chirac was a valuable economic adviser who played a critical role in the dramatic economic growth France was experiencing. Chirac entered the electoral arena in 1965, when he was elected to the municipal council of the tiny Corre`zian town of Sainte-Fe´re´ol, his family’s home town. In 1967 he was elected to the National Assembly from that area and was repeatedly re-elected after that. Chirac was also appointed to a series of cabinet posts, beginning as secretary of state for social affairs in charge of CHIRAC ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 2 employment in 1967. After that he served as secretary of state for the economy and finance (1968-1971), minister delegate to the premier for relations with Parliament (1971- 1972), minister of agriculture and rural development (1972- 1974), and minister of the interior (February-May 1974). Appointed Prime Minister Chirac’s political influence within the Gaullist party grew during those years. His personal political career really took off with the 1974 presidential election. President Georges Pompidou died while in office that April. Chirac supported the successful Vale´ry Giscard d’Estaing in the ensuing elections rather than the Gaullist Jacques Chaban- Delmas. The new president named Chirac prime minister. And, despite some grumbling from the old Gaullist ‘‘barons,’’ he took control of the Gaullist party, which had been left in a shambles following Chaban’s disastrous showing in the elections. His years as prime minister were difficult. He and President Giscard had different styles and images of the proper role for the state. Chirac, in particular, had difficulty with the president’s frequently expressed desire to limit the role of the state in guiding the economy. In addition, Prime Minister Chirac’s strong ambitions often conflicted with the president’s. Finally, in 1976, the president requested and received Prime Minister Chirac’s resignation. Member of the Opposition That December Chirac restructured the Gaullist party, calling it the Rally for the Republic (RPR), and became the ‘‘new’’ party’s first leader as a first step in his own presiden- tial campaign. In 1977 he was elected the first mayor of Paris since the commune of 1870-1871. He used that office, which he held until 1995, as a vehicle to criticize the national government and to demonstrate his own ability to head a team that had remarkable success in redeveloping much of the city and improving its social services. He also headed the RPR slate in the 1978 legislative elections and continued his critical support of the Giscard-Barre govern- ment from then until the end of Giscard’s seven year term in 1981. That year, Jacques Chirac chose to run in the presiden- tial elections and did rather well, winning 18 percent of the first ballot vote. At the second ballot, he only gave Giscard lukewarm support, which undoubtedly helped contribute to the president’s defeat by President Franc¸ois Mitterrand. Chirac remained one of the leading opposition politicians. When the Socialist Party of President Mitterrand lost its majority in the National Assembly in the 1986 election, Chirac became prime minister again in a power-sharing agreement called cohabitation. It was the first time in the 28 years of the Fifth Republic that the French government was divided between a conservative parliament, led by Chirac, and a socialist president, Mitterrand. In 1988 Chirac ran for president a second time and was again defeated by Mitterrand. Mitterrand’s election ended cohabitation and Chirac’s term as prime minister. In 1995, Mitterrand, in declining health, decided not to seek another term in office. In the May election to replace him, Chirac won nearly 53 percent of the vote to capture the presidency on his third attempt. President of France As the President of France, Chirac faced the daunting challenge of restoring public confidence and generating higher levels of economic growth to decrease the country’s alarming unemployment rate. In addition to creating more jobs, Chirac also promised to lower taxes, overhaul the education system, and create a volunteer army. The Presi- dent also signalled his intention of continuing Mitterrand’s move toward European integration and a single European currency. Chirac’s popularity dropped, however, when, later in 1995, France restarted its nuclear weapons test program in the South Pacific. Over 20 countries officially protested, demonstrators across the globe took to the streets, and international boycotts of wine and other French products were erected. Riots erupted in Tahiti, near the test site, injuring 40 people and causing millions of dollars in prop- erty damage. Chirac defended his decision by claiming that Mitterrand had prematurely ceased testing during his term in office. Chirac promised, however, to sign the Compre- hensive Test Ban Treaty provided the current round of test- ing offered sufficient data to make future computer simulations feasible. Chirac’s closest political advisor was his daughter Claude who handled the President’s communications, orga- nized his trips, and played an important role in his election. Despite the serious burdens that Chirac shouldered as French President, he embraced the lighter side of life and had a penchant for Americana that probably began in 1953 when he traveled to the United States and attended summer courses at Harvard. To help support himself, the 20-year-old Chirac worked as a soda jerk and dishwasher in a Howard Johnson’s restaurant. The New York Times, speaking of Chirac’s common touch, reported, ‘‘He prefers a cold Mexi- can beer to a glass of wine, and a genuine American meal like a hot turkey sandwich with gravy to a pseudo-Escoffier meal. While he strongly supports the law that requires French television stations to show mainly French films, . . . friends say he would rather watch a Gary Cooper western than a mannered French romance.’’ Chirac’s habit of fre- quenting McDonald’s and Burger King restaurants led Prime Minister Alain Juppe´ to joke in Time, ‘‘As soon as he sees a fast-food place, he has to stop the car, rush up to the counter, and order a hamburger.’’ Further Reading For an article on Chirac’s presidency, see Paris bureau chief, Craig R. Whitney’s article in the New York Times, February 11, 1996. None of Jacques Chirac’s books have been translated into En- glish. The best material on him and his political circum- stances can be found in Jean Charlot, The Gaullist Phenomenon (London, 1971) and in Frank L. Wilson, French Political Parties Under the Fifth Republic (1982). Ⅺ Volume 4 CHIRAC 3 Giorgio de Chirico The Italian painter Giorgio de Chirico (1888-1978), acclaimed by the surreallists as a forerunner of their movement, founded the school of metaphysical painting. G iorgio de Chirico was born on July 10, 1888, in Volos, Greece, the son of an engineer from Palermo. The family settled in Athens, where De Chirico studied art at the Polytechnic Institute. His earliest works were landscapes and seascapes. After the death of his father in 1905 De Chirico, attracted by the German neoromantic school of painting, moved to Munich. There he saw the paintings of Arnold Bo¨ cklin and discovered the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche, which exercised a great influence on him. The attraction of Bo¨cklin for De Chirico is best under- stood from the artist’s own words: ‘‘Bo¨cklin knew how to create an entire world of his own of a surprising lyricism, combining the preternaturalism of the Italian landscape with architectural elements.’’ De Chirico also spoke of the metaphysical power with which ‘‘Bo¨cklin always springs from the precision and clarity of a definite apparition.’’ These statements describe the characteristics of De Chirico’s own art. In 1909 De Chirico went to Italy. The following year he began to execute the paintings that became characteristic of his style, such as the Enigma of the Oracle and the Enigma of an Autumn Afternoon . This style he developed further in Paris between 1911 and 1915, where he worked in isolation and in poor health. When he exhibited at the Salon des Inde´pendants in 1913, Guillaume Apollinaire called him ‘‘the most astonishing painter of his time.’’ De Chirico had to return to Italy for his military service and was stationed in Ferrara (1915-1918). The architecture of that city, with its far perspectives, deepened his sense of the mysterious. In 1917 he met the painter Carlo Carra` at the military hospital in Ferrara, and they launched the meta- physical school (Scuola Metafisica) of painting, which at- tempted to create a new order of reality based on metaphysics. Giorgio Morandi, Ardengo Soffici, Filippo de Pisis, Alberto Savinio (De Chirico’s brother), and Mario Sironi soon became members of the circle. Characteristics of His Art The art of De Chirico centers upon the antithesis be- tween classical culture and modern mechanistic civiliza- tion. These two elements are locked in a desperate struggle, and the tragic quality of this situation exudes an aura of melancholy of which De Chirico is a prime exponent. The iconographic elements of his early art—modern railways and clock towers combined with ancient architecture—are to be sought in the artist’s childhood memories of Greece. For the strange visual images in which De Chirico cast his mature works (1911-1918), he used an airless dreamlike space in his townscapes with an exaggerated perspective artificially illuminated, with long sinister shadows, and strewn about with antique statues. There is an elegiac lone- liness too (the Delights of the Poet , 1913) and the disturbing juxtaposition of such banal everyday objects as biscuits and rubber gloves with those of mythical significance. And De Chirico’s new man has no face; he is a dummy ( Hector and Andromache , 1917). A favorite amusement of ancient Greece was the com- position of enigmas. In De Chirico’s art they symbolize an endangered transitional period of European culture. From the enigma to the riddle presented by one’s dream life is but a short step. Late Works De Chirico moved to Rome in 1918, and on the occa- sion of an exhibition that year he was hailed as a great avant-garde master. A year later he became one of the leaders of Valori Plastici, a group of painters espousing traditional plastic values which dominated the artistic scene in Italy at that time. In 1919 an exhibition of De Chirico’s works in Berlin made a deep impression on the central European Dadaists. Between 1920 and 1924 his art under- went numerous fluctuations. In 1925 De Chirico returned to Paris, where the French proclaimed him one of the masters of surrealism. He, how- ever, had quarreled with the Dadaists and surrealists (he corresponded intensely between 1920 and 1925 with Paul E ´ luard and Andre´ Breton) and had left this stage of his development far behind. In Paris, De Chirico designed scenery and costumes for the Ballets Sue´dois and the Ballets Monte Carlo and began to paint a series of ruins, wild horses, and gladiators. After 1929, the year in which he published a strange dream novel, Hebdomeros , he changed his style entirely, re- nounced his adherence to the modern movement, and from then on, living in Rome, became not only a fierce critic of modernism but an academic painter of neoclassic charac- ter. He died in 1978. Further Reading James Thrall Soby, Giorgio de Chirico (1955), is a searching and comprehensive study of De Chirico’s life, work, and philoso- phy. Isabella Far, Giorgio de Chirico (1953), has a text in Italian and English. See also James T. Soby and Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Twentieth-Century Italian Art (1949), and Massimo Carra`, ed., Metaphysical Art (1970). De Chirico’s novel, Hebdomeros , is discussed in J. H. Matthews, Surrealism and the Novel (1966). Ⅺ Caroline Chisholm Caroline Chisholm (1808–1877) was a British-born author and philanthropist, whose work with immi- grant families, women and children ensured the suc- cessful colonization of Australia. CHIRICO ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 C aroline Jones Chisholm was born in a time of tur- moil. On the continent, Napoleon was wreaking havoc, and the wars undertaken to defeat him were sapping Great Britain of her resources. The Industrial Revo- lution was in full swing, and by the late 18th century there had emerged a massive underclass of ‘‘deserving’’ poor, many without means of subsistence. To deal with the pov- erty, a support system loosely based on the Christian princi- ple of charity was espoused. Foremost among the early protagonists of this social philosophy were John Howard, Robert Owen, and Elizabeth Fry—philanthropists who per- ceived the need for outright abolition of state poor laws in favor of a more personal reliance on voluntary charitable support of the poor by the upper class. Not without its opponents, this system of poor relief and quasi-state aid persisted not only in Great Britain, but in most cases throughout the empire until the end of World War I (1914-18). Born in 1808 into the reasonably well-to- do family of William Jones, a yeoman farmer in Northamp- ton, Caroline Chisholm received an education that reflected the times. As a young girl, she visited the sick of the neigh- boring village, providing them with help and care, and was, in the words of one biographer, educated to ‘‘look on phil- anthropic labor as a part of her everyday life.’’ At seven, she displayed a passionate interest in immigration. Having heard wondrous tales of far-off lands in what has been characterized as an enlightened house- hold, she invented an immigration game. Using a wash basin as the sea, she ‘‘made boats of broad-beans; expended all [her] money in touchwood dolls, removed families, lo- cated them in the bed-quilt and sent the boats, filled with wheat, back to the friends.’’ This early interest in immigration would later provide a focus for her rising phil- anthropic passion. When Captain Archibald Chisholm asked her to marry him, the 22-year-old accepted on the condition that she maintain the freedom to pursue any philanthropic concern she desired; his acceptance of her terms forged a loving compromise that would endure throughout their marriage. Indeed, he assisted Chisholm, becoming somewhat of a partner in her great works. But another problem confronted the young couple. Archibald was a Roman Catholic. Raised Protestant—in an age and nation where Catholicism was viewed with suspicion and mistrust—Chisholm faced a dif- ficult decision. Deeply in love with her husband, she con- verted to Catholicism and lest one think that her conversion was one of mere convenience, ‘‘the record of her life,’’ as one biographer put it, ‘‘shows that she was a most devout Catholic.’’ Her Catholicism would, later in life, furnish op- ponents with dangerously powerful ammunition in their fight against her work. For the first two years of their marriage, the couple lived in Brighton until, in the early months of 1832, Archibald received a posting to Madras, India. When Chisholm fol- lowed him there a few months later, she immediately dis- covered a viable outlet for her philanthropic passions. Living in a military encampment, she observed the soldiers’ families and found the condition of their children, espe- cially the daughters, appalling. As they ran about without discipline or structured education, she decided to establish a school for these unattended young ladies. As the wife of a junior officer with limited resources, Chisholm would have to raise the necessary funds through private donations. She enlisted the help of a few friends and set out to appeal to the generosity of ‘‘a few gentlemen.’’ At the end of five days, they had raised 2,000 rupees, and The Female School of Industry for the Daughters of European Soldiers was founded. The school, which taught cooking, housekeeping, and the ‘‘three R’s,’’ was a significant first step in Chisholm’s philanthropic career. During their sojourn in Madras, she gave birth to two sons whose care coupled with the maintenance of the school kept her busy. In 1838, Archibald was granted sick leave, and the Chisholms headed for Australia. The difficult journey took over seven months, acquainting Chisholm with the inherent difficulties of travel to Australia, a lesson that would partly fuel her philanthropic concern for the plight of immigrants in the years to come. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, free immigration slowly began to transform Australia from a reputedly desolate penal colony to a thriving, prospering, proud member of the British Empire. Sydney, the pearl of New South Wales (NSW) and the visible symbol of an as- cendant Australia, stretched at its seams, bustling with activ- ity and opportunity. Initially, all immigration had been unassisted, but in 1831 the Home government instituted a system of assisted immigration. This new step was taken because the majority of the free immigrants had been single men, and since the transported convicts were predomi- nantly male as well, a poor male-female ratio existed in the colony. The disparity between the sexes was, according to some, ‘‘causing grave moral evils,’’ and assisted immigration, it was hoped, would provide a balance be- tween the sexes and encourage civilized conduct in this less than civilized outpost of the empire. The British govern- ment, however, emptied the slums, tenements, orphanages, and asylums of England, and by 1835 this system was suffer- ing severe criticism. A program of bounties was instituted, by which agents of Australian settlers in England would offer bounties to qualified immigrants. Gradually, bounties were handed out by shipping companies and ship-owners. These shipowners were granted bounty permits in their name, with no mention of specific immigrants, by the governor of Aus- tralia. Spotting an opportunity for immense profit, ship- owners packed as many immigrants as possible on their ships, without regard for their suitability or comfort. Regard- less of the obvious corruption of this system, the settlers were contented with these new immigrants. One of the main flaws associated with assisted immigration and the bounties was the lack of provision for immigrants after disembarkation. Whereas in 1838, when Chisholm arrived in Australia, less than 7,000 immigrants entered the country, by 1841, a surge in immigration swelled the number of newcomers to over 20,000. Even in the best of times, such a number would have overwhelmed the system. In the depressionary times of the early 1840s, the effects were disastrous. Immigrants—largely taken from large urban centers in England, Scotland, and Ireland— Volume 4 CHISHOLM 5 preferred starvation in Sydney to an uncertain future in the bush. Although a demand existed in the interior for labor, these immigrants were unwilling, without assistance, to venture far from Sydney’s familiar trappings. The foremost concern of Caroline Chisholm was the plight of the young immigrant girls. When Captain Chisholm sailed for China in 1841, his wife decided to come to the aide of the abandoned and penniless women of Sydney. Assisted by a committee, Chisholm set out to estab- lish an immigrants’ home where these women could reside until suitable employment could be found. Immediately, she met opposition from the colony’s governor, Sir George Gipps, who believed as did most people of the day, that women had no place in public life. Her Catholicism, as well, raised the suspicions of some opponents to the plan, though the opposition remained muted in the beginning. While praying in Church on Easter Sunday, 1841, Chisholm made a solemn vow: . . . to know neither country nor creed, but to serve all justly and impartially. I asked only to be enabled to keep these poor girls from being tempted by their need to mortal sin, and resolved that to accomplish this, I would in every way, sacrifice my feelings— surrender all comfort—nor, in fact, consider my own wishes or feelings, but wholly devote myself to the work I had in hand. Invigorated by her new pledge, she proved a formi- dable adversary to Gipps. Eventually, after striking a bargain that no state funds would be used, Gipps acquiesced, giving Chisholm part of the old immigration barracks. Thus, in 1841, the Female Immigrants’ Home was established. In the first year alone, it served approximately 1,400 women, helping to settle most of them in the interior of the continent. Situating these young women in suitable homes, Chisholm traveled extensively and by the end of 1842 had established 16 branch homes throughout northeastern New South Wales. That year, she authored Female Immigration Consid- ered in a Brief Account of the Sydney Immigrants Home, the first book published in Australia by a woman. With the advent of a crippling economic depression, Chisholm began to concentrate on settling whole families of immigrants on land of their own. Demand for labor in the bush remained high, but British land-settlement policies had kept the price of land high enough to make land pur- chase impossible for all but the wealthiest immigrant fami- lies. Chisholm regarded permanent settlement of the lands in the interior as both a way to combat the depression and a way to alleviate the problem of overpopulation in Great Britain. She devised a system of land settlement by which families would be distributed in the bush in small settle- ments, with 10- to 15-year clearing leases (as opposed to rent), allowing these families to prosper. This idea interested several important landowners, most notably Captain Robert Towns, who offered her 4,000 acres at Shell Harbor, NSW, for the settlement of 50 fami- lies. But, fearing that the plan would create a new class of landowners and thus upset the prevailing political structure of the colony, the Select Committee on Distressed Labourers stated that the Committee was ‘‘afraid we should find that these people becoming employers of labour would do us a mischief.’’ Undaunted by her lack of support, Chisholm pressed on, publishing a survey entitled ‘‘Voluntary Infor- mation from the People of New South Wales,’’ in order to further stimulate acceptance of the organized settlement of Australia by Britons. Determined to take her fight directly to the British people, the family visited England upon Archibald’s 1845 retirement from the army. With her organization firmly established in Australia, Chisholm felt the need to furnish it with a steady flow of immigrants. Explaining her philoso- phy, she wrote: for all the clergy you can dispatch, all the school- masters you can appoint, all the churches you can build and all the books you can export will never do much good without ‘‘God’s Police’’—wives and little children. In England, she could appeal more directly to philan- thropic and social reformers, and she hoped to do this by circulating the ‘‘Voluntary Information’’ among all classes of people in Great Britain. Thus, upon arrival in England, Chisholm developed the three-point agenda that she thought necessary to promote the successful settlement of Australia: (1) to organize a viable colonization system; (2) to arrange for unwanted and mistreated orphans a chance at a new life; and (3) to convey to Australia the wives and chil- dren of men transported by the British government earlier, either as ticket-of-leave men or emancipated convicts. First, she wanted to organize a national scheme for sustained colonization. A few months after her arrival, Chisholm set up an office in London where she could inter- view prospective immigrants. She published ‘‘Emigration and Transportation Relatively Considered,’’ extolling the virtues of systematic emigration over forced transportation, and soon gained popularity in some powerful circles of Victorian society. Charles Dickens wrote several articles in his periodical Household Words championing her cause, and with such support the Family Colonization Loan Society was founded in 1847. By the end of 1849, 200 families had been enrolled and plans for chartering a ship were begun. In providing for passage to Australia, the Society effectively eradicated overcrowding and other injurious conditions on ships which had plagued earlier immigration schemes. The first vessel to be chartered, the Slains Castle, sailed in Sep- tember of 1850 with 250 families on board. Soon, other ships followed, and Chisholm succeeded in convincing whole families to undertake emigration. In 1852, the Legis- lative Council of NSW granted the Family Colonization Loan Society the sum of £10,000 in support of continued immigration. Chisholm’s work had gained the support of the Australian government, and the success of the Family Colonization Loan Society had been assured. Concerning the second and third goals of her stay in England, Chisholm had little problem securing transport, and later homes, for two shiploads of children taken from several orphanages around England. She managed as well to secure assistance from the British government for the CHISHOLM ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 [...]... in those ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY years, 1 654 and 1 655 , for having a caustic and dismissive attitude towards all forms of Christianity, which may have been a smokescreen to allay suspicions of her conversion At any rate, after her open confession of her new faith, scandalous tales of her atheism died away On the other hand scurrilous rumors of her real motives, printed in an avalanche of hostile... importance of the questions he did not dare to ask A number of episodes follow, intermixed with parallel adventures of Gauvain, and then at line 9234 Chrestien’s poem abruptly ends In the course of over 55 ,000 additional lines, four continuators put their hands to bringing the story to a conclusion, but their efforts fall far short of the genius, and 23 24 ´ CH R E T I E N ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY. .. governing organ of military rule, akin to the Japanese bakufu, and he himself occupied the position of chief councilor, the highest office In this position he supervised personnel administration, levying of taxes, and surveillance of officials In two seminal books on linguistic theory— Syntactic Structures (1 957 ) and Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (19 65) —Chomsky argued that the grammar of human language... subordinate role after that 25 26 CH RISTINA OF SWEDEN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Also in 1930, writing under the penname of Mary Westmacott, she published Giant’s Bread, the first of six romances, none of which showed distinction In that same year in Murder at the Vicarage, undoubtedly the best-written Christie novel, she first presented Jane Marple, who became one of her favorite sleuths and... standard history, such as Takashi Hatada, A History of Korea (1 951 ; trans 1969) Ⅺ Frederic Francois Chopin ´ ´ ¸ Frederic Francois Chopin (1810-1849), a Polish´ ´ ¸ French composer and pianist, was one of the creators of the typically romantic character piece All of his works include the piano ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY T he imaginative schemes of Frederic Chopin for his ´ ´ piano pieces include... Christo Vladimiroff Javacheff Christo Vladimiroff Javacheff (born 19 35) is a Bulgarian-born sculptor who gained world- wide fame for his unique large-scale environmental artworks such as Running Fence and Valley Curtain ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Once in Paris, Christo supported himself by painting and met a group of artists who used everyday objects and events as the subjects of their work The... one of the outstanding monarchs of the Yi dynasty His reign culminated the great 18th-century revival of traditional Korean civilization C hongjo, born Yi Sng on Oct 28, 1 752 , was the son of Crown Prince Changhn and the grandson of King Yngjo, whose 52 -year reign preceded his own Stu- 15 16 CHOP IN dious as a youth, Chongjo exhibited an early maturity which helped him to cope with the tragedy of 1762,... 1 258 the last Ch’oe dictator was murdered The only biography of Chmielnicki in English is George Vernadsky, Bogdan, Hetman of the Ukraine (1941) Brief sketches of Chmielnicki are presented in William Cresson, The Cossacks: Their History and Country (1919), and Maurice Hindus, The Cossacks: The Story of a Warrior People (19 45) The best general history of the period is V O Kliuchevskii, A History of. .. Pecos, Austin, Tex.: Eakin Press, 1984 Ⅺ 11 12 CH’I-Y ING ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Ch’i-ying The Manchu official and diplomat Ch’i-ying (ca 1786-1 858 ) was chief negotiator for the first series of treaties concluded between China and the Western nations between 1842 and 1844 B orn an imperial clansman of the Ch’ing dynasty, Ch’i-ying began his official career in 1806 He first achieved international... In 19 75, Chou was dying of cancer, but he continued to serve China In January, his report to the Fourth National ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY People’s Congress justified the Cultural Revolution as a battle against bourgeois tendencies and at the same time proposed the Four Modernizations (of agriculture, industry, national defense and technology) Chou died on January 8, 1976 His Family In 19 25 Chou . 4 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 Chippendale Dickinson Staff Senior. of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 04 9/10/02 6:21 PM Page iv 4 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World