A Types of words: • Simple words are those that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units E.g and, boy, hunt, hospital, gentle • Complex words can be analysed into constituent parts E.g boys, hunters, hospitalize, hospitalization, gentleman, gentlemanly • Compound words can be formed from two or more simple or complex words (e.g landlady, longlegged, red-head, life jacket, blue bottle) WORD STRUCTURE Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 B Word structure: * Morphology deals with the internal structure of complex words only * What sort of structure complex words have? The morphemes of a complex word are put together in a particular way, with a particular arrangement and order A morpheme must be bound in a particular position Each affix attaches only to a particular lexical category, called its base and results in a word of another particular lexical category E.g nation national nationalize denationalize denationalization Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 * The representation of the internal structure of the word Tree & Bracket diagram: The diagram shows how a word begins at the root and is built up one affix at a time Tree Diagram N N V Adj real af af ize ation V af dis af V agree ment Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 BRACKET DIAGRAM * The internal structure of a complex word is not obvious sometimes a) ◦ Disagreement b) N [agree]V ◦ Adj [dis [ agree]V] V ◦ [[dis [agree]V] V ment]N ◦ Af un Realization ◦ [real]A ◦ N Af Af Adj N Adj happy ness un happy Af ness - The diagram (b) is wrong because the prefix un- can combine freely with adjectives, but not with nouns [[real]A ize] V ◦ [[[real]Aize]V ation ] N ◦ Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Word formation I Derivation A Definition: Derivation is the morphological process of creating new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes e.g work V + er → worker N B Characteristics: Category Change: - Often change the syntactic category (the part of speech) of the word or base morpheme, e.g sing V + er → singer N - Creates a new word by changing the category and/or the meaning of the base, e.g X V + er → XN (one who does X) 10 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Derivational Rules - Help predict how words may be formed in English, e.g from the rule: un + Adjective X → unX = not X un + harmonious (A) means “…” - Help analyse words, e.g trainer, trainee - train = X; –er N = “one who does X”, -eeN = “one who receives X interviewer, interviewee; examiner, examinee; employer, employee 11 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Phonological constraint Multiple derivations: - Create multiple levels of word structure consistent with the word formation rules and in terms of the feeding rule E.g organ + ize + ation + al Particular derivational affix added to attach only to stems with particular phonological properties, e.g Adjectives + –en → Verbs with a causative meaning (Adjectives which are monosyllabic stems that end in m-n-l-r) E.g white + en → whiten but abstracten (*) or greenen (*) → organizational [organ]N [[organ]Nize]V [[[organ]Nize]Vtion]N [[[[organ]Nize]Vtion]Nal]A 13 12 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 II INFLECTION C Types: A Definition: The process of modifying the word’s form to mark the sub-grammatical class to which this word belongs 1) Prefixation: The process of forming new words by adding an affix to the front of a stem e.g un + happyA → unhappyA e.g 3rd-person singular: I work, he works; past tense: I worked 2) Suffixation: B Types: types of inflection, realized in inflectional markers The process of forming new words by adding an affix to the end of a stem E.g 1) Noun/ nominal inflectional markers: a Plural markers –s e.g girl – girls hopeN + less → hopelessA ** Some common derivational affixes (p.32-36) b Possessive marker –’s (books); boys’ 14 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 e.g Mary’s (book); boy’s 16 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 2) Verb inflectional markers: a 3rd person present singular marker –s e.g I bake – He bakes b Past tense marker –ed e.g (they) wait – (they) waited Some common derivational affixes (p.28-29) c Progressive marker –ing (continuous) e.g (they) sing – (they are) singing d Past participle marker: regular -ed OR irregular e.g (have) eaten; (have) baked 3) Adjective inflection suffixes: a Comparative marker –er fast – faster b Superlative marker: -est fast - fastest 18 17 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 III Compounding - compounds A Definition: The process of creating a new word by joining two or more already existing words e.g black + bird → blackbird hand + wash → hand-wash; hand-made B Characteristics: 2) Structural status of constituent members: The constituent members of a compound are not equal: the lexical category of the last member is often the same as that of the whole compound E.g washing machine (N) gerund Productivity: dependent + head Highly productive: found in all lexical categories E.g N: boyfriend; V: team-teach; Adj: easy-going # sociable, Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 N but Takeoff (n) = take (v) + off (prep.) Break up (phrasal V) => the breakup (n) Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 3) Grammatical status - The entire compound always consists of two - The last member can undergo inflection, e.g handwashed E.g components, each of which may be a compound 4) Number of structural members: N N stone the basic compounding operation is always binary hanger-on E.g lady-killer N N N age N cave E.g N dweller N N N N V af hang er Af V er lady kill prep N N N N dog N N food box on Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Stress Distribution: Inter-relationships between compounding and derivation: compounding and derivation may feed each other Affixation feeds Compounding Compounding feeds Affixation (the member of a compound are (a compound may serve as the themselves affixed/Affixation first) base of an affix/ Compouding first) Adj N Adj N ease V af V y go V af ing N brain V wash af - The first component is stressed (compounds): ‘GREEN-house, ‘BLACK-board The second component is stressed (non-compounds/ free word groups): green ‘HOUSE, black BOARD - Compounds are sometimes written as single words, sometimes with an intervening hyphen E.g greenhouse or green-house ing Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 C Types of Compound Closed compound nouns: no air space in between constituent words E.g football, peanut, homework,… Open compound nouns: cell phone, high school, life jacket,… Hyphenated compound nouns: mother-in-law, to-do list, X-ray,… Space and Hyphen – Where? =>OOPS! No clear rules! => look up dictionary/conventional use for more certainty For more references, read: http://www.sightwordsgame.com/spelling/compound-words/ and https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/889/whenshould-compound-words-be-written-as-one-word-withhyphens-or-with-spaces IV Conversion (Zero derivation) ◦ A morphological process to create a new word without the use of affixation by simply assigning a new syntactic category to an already existing word ◦ Restricted to unsuffixed words E.g work V+ Þ → work N V Stress shift ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by changing the position of the stress pattern of the existing word ◦ E.g ‘record N → re’cord V Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 VI Abbreviation Clipping ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by shortening a polysyllabic word E.g maths ◦ Initial clipping: telephone → phone ◦ Medial clipping: Hydrogen-bomb → H – bomb ◦ Final clipping: Examination → exam ◦ Initial – final clipping: influenza → flu Acronymy ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by using the initial letters of a string of words E.g International Monetary Fund → IMF lending ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by merging parts of two already existing words E.g breakfast and lunch → brunch, stagnation and inflation → 32 stagflation Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 VII Back formation (Back Derivation) ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by substracting a suggested affix from the existing word E.g beggarN – garAF → beg V VIII Reduplication ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by repeating part or the entire of the existing word E.g sing song, chit chat, willy nilly (adv), leap and neap IX Sound imitation (Onomatopoeia) ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by imitating the sounds produced by animals or natural phenomena E.g moo, meow, roar, cuckoo, howl, cackle, splash, crow 33 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 X Borrowing XI Adoption of brand names (Coinage / Invention) ◦ A morphological process that borrows words from other languages ◦ A morphological process to create a new word from widely used products by popular brands OR since the newly coined word spreads out among users E.g café (Fr); ballet (Fr.); karma (Sancrit); tsunami (Jap.) E.g Kleenex, google, facebook, 101, 404 (cluecless person) taco (Spanish); kiosk (Turkish); restaurant (Fr.) 34 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 XII Ablaut (Vowel alternation) A morphological process to create new word by the replacement of a vowel with different vowel E.g sing V → song N Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 Nguyễn Ngọc Nhật Minh, MA, UFLS-UD, 2018 ... influenza → flu Acronymy ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by using the initial letters of a string of words E.g International Monetary Fund → IMF lending ◦ A morphological process to... (Back Derivation) ◦ A morphological process to create a new word by substracting a suggested affix from the existing word E.g beggarN – garAF → beg V VIII Reduplication ◦ A morphological process... Borrowing XI Adoption of brand names (Coinage / Invention) ◦ A morphological process that borrows words from other languages ◦ A morphological process to create a new word from widely used products