HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY (Lịch sử triết học cổ đại)

IGNATIUS YARZA HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY SINAG TALA PUBLISHERS, INC Manila © Copyright 1983 Ignatius Yarza Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, S A (EUNSA) Plaza de los Sauces, 1 y 2 Baranain, Pamplo.

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

Heracles Ponticus attributes the discovery of philosophy to Pythagoras, who famously identified himself solely as a philosopher rather than an artist While the accuracy of this account is uncertain, it is well-established that both the term and concept of philosophy originated in Greece Modern historical research has confirmed this Greek origin, resolving the longstanding debate over whether philosophy arose in the East or West Although the Orient may have influenced the development of Greek philosophy, particularly in areas like mathematics and astronomy, such contributions do not diminish the originality of Greek thought.

The originality that emerged in Ionia during the 6th and 5th centuries B.C marked a significant shift in knowledge, characterized by a focus on rational inquiry and natural explanations This new approach laid the groundwork for Western culture, influencing philosophical thought and scientific reasoning The intellectual advancements of this period not only transformed understanding but also had lasting consequences for future generations, shaping the trajectory of Western civilization.

"philosophy” had a rather generic meaning It meant the intellectual activity which gave rise to culture as a rhetorical and literary phenomenon.

The specific meaning of philosophy which the Greeks bequeathed to posterity will be found later on, in the works of Plato and Aristotle.

Plato views philosophy as an endless pursuit of wisdom, a form of knowledge that aligns with the infinite understanding of God He emphasizes humanity's role in seeking this wisdom by questioning the entirety of reality and exploring its mysteries Similarly, Aristotle characterizes philosophical knowledge as a comprehensive inquiry that encompasses all aspects of existence, leaving no part of reality unexamined.

1 Cf Heracl Pont., fr 88; Diogenes Laertius, I,12.

Philosophy is distinguished from the particular sciences by its comprehensive nature, as it seeks to understand the entirety of reality rather than just specific aspects This holistic approach is complemented by a method that emphasizes rational inquiry into the causes and principles underlying existence According to Aristotle, true Wisdom involves exploring the first causes and ultimate principles of all things, highlighting the philosopher's role in examining the totality of reality.

The last characteristic feature of Greek philosophy is its end. Philosophy has an exclusively speculative or contemplative end Once more, it is Aristotle who tells us:

Philosophy is not a science of production, as evidenced by the origins of philosophical inquiry rooted in wonder Early philosophers began to question the complexities of the universe, such as the moon, sun, and stars, driven by a desire to escape ignorance Their pursuit of knowledge was not for practical benefits but emerged when basic life necessities were met Thus, philosophy is a unique discipline that exists for its own sake, embodying the essence of true freedom in intellectual exploration.

Philosophy is a free science that aims for knowledge without any utilitarian purpose Its sole objective is the pursuit of understanding, driven by the intrinsic human desire to know As stated, "All men, by their very nature, have a desire to know."

1 Cf Aristotle, Metaphysics, VI (the translation of W Ross has been used for the quotations from Aristotle).

Philosophy originated in the Greek colonies of Ionia, specifically along the coast of Asia Minor The earliest known philosophers, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, hailed from Miletus Aristotle is credited with preserving the legacy of these Ionian thinkers, who aimed to comprehend the entirety of reality by seeking the fundamental cause or unifying principle behind all existence.

Aristotle noted that the Ionian philosophers were preceded by poet-theologians such as Homer, Hesiod, and the Orphic poets, who provided mythological explanations of the universe In contrast, the Ionian philosophers sought to rationally understand reality, incorporating some mythological elements but primarily focusing on logical reasoning to explore the mysteries of existence.

The Ionian philosophers were driven by a singular goal in their exploration of reality's causes: the pursuit of knowledge This motivation is evident in their investigative approaches and is consistently emphasized in ancient traditions that reference these early thinkers.

Ionia was a pivotal location for the birth of philosophy due to its favorable social and economic conditions The region enjoyed a climate of freedom supported by its political institutions, while thriving commerce ensured material well-being This environment allowed artistic and scientific pursuits to thrive, ultimately leading to the geographic center of philosophy shifting from Ionia to other Greek colonies and Athens.

Greek philosophy holds timeless significance in Western culture, primarily due to the profound questions it posed and the rational mindset it embraced This philosophical tradition marked a pivotal shift from mythical interpretations of the universe, fostering a quest for comprehensive understanding driven solely by the pursuit of knowledge.

An illustrative example is the well-known tale of Thales, who fell into a well while gazing at the sky, absorbed in his thoughts about the heavens (Plato, Theatetus, 173 d) This story highlights how philosophical inquiries often stem from earlier religious inspirations.

The Greek approach to philosophy remains a fundamental perspective for understanding the discipline today It highlights the essential purpose of philosophy and establishes its independence as a distinct science Moreover, philosophy is clearly differentiated from other types of knowledge.

DIVISION OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

Greek philosophy was bom in the 6th C B.C., and came to a close in

In 529 A.D., Emperor Justinian prohibited the teaching of pagan authors, marking a significant turning point in philosophical thought This evolution can be categorized into distinct periods: the pre-Socratic era focused on cosmological questions about the origins of the universe, with philosophers like the Ionians, Pythagoreans, Eleatics, and Pluralists, whom Aristotle termed natural philosophers The emergence of the sophists shifted the focus to humanism, centering on the individual, with Socrates exemplifying this change The subsequent contributions of Plato and Aristotle advanced philosophy, establishing its branches and deepening speculative inquiry This was followed by the Hellenistic period, characterized by the three main schools of Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism, alongside a rise in eclecticism Finally, the neo-Platonism period synthesized various philosophies, including Middle Platonism, neo-Pythagoreanism, and the influential school of Alexandria, which incorporated significant religious elements.

We shall not consider the beginnings of Christian philosophy in this book Although Christian philosophy began during the closing stages of

1 E Berti, "Quale senso ha oggi studiare la filosofia antica" in Studi aristotelici, L' Aquila

1975, p 40. ancient philosophy, it inaugurated a new speculative era which properly falls within the scope of the Middle Ages.

PURPOSE OF OUR STUDY

Studying the thoughts of ancient philosophers is essential for uncovering timeless truths that remain relevant today Philosophy is fundamentally a quest for truth, and understanding its history is meaningful only when approached with this intent Our goal in exploring ancient doctrines is not just to catalog past ideas, but to seek insights that contribute to authentic philosophical development Engaging with these philosophies enriches our understanding and fosters genuine intellectual growth.

St Thomas emphasized that the study of philosophy goes beyond understanding past thoughts; it is about discovering the processes that lead to truth Similarly, Aristotle highlighted that philosophy is a collaborative pursuit in the quest for truth.

Investigating the truth presents a dual challenge: it is both difficult and surprisingly accessible While no individual can fully grasp the truth, collectively, we each contribute valuable insights about the nature of reality Although our individual efforts may seem minimal, when combined, they create a significant accumulation of understanding.

The history of philosophy aims to familiarize us with the ideas of various philosophers, aiding our quest for wisdom It is essential to avoid viewing ancient philosophy as a fixed set of doctrines that provide all the answers, as well as dismissing its relevance by claiming its truths are only applicable to their historical context Instead, we should approach the study of ancient philosophy with an open mind, seeking timeless truths and valuable lessons from the mistakes of past thinkers.

1 In I de caelo, lect 22, no 228.

We should express gratitude not only to those whose opinions align with our own but also to those who hold more superficial views, as both contribute to our understanding and development of critical thinking.

THE PRE-SOCRATICS

THE IONIANS AND HERACLITUS

THALES

Thales, born in Miletus, is believed to have started his philosophical career in the early 6th century B.C., although the exact date of his birth remains unknown.

Thales is often recognized as the first philosopher and serves as a model of wisdom He significantly contributed to both public and academic spheres, demonstrating exceptional skills in politics, mathematics, and astronomy.

Thales, a pre-Socratic philosopher, left no written records of his thoughts, and our understanding of his philosophical doctrine primarily derives from Aristotle According to Aristotle, Thales proposed two fundamental ideas: first, that water is the essential principle underlying all things, and second, that the soul serves as the primary force driving motion.

Water as the first principle

The main doctrine of Thales' cosmology is that water is the principle from which everything else comes Aristotle explains:

The earliest philosophers believed that the fundamental principles of matter were the only essential elements of existence They posited that all things are composed of a primary substance, which remains constant while undergoing various changes This concept suggests that nothing is truly created or destroyed, as this core entity is perpetually conserved Consequently, they argued that nothing comes into being or ceases to exist without this underlying principle, whether it is singular or multiple.

—from which all other things come to be, it being conserved.

Philosophers differ in their views on the number and nature of fundamental principles Thales, recognized as the founder of this philosophical approach, posits that water is the primary principle, asserting that the earth is supported by water.

Thales, therefore, not only tells us that water is the first principle; he also describes the extent of its dynamic role in the formation of things.

On one hand, everything comes from water: it is "the first from which all things come to be." On the other hand, everything leads back to it: it is

"the last into which all things are resolved" From Aristotle's standpoint, it is the constitutive material principle of all things; it is what remains as a

1 Met, I, 3, 983 b 6-23. permanent substratum throughout the different changes of things, and it is also what all things are resolved into through corruption.

Thales proposed that moisture is the fundamental essence of all things, observing that nourishment and heat are derived from moist substances He believed that the moist nature of seeds signifies water as the origin of life, emphasizing its crucial role in the existence and sustenance of all living entities.

Thales' explanations, while seemingly simplistic, are significant as they strive to provide a rational understanding of the fundamental principles of the universe, moving beyond the mythological narratives of poet-theologians.

Thales' doctrine may have origins in primitive myths, a notion suggested by Aristotle and explored by some historians However, the key aspect of Thales' philosophy is his rational approach to understanding reality, which sets his ideas apart from any mythical narratives they might echo.

The soul as the principle of movement

Aristotle also provides us with information about Thales' doctrine on the soul Thales' teaching on the soul also contains some insights about his theological views.

Thales believed that the soul serves as a motivating force, as evidenced by his assertion that magnets possess a soul due to their ability to move iron.

Three chapters afterwards, Aristotle says:

The article discusses the potential mythological origins of Thales' philosophy, referencing E Zeller and R Mondolfo's work, "La filosofia dei greci nel suo sviluppo storico," published in Florence in 1950 This publication serves as an updated Italian edition of Zeller's renowned "Die Philosophie der Griechen."

The book "Greichen in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung" (Leipzig 1981) is a crucial reference due to its extensive data, despite occasional interpretations of Greek philosophers' thoughts Additionally, we will often refer to G Reale's "Storia della filosofia antica," a five-volume work published in Milan from 1975 to 1980.

4 Aristotle, On the Soul, I, 2, 405 a 19 ff.

Some philosophers believe that the soul is interconnected with the entire universe, which may explain why Thales concluded that everything is infused with divinity.

What does Thales mean when he says that all things are full of gods? Does this have anything to do with his notion of the soul as a motor principle?

Thales posits that the soul is the essence of life and movement, aligning with Aristotle's views He believes that not only magnetic stones possess souls, but that the entire universe is infused with life For Thales, this vital force is inherently divine, influencing even objects that seem inanimate.

Thales suggests that the soul may be identified with water, which he views as the fundamental principle of all existence If this interpretation holds, it clarifies his reasoning: since all things originate from water and contain it as their underlying substance, it follows that everything possesses a living and divine essence.

ANAXIMANDER

Anaximander, born in Miletus around 611 B.C and a disciple of Thales, authored a significant work titled "On Nature." While he shared his mentor's fascination with cosmology, he presented differing perspectives that distinguished his philosophical approach.

2 Diogenes Laertius, I, 24, (DK 11 A l): "Thales also thought that even the inanimate beings possessed a soul He based his theory by observing the properties of the magnetic rock and of amber."

The initials DK refer to Diels-Kranz, the authors of "Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker," first published in 1903 and later updated in 1951-52 This essential reference work compiles testimonies and fragments from pre-Socratic philosophers, organized by chapters that follow the sequence of the philosophers discussed Citations are classified as either indirect testimonies (A) or fragments (B), with a numerical order indicating their placement In translating these testimonies and fragments, additional sources include G Colli's "La sapienza greca" and G.S Kirk and J.E Raven's "The Presocratic Philosophers."

The title Περὶ φύσεω was commonly used to refer to works on physics, a term defined by Aristotle Anaximander proposed that the fundamental principle of the universe was not water, as previously thought, but rather the ápeiron, meaning "the infinite" or "the unlimited."

Anaximander, a Milesian philosopher and disciple of Thales, proposed that the fundamental principle of existence is the ápeiron, which he described as one, infinite, and in constant motion He was the first to identify this concept as the essential material principle underlying all things.

Anaximander's concept of the ápeiron refers to the infinite, characterized by the absence of limits and formal determination Unlike the elements recognized by Thales, the ápeiron is not a substance; it represents an indeterminate principle that predates all existing substances Aristotle interpreted the ápeiron as both a material cause and a divine principle, highlighting its dual nature As a material cause, it marks a significant development in the understanding of indeterminate principles, while its divine aspect emphasizes its active role in the cosmos.

The infinite cannot have a source; instead, it serves as the fundamental principle that encompasses and governs all things Additionally, the infinite is considered divine, being described as 'immortal and imperishable' by Anaximander and supported by many physicists.

1 Simplicius, In Arist Phys., 24,13 (DK 12 A 9).

Anaximander's concept of the ápeiron serves as a divine, immortal, and indestructible principle that governs all things, remaining unaffected by earthly limitations like death and corruption This tendency to elevate the first principle to a divine status is a common trait among Ionian philosophers, distinguishing them from earlier poet-theologians.

The genesis of all things

How does the ápeiron encompass and govern all things? How is it related with finite things?

There is a fragment of Anaximander's works transmitted to us by Simplicius which sheds some light, albeit obscure, on these questions.

The existence of things arises from their transformation, driven by necessity They engage in mutual punishment and retribution for their injustices, aligning with the natural order of time, as poetically stated by Anaximander.

Anaximander posits that all things emerge from the ápeiron through the separation of opposites and inevitably return to it Although he does not detail the mechanism behind this separation, it can be inferred that it is driven by the eternal motion of the ápeiron.

All things are governed by the law of generation and corruption, serving as a form of retribution for injustices These injustices arise from opposing forces of the ápeiron, which strive to dominate one another Over time, this punishment restores balance among the different elements This balance is achieved by imposing limits on each opposing force, ultimately ending the dominance of one over the others Anaximander illustrates this process of continuity and balance in the universe.

The religious significance of Ionian philosophy is explored in W Jaeger's work, "La teología de los primeros filósofos griegos," published in Mexico in 1952 This text, which is a translation of the original English work "The Theology of the Early Greek Philosophers" from Oxford in 1947, delves into the theological implications of early Greek thought, particularly focusing on the beliefs and ideas of Ionian philosophers.

2 Simplicius, In Arist., Phys., 24,17 (DK 12 B1). stability of material changes, the formation of the world, and the governing role of the ápeiron.

Anaximander's law posits that all things inevitably revert to their original principle, resulting in the rectification of the initial injustice stemming from the separation of opposites within the ápeiron This cyclical process suggests that while one world may end, it will inevitably give rise to another, highlighting the continuous alternation of worlds driven by the eternal motion of the ápeiron.

Based on the previously discussed alternation of worlds and insights from various authors, we can outline Anaximander's explanation of the world's genesis.

Anaximander posits that the initial pair of contraries, heat and coldness, emerged from the ápeiron, serving as the foundation for all other beings He suggests that fire existed as a spherical entity, surrounded by a humid substance The heat from the fire led to the condensation of this humid matter into earth, while the resulting vapors caused the fiery sphere to burst, forming the heavenly bodies Subsequently, the earth, initially humid, dried under the sun, giving rise to the seas from the remaining moisture.

Anaximander envisioned the Earth as a cylindrical entity positioned at the cosmos' center, maintaining a state of equilibrium without requiring external support He proposed that living beings originated from the interaction of the sun with the Earth's liquid elements.

ANAXIMINES

Anaximenes, a prominent philosopher from Miletus, was born in the early 6th century B.C and passed away towards its end He succeeded Anaximander as the third Miletian philosopher and is known primarily for his writings, of which only fragments remain today.

The first principle of Anaximenes is infinite like that of Anaximander's; however, unlike the latter, it has a definite nature Air is the first principle for Anaximenes.

Anaximenes of Miletus, a student of Anaximander, posits that the fundamental essence of all things is a singular, infinite substance Unlike Anaximander's indeterminate principle, Anaximenes identifies this substrate as air, which possesses a specific and defined nature.

Air as the first principle

Anaximenes proposed that the first principle is characterized by being infinite, encompassing all things, and in constant motion, with the emergence of new entities arising from air's perpetual movement Like other Ionian philosophers, he attributed a divine nature to air, likely due to its essential role in respiration for living beings Given his belief that the universe consists of living entities, it was logical for Anaximenes to identify air as the foundational principle of existence.

2 Cf Pseudo-PIutarch, Strom., 2 (DK 12 A 10).

3 Cf Diogenes Laertius, II 3 (DK 13 A 1).

4 Teofrastus, ap Simplicius, In Aris Phys., 24, 26, (DK 13 A 5).

"In the same way as the soul, which is air by nature, preserves our unity, so do breath and air encompass the entire cosmos, says Anaximenes." 5

Anaximenes, while disagreeing with Anaximander on the indeterminate nature of the first principle, was likely influenced by Anaximander's ideas about its infinity, perpetual movement, and divine characteristics Seeking a clearer explanation for the origin of various substances, Anaximenes proposed that air served as the most coherent solution to this philosophical inquiry.

Anaximander, dissatisfied with Thales' solution, proposed the ápeiron as the fundamental principle from which all opposites and, consequently, all things arise In contrast, Anaximenes returns to Thales' perspective by identifying a specific principle with a defined nature as the source of other substances.

"Air undergoes substantial changes through rarefaction and condensation.

Rarefaction transforms elements into fire and wind, while thickening leads to the formation of clouds With further condensation, these elements evolve into water, then earth, and ultimately stones, from which all other substances are derived.

Origin of all things from air

It is through rarefaction and condensation, therefore, that all things come from air Through rarefaction, air becomes fire; through condensation/ it becomes water and then earth.

"All things originate through a certain condensation and rarefaction of air." 3

For Anaximenes, the qualitative differences of things are explained, not by the cryptic "separation of contraries" that we find in Anaximander's

2 Teofrastus, ap Simplicius, In Arist Phys., 24,26, (DK 13 A 5).

3 Pseudo-Plutarch, Strom., 3 (DK 13 A 6). philosophy, but by the quantitative changes (condensation and rarefaction) undergone by the first principle.

Anaximenes' philosophy may initially appear to revert to Thales' doctrine, seemingly regressing from Anaximander's teachings However, Anaximenes advances the discussion on the first principle of all things by addressing the shortcomings of Anaximander's concept of an infinite substance, which lacks the clarity needed to explain the emergence of specific substances This ambiguity undermines the validity of Anaximander's idea of 'separation' as the foundation for the origin of beings derived from the ápeiron.

Anaximander's assertion that particular substances do not originate from the ápeiron raises questions about their emergence through the separation of opposites In response, Anaximenes offers his own solution, highlighting the significance of his contribution to philosophy Aristotle acknowledges this importance, noting that all subsequent thinkers who identified a material cause as the foundation of all things owe a debt to Anaximenes.

HERACLITUS

Heraclitus was born in the middle of the 6th C B.C., and died around

480 B.C He came from Miletus and belonged to the aristocracy He was the last of the Ionian philosophers who remained in his country.

Heraclitus is often portrayed as a proud philosopher who looked down on humanity for their inability to grasp the depth of his teachings He was known for his critical views on the doctrines of ancient poets and philosophers, showcasing his belief in the uniqueness and importance of his own ideas His philosophy, primarily found in the work titled "On Nature," remains difficult to fully understand due to the enigmatic and obscure nature of his writings, which has led to ongoing interpretations of his thought.

During his lifetime, he was dubbed "the obscure one," a title that may explain why both Plato and Aristotle did not delve deeply into his ideas, instead characterizing his philosophy as an exaggerated form of relativism.

Heraclitus affirmed that everything is in constant flux: panta rei,

Heraclitus famously asserted that "everything changes," emphasizing the impossibility of experiencing the same moment twice, as illustrated by his analogy of entering a river This concept of universal change is further echoed by later philosophers, including Plato, who noted Heraclitus's belief that "all things change and that nothing is at rest." Heraclitus's insights represent a significant contribution to pre-Socratic philosophy, highlighting the dynamic nature of existence.

Heraclitus revolutionized the philosophical discourse on movement, making it the focal point of his thought, unlike his predecessors who only implied its significance While earlier Miletian philosophers attempted to explain the diversity of existence through various first principles, Heraclitus uniquely identified change as the fundamental essence of reality, asserting that everything is in a state of flux, with only the process of becoming remaining constant.

The doctrine of universal change is the aspect of Heraclitus' philosophy that is most widely known All the other aspects of his thought flow from it.

Heraclitus explains the universal process of becoming as a never- ending alternation of contraries Before him, Anaximander had already

Plato and Aristotle discussed the natural changes in things as outcomes of opposing forces In contrast, Heraclitus posited that opposites are not just responsible for the transformation of substances but are fundamental to the essence of all existence He believed that the enduring conflict between contraries is the foundation of reality and its stability.

"War is the father and lord of all things." 1

Plato and Aristotle emphasized the dynamic aspects of Heraclitean philosophy, which requires careful interpretation While individual entities possess reality and stability, these qualities arise from the ongoing tension between opposing forces The resulting harmony resembles the balance found in an arch or the strings of a lyre Ultimately, the essence of existence is rooted in conflict, which lies beneath the surface of the stability, peace, and harmony that define the outward appearance of reality.

"The true nature of things desires to remain hidden." 3

For Heraclitus, therefore, the only real world is the world of opposites, opposites which are in mutual need of one another:

"Sickness renders health pleasant and good, just as hunger does with regard to a full stomach, or tiredness with regard to rest." 4

Through their opposition, contraries harmonize with one another, and unite in such a way that the absolute distinction between them is overcome:

Within us exists a singular essence that embodies dualities; it is simultaneously alive and dead, awake and asleep, young and old This essence undergoes transformation, where each aspect shifts into its opposite, highlighting the perpetual cycle of change.

War is a fundamental aspect of existence, as it underscores the notion that justice arises from discord This interplay of conflict and necessity is essential for the continuity of all things.

Just as every reality embodies a synthesis of contraries, the whole ensemble of things constitutes a unity for Heraclitus Universal harmony that unifies and encompasses the multiplicity of things.

"Whoever listens, not to me, but to the logos, will wisely conclude that all things are but one reality." 1

This harmony is what we call God or the divinity:

"God is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, surfeit and hunger." 2

Fire as the first principle

Modern historians emphasize the significance of opposites and the dialectical nature of Heraclitus's philosophy, while earlier interpreters focused on his doctrine of universal change, viewing him more as a physicist than a logician.

Heraclitus' philosophy is best understood as a blend of historical interpretation and contemporary relevance, particularly in the context of the philosophy of nature His ideas show a clear continuity with the Miletian philosophers, as he offers his own unique solution to the question of the first principle, which he identifies with fire.

The universe, like all realms, was not created by divine beings or humanity; it has always existed as a perpetual flame This eternal fire is ignited and extinguished in a measured manner, symbolizing the cyclical nature of existence.

2 DK 22 B 67." from all things is bom the one, and from the one is bom all things." (DK

22 B 10) Regarding the identificaton of God with universal harmony, see Zeller- Mondolfo, o.c., I, 4, pp 127 ff.

A reciprocal transformation occurs where all entities are traded for fire, and fire is subsequently traded for all entities, mirroring the exchange of goods for gold and vice versa.

Heraclitus selected fire as the fundamental principle of all things due to its inherent nature, which exemplifies constant change and harmony This choice highlights his belief that these qualities are essential to understanding the underlying reality of existence.

For Heraclitus, fire represents the fundamental essence that transforms into various forms of existence, serving as the source of all reality This elemental force is intrinsic to all things, acting as their underlying substance.

"The transformations undergone by fire are as follows: first it becomes the sea; then half of the sea becomes land, while the other half becomes burning wind." 1

Historians of Heraclitus hold differing views on the interpretation of fire in his philosophy, with some arguing that it should be seen as a material principle, while others suggest a metaphorical understanding This latter perspective could complicate the interpretation of Heraclitus' cosmology significantly.

THE PYTHAGOREANS

PYTHAGORAS AND HIS SCHOOL

Pythagoreanism marks a significant shift in the geographical and conceptual landscape of philosophy, relocating its center to the Greek colonies in southern Italy This transition not only alters the location but also transforms the core characteristics of philosophical inquiry Aristotle notes that the Pythagoreans, whom he identifies as Italians, differentiate themselves from earlier philosophers by focusing on principles and elements that extend beyond the physical realm, deriving their foundational concepts from non-sensible entities While they continue to build on the speculative traditions of their Ionian predecessors, the Pythagoreans uniquely seek the fundamental principles of existence through the lens of mathematics.

Pythagoreanism functioned primarily as a religious sect rather than a philosophical school, aiming for a specific way of life This ideal influenced their adoption of a scientific perspective of the universe, shaping their philosophical approach Their scientific inquiries were not the foundation for their moral, religious, and political beliefs; instead, these doctrines provide insight into the direction of their cosmological studies.

Pythagoreanism is named after its founder, Pythagoras, whose life remains largely uncertain Born in Samos, he is believed to have reached the peak of his career around 532-531 B.C and passed away in the early 5th century.

Pythagoras is known to have settled in Croton and later died in Metapontus The mystery surrounding his life arises not from a lack of information, but rather from the overwhelming number of testimonies about him.

2 Cf Zeller-Mondolfo, o.c., I, 2, pp 548 ff. succeeded in blurring the historical Pythagoras and have converted his life and person into legend 1

This article explores Pythagoreanism as it existed until the early 4th century B.C., providing a broad overview of its philosophy without delving into the various Pythagorean philosophers and their distinct schools of thought Due to the obscurity of primary sources—since Pythagoras himself left no writings and his teachings were kept secret by his followers—this general presentation is necessary Despite the internal differences among Pythagorean thinkers, the core principles of their philosophy have consistently remained intact.

NUMBER, THE PRINCIPLE OF ALL THINGS

Pythagorean philosophy, much like that of its predecessors, demonstrates a strong interest in cosmology, focusing on the study of nature to uncover the unifying principle of all reality Unlike earlier thinkers who identified a material substance—such as water, the ápeiron, air, or fire—as the first principle, the Pythagoreans uniquely associated this fundamental principle with numbers.

The Pythagoreans were pioneers in mathematics, believing that its principles underlie all aspects of existence They perceived numbers as fundamental elements, observing numerous parallels between numerical relationships and the natural world, more so than with traditional elements like fire, earth, and water Additionally, they recognized that the variations and ratios in musical scales could be represented through numbers, reinforcing their view that numbers are foundational to understanding the essence of all things.

Plato and Aristotle exhibit reluctance in referencing Pythagoras, with Plato mentioning him only once in the Republic (X, 600 b), despite having interacted with Pythagorean followers Similarly, Aristotle refers to Pythagoras on just two occasions, highlighting the cautious approach both philosophers take towards his legacy.

(Met., I, 5, 986 a 30 and Ret., II 23 1998 b 14) although he alludes frequently to the

The Pythagoreans believed that numbers were the fundamental elements of all existence, viewing the universe as a harmonious musical scale governed by numerical relationships.

Aristotle's account prompts us to explore the Pythagorean conception of number, which significantly differs from our contemporary understanding While the Ionian philosophers proposed straightforward solutions, the Pythagoreans viewed number as the fundamental principle of all existence This perspective implies that their notion of number transcended mere abstract concepts or beings of reason, leading us to question the true essence of number in their philosophy.

The Pythagoreans viewed number as the fundamental principle of all things due to their mathematical studies, which revealed that reality can be expressed through numerical relations Their observations of various phenomena demonstrated that these characteristics adhered to distinct mathematical patterns For instance, musical harmony can be distilled into numerical relationships, while natural phenomena also exhibit measurable order.

The concept of number and its components is fundamental to understanding the nature of reality, as it defines the duration of the year, the changing seasons, and the varying lengths of day This perspective suggests that numbers form the essence and substance of all that exists.

ELEMENTS OF NUMBER: EVEN-ODD; LIMITED- UNLIMITED

Everything can be reduced to numbers, which can be categorized into even and odd elements Every number can be divided into these two types, making them the universal elements of number and, by extension, of all things The even is associated with the unlimited, while the odd is linked to the limited, indicating that all things are composed of this contrasting pair.

The Pythagoreans linked even and odd numbers to concepts of the unlimited and limited through their numerical studies and geometric interpretations Lacking a method to visually represent numbers, they utilized points to create various geometric figures They discovered that the figure representing an even number was infinitely divisible, while the figure for an odd number was not As a result, they associated even numbers with the infinite and odd numbers with the finite.

The Pythagoreans concluded that the unlimited and the limited constitute the first principles of all numbers, and, therefore, of all things.

The Pythagoreans introduced a groundbreaking perspective on the fundamental nature of reality, proposing that it consists of two opposing principles: the unlimited and the limited Unlike their predecessors, who attributed these characteristics to a single element, the Pythagoreans emphasized that every reality is formed from both an unlimited element and a limited element Aristotle highlighted this distinction, affirming that substances are made up of these two principles, with matter representing the unlimited aspect and form embodying the limited aspect.

The Pythagoreans distinguished the concept of the unlimited from the divine, associating it instead with imperfection and a lack of intelligibility Unlike their predecessors, they argued that the infinite, when viewed materially, cannot align with the notion of God as supremely perfect While earlier philosophers identified God with the first principle and recognized His qualitative infinity, they failed to see the contradiction in also viewing God as materially infinite Thus, the Pythagoreans correctly maintained that true perfection and the divine nature cannot coexist with the limitations of the material infinite.

HARMONY

1 See the explanation of Kirk-Raven, o.c., pp 342 ff regarding this comparison.

Despite being made up of opposing elements, things do not outwardly display their inherent contradictions, either individually or collectively Instead, they reveal a sense of inner harmony.

The Pythagoreans believed that just as musical harmony arises from specific mathematical relationships between notes, each entity possesses its own unique harmony They asserted that the universe is governed by a unifying law that connects all its elements into a cohesive whole.

The movement of the sun, moon, and countless stars is so rapid that it logically suggests the production of a tremendous sound Observers note that the speeds of these celestial bodies, when compared to their distances, align with the ratios found in musical harmony Thus, it is proposed that the circular motion of the stars generates a harmonious sound.

The Pythagorean theory emphasizes the importance of applying reason and mathematical laws to explain all phenomena, suggesting that the universe is not ruled by chaotic forces but rather by a harmonious order This order can be understood through numerical relationships, similar to a musical scale, highlighting the rational structure underlying the cosmos.

The Pythagoreans believed that understanding the nature of numbers and their laws provided the key to mastering all aspects of existence, as they thought everything was governed by numerical principles However, Aristotle criticized their approach, arguing that they were not genuinely seeking theories and causes to explain observed phenomena, but instead were attempting to manipulate their observations to fit their preconceived theories and opinions.

MAN AND THE SOUL

Pythagoreanism encompasses both scientific doctrines and a significant religious component, with religion profoundly influencing its scientific teachings While the exact role of religion in shaping these scientific principles remains unclear, understanding the nature of man within Pythagorean philosophy will shed light on this intricate relationship.

1 Aristotle, On the Heavens, II, 9, 290 b 16 ff.

Pythagoreanism taught the immortality and transmigration of souls.

Humans, like all living beings, consist of both body and soul The soul predates the body, and its current confinement within the physical form is a consequence of an ancestral transgression.

The Pythagorean ethics, possibly originating from Orphic teachings, centers on the purification of the soul, emphasizing that moral conduct is essential for liberating the soul from bodily constraints A key approach to achieving this liberation is through dedication to intellectual pursuits The Pythagorean educational framework begins with an introduction to music, progresses through arithmetic and geometry, and culminates in the study of natural philosophy.

Philosophical work has historically drawn inspiration from religion, although the extent of this influence is difficult to assess In reality, scientific research often pursued its own independent trajectory, suggesting a complex relationship between philosophy and religion.

Pythagorean theories about nature often conflict with the belief in the immortality of the soul, which may be attributed to the philosophical limitations of their time The Pythagoreans, like earlier thinkers, focused on materiality and lacked the concepts necessary to fully articulate spiritual doctrines such as the soul's immortality Consequently, they could only hold these beliefs without a deeper understanding.

In Pythagoreanism, the soul is logically associated with numbers, but Aristotle notes that some Pythagoreans believed the soul consists of particles in the air or is the force that moves these particles Others viewed the soul as a form of harmony Ultimately, Pythagoreanism does not provide a foundation for the belief in the personal immortality of the soul.

THE ELEATICS

PARMENIDES

Parmenides, born in Elea (modern Velia, Italy) in the late 6th century B.C., was a philosopher and politician who passed away in the mid-5th century B.C He is best known for his poem "On Nature," which survives in extensive fragments, surpassing the works of other pre-Socratic philosophers Parmenides describes his philosophical insights as a religious revelation, beginning with a vivid scene where he rides in a horse carriage, guided by the daughter of the sun to the goddess Dike, who presents him with three paths for exploration.

I will tell you (you listen and remember my works) which are the only possible roads for investigation:

1.The first is that being is, and it is not possible for being not to be This is the road to follow, for it leads to the Truth.

The concept of being is not essential, as it is not necessary for existence to occur This perspective ultimately leads to a dead end, as it is impossible to know or articulate that which does not exist.

There are three approaches to investigation: the pursuit of truth, the exploration of error or absolute falsehood, and a third path that represents opinion, which lies between the two extremes The goddess alludes to this concept in verses preceding the aforementioned quotes.

Understanding the necessity of attributing mere probability to appearances is crucial, as they are omnipresent and influence all aspects of our lives.

Parmenides' poem is divided into two distinct sections: the first part focuses on the nature of truth, while the second part features a goddess guiding Parmenides away from falsehood Following this divine guidance, Parmenides delves into the concept of opinion and elaborates on his cosmological views.

The way of truth is described by Parmenides very briefly.

"One statement alone expresses the road to follow: being is." 3

To grasp Parmenides' philosophy, it is essential to address two key questions: What is the essence of being according to him? Additionally, why does he consider being the fundamental unifying principle of all that is real?

Parmenides' concept of being is univocal, meaning it does not pertain to any specific tangible reality but rather to the essence of being itself This universal being encompasses all existence, including both the mobile and immobile, as well as the simple and complex Ultimately, everything that exists is a part of this all-encompassing being.

1 DK 28 B 2 I have partially used the translation and the commentary given by F Montero- Moliner, Parmenides, Madrid 1960.

Parmenides, a prominent figure among the presocratic philosophers, has garnered significant interest from contemporary scholars His doctrine has been subject to various interpretations, and we present what we believe to be the most plausible explanation of his philosophy.

Being is understood solely through the intellect, as the senses perceive a multitude of sensory experiences However, true intelligence transcends these appearances, recognizing that beneath them exists a singular reality: being.

"To think and to be mean the same thing." 1

And further on, Parmenides says:

"Thought and that by which thought is made possible are the same thing; for thought is expressed in being, and hence, without being there would be no thought." 2

Parmenides posits that being and thought are interconnected, as true understanding arises from the revelation of being to thought He asserts that only being exists, while non-being is inconceivable Although appearances may not be entirely false, they cannot be equated with the ultimate truth.

Parmenides' poem vividly outlines the nature of being, asserting that it is unbegotten and incorruptible Being cannot arise from non-being, as non-being equates to nothingness, and from nothing, nothing emerges Additionally, being cannot originate from itself, since what exists does not require creation Consequently, being is eternal, without beginning or end, and is characterized by its immutability, perfection, and completeness, existing independently without need for anything else.

Parmenides emphasizes the singular nature of being, which serves as the foundation of all existence and represents the deepest reality He asserts that being is constant and unchanging, while the world around us undergoes transformation—things are born, perish, grow, and decline Despite these changes, the essence of being remains eternal and uniform.

Parmenides, renowned for his poem, presents a profound perspective on the concept of being A comprehensive analysis of various interpretations of Parmenides' philosophy is detailed in H.G Gadamer's "I presocratici," featured in the collection "Questioni di storiografia filosofica," published in Brescia in 1975, pages 50-67.

3 For a more complete exposition of this interpretation of being according to Parmenides and its relation with truth, see R Echauri, "Parmenides y el ser," in Anuario Filosofica VI

Parmenides presents a significant distinction in his concept of being compared to earlier philosophers, asserting that his notion of being cannot serve as a principle since nothing can emerge from it Unlike the Ionians, who view the first principle as the source of all things through constant change, Parmenides posits that being is unchanging and eternal This raises critical questions regarding the reality Parmenides ascribes to the sensible and the multiplicity of existence, as well as the relationship between these phenomena and being To explore these inquiries, we must examine Parmenides' perspective on the way of opinion.

Parmenides and Heraclitus represent opposing philosophical views on reality, with Heraclitus emphasizing perpetual change and becoming, while Parmenides advocates for the concept of immutable being Heraclitus argues that universal movement arises from the constant conflict of opposites, whereas Parmenides contends that movement is merely an illusion, as true existence cannot encompass the duality of being and non-being Ultimately, Heraclitus embodies the philosophy of change, while Parmenides epitomizes the idea of absolute stability.

THE ELEATIC SCHOOL

Parmenides' doctrine ignited vibrant debates due to its paradoxical implications, especially regarding his rejection of movement and multiplicity, which stands in stark contrast to experiential reality.

It is in fhis context that we must understand the doctrine of Zeno of

Zeno, born around the early 5th century B.C., was a disciple of the philosopher Parmenides He authored a work that presented his master's teachings in an innovative and compelling way.

Zeno adopted a method (called the dialectical method by Aristotle) which consisted in demonstrating a thesis by showing the absurdity of the contradictory proposition.

Zeno's defense of immobility includes the famous paradoxes of Achilles and the tortoise, as well as the arrow Additionally, he aimed to support the idea of the unicity of being by demonstrating that multiplicity leads to as many absurdities as the opposing thesis, though his reasoning is ultimately flawed.

Zeno's philosophy shifted Eleatic speculation from the dichotomy of being and non-being to the exploration of the one and the many, thereby altering the ontological focus established by Parmenides His arguments necessitated a rigorous extension of Parmenides' ideas, leading to a complete denial of the reality of phenomena that Parmenides had attempted to preserve through opinion These modifications laid the groundwork for subsequent philosophical developments.

1 Aristotle criticizes these arguments in Physics, VI, 9, 239 b 9 ff.

2 We find the arguments against multiplicity in Simplicius' In Arist Phys., 139, 8 (DK 29 B2).

(Plato and Aristotle among them) knew the doctrines of the founder of the Eleatic school 1

Melissus of Samos, a contemporary of Zeno and the third Eleatic philosopher, authored the book "On Nature and Being" to defend Parmenides' philosophy Unlike Zeno, who focused on refuting opposing views, Melissus aimed to systematically articulate and refine Parmenides' doctrine He clearly defined its core principles, accurately deduced all possible conclusions, and corrected inconsistencies within the philosophy Notably, Melissus introduced significant modifications, including the concept of infinity as an attribute of being and an emphasis on the unity of being, ultimately denying the reality of the physical world and asserting that true reality belongs solely to the One Being.

With Melissus, Eleatic philosophy was brought to its ultimate conclusions: only being existed, and multiplicity was an illusion.

1 See C Fabro, Partecipazione e causalita, Turin 1960, pp 69 ff., for a study on the influence of Parmenides' concept of being on later philosophers.

2 Like the Pythagorean philosophers before him, Parmenides associated perfection with the finite; the infinite implied imperfection The being of Parmenides was necessarily finite.

3 Cf Simplicius, In Arist de caelo, 558, 21 (DK 30 B 8).

THE PLURALISTS

EMPEDOCLES

Empedocles, born in Agrigento, Sicily, in the early 5th century B.C., is recognized as the first philosopher to reconcile Parmenides' concept of being with sensory experience.

His thought is found in two of his works: On Nature and The

Empedocles' works encompass distinct themes that historians have sought to reconcile, notably in his treatise On Nature, which outlines his cosmological views Additionally, his ethico-religious teachings, significantly shaped by Pythagorean beliefs in the transmigration of souls, detail the necessary purifications the soul must undergo to achieve its ultimate purpose.

As a philosopher, he subscribes to the Eleatic principle of the immutability of the real:

It is misguided to believe that something can emerge from nothing or that anything can be entirely created or destroyed The notion that existence can arise from non-existence is unfathomable, just as the complete annihilation of what is cannot occur There will always be a foundation of existence to rely upon.

Empedocles acknowledges the existence of sensible reality, emphasizing the importance of both sensible and rational knowledge He argues that it is misguided to disregard any form of knowledge and cautions against assigning absolute value to either type.

Carefully observe and consider all forms of perception, recognizing that no single sense should be prioritized over another Trust not only what you see but also what you hear and taste, as each sense offers valuable insights into understanding Maintain a balanced confidence in all your sensory organs to gain a comprehensive grasp of knowledge.

Empedocles offers a solution to the paradox of reality's multiplicity and constant change by proposing that all things originate from unchanging principles He argues that the transformations we observe in the world are merely the result of various combinations of these enduring principles over time.

Empedocles says that a certain number of substances, ungenerated, incorruptible, and always remaining the same, constitute the origin of all things These four elements are fire, water, air and earth.

All living beings, including trees, humans, animals, birds, and fish, have emerged from these fundamental elements, encompassing past, present, and future existence.

In the realm of divine beings, there exist gods characterized by their longevity and unique privileges These elements, when combined in various configurations, manifest in diverse forms, with each specific arrangement leading to distinct transformations.

Empedocles' philosophy diverges from earlier thinkers by introducing multiple first principles, contrasting with the Ionian view that attributes the genesis of all things to qualitative changes in a singular first principle He posits that the four elements—earth, air, fire, and water—remain constant and immutable, giving rise to various beings solely through their different combinations This foundational idea leads to the concept of an unchangeable material cause, which cannot be reduced to anything else and is solely responsible for the union and separation of elements.

Empedocles, influenced by Eleatic philosophy, seeks an additional cause beyond the material principle to explain the dynamic nature of the world Without such a cause, the elements would remain static, leaving the diversity of phenomena inexplicable He identifies Love and Hate as the fundamental forces that unite and separate the four elements, driving the processes of change and interaction in the universe.

Love unites and fosters creation, while Hate divides and leads to destruction These opposing forces of Love and Hate are in a constant struggle, with one often prevailing over the other This interplay between Love and Hate results in the cycles of generation and decay that we observe in the world.

Once, everything transitioned from a state of multiplicity to a unified existence, and later, this unity evolved back into multiplicity These two processes are fundamental to the creation and eventual return of mortal beings.

The interplay of unity and separation leads to both creation and destruction, as things evolve through cycles of growth and decay This dynamic is influenced by the forces of Love, which fosters connections, and Discord, which drives things apart Change is a constant, highlighting the dual nature of existence.

Empedocles posits that prior to change, the four elements were seamlessly united by the force of Love, forming a compact sphere The introduction of Hate disrupted this harmony, leading to the emergence of all things As Hate increasingly dominates Love, the elements move toward complete separation, resulting in a state where nothing can exist Thus, generation and corruption occur only during the transitional phases when Love and Hate interact, allowing for the existence of things.

Among Empedocles' teachings about material phenomena, what he says about knowledge is especially interesting.

For Empedocles, the principle of knowledge lies in a material likeness between the sensible object and our senses.

We perceive the world around us through the elements that define it; earth allows us to understand the earth itself, while air reveals the nature of air Fire exposes the destructive power of fire, and Love enables us to recognize the essence of Love Similarly, it is through harmful Discord that we come to understand the concept of Discord.

Aristotle succinctly expresses this principle as follows: "Like is known by like 3

ANAXAGORAS

Anaxagoras was born in Clazomenae, near Miletus, around the year

Around 500 B.C., he was likely the first philosopher to establish Athens as the center of philosophical thought, teaching there for thirty years However, a charge of impiety eventually compelled him to move to Lampsacus, where he passed away around 428 B.C.

Judging from the fragments that have been preserved of his book On

Anaxagoras' philosophy closely mirrors that of Empedocles, as it seeks to harmonize the Eleatic principle with the observable diversity of the world Consequently, Anaxagoras identifies a complex reality as the foundation of his thought.

The Greeks misunderstand the concepts of birth and destruction, as nothing truly comes into existence or ceases to exist Instead, new entities are formed from already existing materials, and what is perceived as destruction is merely a process of dissolution Therefore, birth should be redefined as composition, while destruction should be viewed as dissolution.

Anaxagoras posits that beings are immutable, indestructible, and indivisible, leading to the diversity of things through their mixing and combining According to Aristotle, Anaxagoras' foundational principle is a vast, indeterminate mixture made up of an infinite number of infinitely small substances.

In the realm of existence, countless entities coexist, each infinitely small in size, suggesting that even the tiniest aspects are boundless Despite their abundance, their minuscule nature renders them invisible to the naked eye, highlighting the intriguing paradox of their simultaneous multitude and invisibility.

Anaxagoras explains the reality of change by asserting that everything arises from something that already exists, contrasting with Parmenides' view that being cannot emerge from non-being He argues that this principle cannot be based on a single element or even the four elements proposed by Empedocles, as these do not adequately account for the diversity observed in the world.

The reason Anaxagoras gives for his choice is simple:

"How can hair come from that which is not hair, and flesh from that which is not flesh?" 3

Nothing comes from nothing, and nothing can simply dissolve into nothingness We sustain ourselves with basic nourishment, such as bread and water, which provides essential sustenance for our hair, veins, arteries, flesh, nerves, bones, and other bodily components.

Consequently, the food that we eat must contain all things, so that each thing can derive its growth from substances of the same nature." 1

The multiplicity of substances leads Anaxagoras to conclude that the first principle must, in a way, embody all things in itself.

The first principle consists of infinitesimally small, inert, and eternal elements that are qualitatively distinct from one another, serving as the foundational "seeds" of all things Aristotle referred to these elements as homeomeries, emphasizing that they retain their qualitative identity even when divided into smaller parts.

All beings are composed of various homeomeries, with different mixtures resulting in distinct entities based on the predominant element According to Anaxagoras, since everything originates from a fundamental principle, "everything is found in everything," meaning that the qualitative traits of all things exist within every being, even if some elements are present only in minimal amounts.

Alongside the homeomeries, Anaxagoras adds another principle: the Nous or intelligence He describes it as follows:

Intelligence is an independent and infinite entity, distinct from all other things Unlike other substances that are mixtures, intelligence exists solely by itself, allowing it to govern without interference If it were to mix with other elements, it would lose its unique ability to understand and control them fully As the purest and most subtle of all beings, intelligence possesses complete knowledge and maximum power.

Anaxagoras' concept of intelligence is notably distinguished by its separation from matter, highlighting a crucial aspect of his philosophy While he may not have explicitly intended to assert the immateriality of intelligence, this separation remains a significant element of his thought.

The first agent principle, identified as 2 DK 59 B 12, suggests that while the concept of Divinity as a universal principle of order and providence remains somewhat naturalistic, it possesses greater depth and significance compared to the ideas of earlier thinkers.

Intelligence governs all creation, encompassing past, present, and future entities It orchestrates the movements of celestial bodies, including stars, the sun, and the moon, while also influencing the separation of air and ether This rotational force is fundamental to the distinct existence of these elements.

Anaxagoras posits that the Nous serves solely as the initiator of movement in the cosmos He asserts that the seeds of all entities are eternal, with Intelligence merely triggering the cosmic motion that allows things to differentiate and acquire their unique characteristics.

Anaxagoras posits that the movement initiated by Intelligence dictates the varying proportions of homeomeries in all entities However, Aristotle critiques this view, arguing that Anaxagoras relies on reason as a convenient explanation for the world's creation, resorting to it only when he cannot identify a causal factor, while attributing other events to alternative explanations instead of reason.

THE ATOMISTS: LEICIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS

Leucippus, the founder of the atomist school of philosophy, is believed to have been born around 480 B.C in Abdera, the same city as his notable pupil Democritus The limited information about Leucippus' life and contributions is largely attributed to Democritus' prominence, who compiled the works of their school, including those of Leucippus, into a singular collection Democritus lived well into old age, passing away around 370 B.C., long after Socrates.

The atomist school offers a distinct approach to harmonizing the concept of a unified existence with the diverse nature of the physical world, presenting a unique solution compared to previous philosophies.

1 Regarding the nature of the Intelligence, see W Jaeger, La teologia , pp 155 ff and G. Reale, o.c., I, pp 167 ff.

Empedocles and Anaxagoras concurred with Parmenides that all entities must be composite, as nothing can be generated or destroyed However, they diverged from his view by asserting that there are qualitative differences among the fundamental principles of being; Empedocles proposed four elements, while Anaxagoras introduced the concept of homeomeries In contrast, the atomists acknowledged the plurality of the first principle but rejected any qualitative distinctions between them.

Everything is made up of atoms, which share characteristics similar to the concept of being described by Parmenides and Melissus: they are indivisible, solid, compact, qualitatively identical, and unchangeable.

There are an infinite number of atoms These interact with one another in a vacuum, and thereby give rise to the movement and multiplicity of the world of sense.

The Eleatic philosophers posited that reality, or 'what is,' must be singular and unchanging They argued against the existence of a void, asserting that without a distinct void, movement is impossible, and the concept of 'many' cannot exist, as there would be nothing to separate them.

"Leucippus, however, thought he had a theory which harmonized with sense- perception and would not abolish either coming-to-be and passing-away or motion and the multiplicity of things." 1

Melissus rejected the notions of multiplicity and change, aligning with Parmenides' view of being as a singular, complete reality devoid of any vacuum In contrast, atomists argue that while atoms are solid and compact, they are infinitely numerous and perpetually in motion, separated by a vacuum This framework allows them to account for the existence of multiplicity and change in the universe.

Besides the characteristics mentioned above, atoms also have different geometric configurations: they differ from one another in figure, order, size

According to Aristotle in "On Generation and Corruption," atomists assert that all qualitative differences in matter stem from a limited set of qualitatively identical yet geometrically distinct principles This perspective marks a shift from earlier pluralist views, which held that the fundamental elements were qualitatively different Despite this divergence, atomists concur with pluralists that generation and corruption do not occur in a strict sense; instead, these processes are merely the outcomes of atomic combinations and separations.

The diversity of existence arises from the movement of atoms within a vacuum, which is a tangible reality When atoms unite, they create new forms of generation, while their separation leads to decay and corruption.

Leucippus and Democritus proposed that atoms are fundamental to reality, with their movement necessitating the existence of a vacuum This vacuum is equally real as the atoms themselves, meaning that all physical entities are made up of multiple atoms that are separated by this empty space.

The atomists offered a unique explanation for the cause of movement, differing from the theories of Empedocles and Anaxagoras They proposed that the inherent instability of atoms is the driving force behind their constant motion, suggesting that motion is an intrinsic characteristic of their nature.

"These atoms move within a vacuum of infinite dimensions They are separated from one another and differ in figure, shape, position and order.

In their movement, entities collide, causing some to scatter in various directions while others harmonize due to their complementary shapes, sizes, and arrangements This interaction leads to the unification of certain entities, resulting in the formation of compound bodies.

Atoms have always been and will forever remain in motion Their coming together and separation give rise to the generation and corruption

Simplicius, in his work "De Caelo," discusses the infinite nature of worlds, suggesting that not only do we inhabit one world, but there are countless other worlds that can be formed from these infinite possibilities, all of which are in constant motion.

The atomists are historically recognized as the philosophers of chance, a label attributed to them by Aristotle Their philosophical perspective suggests that the current state of the world has resulted purely from accidental occurrences.

Some believe that the universe and all its celestial bodies emerged from spontaneity, arguing that the vortex formed on its own, leading to the separation and organization of everything that exists today.

Atomists do not deny the existence of causality; rather, they assert that everything occurs for a reason and is driven by necessary forces Despite this, Aristotle labels them as philosophers of chance, not due to a rejection of causality, but because they overlook the concept of final cause While atoms move necessarily, they do so without a specific purpose, leading to the conclusion that the formations resulting from atomic combinations arise by chance, lacking a definitive end It is important to note that the atomists were not dismissing the reality of the final cause; they were simply unaware of it, as it had yet to be discovered.

THE SOPHISTS

A PRACTICAL HUMANISM

Sophism marked a transformative era in Greek philosophy, characterized by a humanist focus on man and his experiences Unlike earlier philosophical thought, which primarily explored the nature of the world and its fundamental principles, this new perspective emphasized human existence as central While moral principles and behavior had always been topics of interest, philosophers of this time shifted towards establishing a rational foundation for ethics, moving away from the traditional reliance on religious beliefs.

Sophism marked a significant shift in philosophical discussions by placing man at the center of inquiry This change was likely influenced by the conflicting solutions to the questions surrounding the origin and nature of the world, fostering a sense of skepticism Additionally, interactions with diverse cultures and lifestyles prompted the Greeks to reevaluate their own moral principles and perspectives.

Aristotle, in "Sophistical Fallacies," emphasizes the importance of examining the nature of laws and understanding the reasons behind ethical norms This shift in focus from the physical world to the study of humanity marks a significant turn in philosophical inquiry, as individuals seek to understand their own moral frameworks.

Ethics, religion, and politics have emerged as pressing contemporary issues, prompting a renewed focus on education and the liberal arts The significance of rhetoric and language is increasingly recognized, echoing Cicero's perspective on Socrates and sophism: philosophy has been integrated into everyday life, transforming it into an essential tool for exploring morality and the concepts of good and evil.

Sophism marked a shift in philosophical focus, prioritizing practical knowledge and education for humanity rather than speculative inquiry Unlike earlier philosophers, sophists became educators, addressing the needs of individuals This transition led to philosophy being viewed not as a pursuit of truth but as a profession, with Plato and Aristotle criticizing sophists for charging fees for their teachings.

The traditional view of sophists as mere "hunters of rich young men" is outdated and does not accurately reflect the broader group of sophists While this characterization may have applied to a few individuals, most sophists did not come from the aristocracy, which allowed for leisurely intellectual pursuits Instead, they were itinerant teachers who relied on their profession for financial support.

TOWARDS NEW FORMS OF CULTURE

The practical aspects of sophism aligned seamlessly with the evolving cultural landscape of the time Previously, political authority was dominated by the aristocracy, where a person's future was largely dictated by their birth and lineage However, following the Medic Wars, the introduction of democracy began to shift this paradigm.

2 See W Jaeger, Paideia, Mexico 1962, pp 263 ff.

During the Periclean Age (492-429 B.C.), Athens emerged as the commercial, cultural, and political hub of Greece, fostering interactions with diverse cultures This shift led to a rise in popular power and increased discontent with aristocratic rule, creating a favorable environment for sophists who challenged the prevailing principles of Greek culture.

Sophists introduced panhellenism through their itinerant teaching, traveling between cities to educate anyone interested in their classes This led them to view themselves as citizens of Greece, transcending the narrow political boundaries of the polis This cosmopolitan outlook marked a significant shift in the Greek mindset, which had traditionally been defined by political provincialism, a characteristic still evident in the works of Plato and Aristotle.

These were, generally speaking, the characteristic features of sophism.

Sophism emerged as a philosophical movement rather than a formal school of thought, initially showcasing a range of opinions among its early practitioners Over time, a significant evolution occurred, distinguishing the original sophists, who were respected for introducing innovative cultural ideas, from their followers, who prioritized superficial debate and rhetoric over meaningful content This shift led to sophism being exploited by unscrupulous individuals to advance their political agendas and challenge established laws.

We shall study only the earlier sophists, and in particular Protagoras and Gorgias, who we can consider the principal representatives of the movement.

PROTAGORAS

Protagoras is the most famous sophist He was born in Abdera circa

In 484 B.C., a prominent teacher traveled to various cities, notably Athens, where he gained popularity among the citizens and received recognition from Pericles His life likely ended around 411 B.C during a journey to Sicily when the boat he was on met with tragedy.

1 See the picture W.K.C Guthrie gives of the sophists in Les sophistes, Paris 1976, pp 35 ff. sank He wrote many works, among which the most famous are On the

Truth, On the Gods, and The Antilogies (or Contradictions) He is said to have set down his method as a philosopher in The Antilogies.

Philosophically, Protagoras aligns with the pluralist tradition, rejecting Parmenides' notion of a singular being According to Plato, he embraced Heraclitus' idea of perpetual change, positing that everything exists in a state of flux However, Protagoras' philosophy extends beyond mere multiplicity; it delves into the realms of knowledge, truth, and error He argues that the simultaneous presence of opposing qualities in objects precludes the possibility of certain scientific knowledge about nature, leading to the conclusion that truth is relative In this view, individuals determine the truth based on their own perceptions, which are inherently influenced by the senses—an aspect that is also subject to constant change.

The famous words of Protagoras, taken from the introduction of his work On Truth, summarize his position well:

"Man is the measure of all things—-“things which exist insofar as they exist, and things which do not exist insofar as they do not exist." 2

Protagoras aimed to educate individuals in the skill of antilogy, emphasizing the importance of recognizing and analyzing contradictory perspectives on a topic His students learned to identify the weakest argument among differing viewpoints and to present it convincingly, thereby enhancing their persuasive abilities.

Protagoras' philosophy challenges the traditional metaphysical foundations of truth and falsehood, leading some to mistakenly believe that he rejected the concept of wisdom altogether However, Protagoras did advocate for the idea of cultivating wisdom in individuals, suggesting that he recognized the importance of wisdom despite his relativistic views.

2 DK 80 B 1, Regarding the interpretations that have been given to this fragment, see W.K.C Guthrie, o.c., pp 197-200

In Plato's Theaetetus, Protagoras emphasizes that true skill lies not only in effective rhetoric but also in the capacity to discern good from evil in various situations He associates the concept of good primarily with utility and convenience, offering little further elaboration on its nature.

Protagoras' relativism and skepticism challenge the existence of objective moral standards, suggesting that utility is the sole criterion for distinguishing good from evil This perspective inevitably leads to agnosticism, as he famously stated, "As for the gods, it is impossible for me to affirm whether they exist or not."

GORGIAS

Gorgias, a disciple of Empedocles and one of the most renowned sophists alongside Protagoras, was born in Sicily around 483 B.C He taught in various Greek cities, with a notable focus on Athens, until his death.

375 His main philosophical work is entitled On Nature or Non-Being.

The philosophy of Gorgias was the exact opposite of Eleatism, and is summarized in three theses:

"First: nothing exists Second: if anything existed, it cannot be known by man Third: if it can be known, it cannot be transmitted and explained to others." 2

Gorgias utilized Zeno's method to validate three key propositions, effectively showing that the same strategies used to support Eleatism can also be turned against it.

Gorgias challenges the concepts of both being and non-being, arguing that contradictory views among nature philosophers undermine the existence of being Some philosophers claim being is singular, while others assert it is multiple; some argue that being is generated, while others deny this These conflicting assertions lead Gorgias to conclude that nothing truly exists and that reality, including truth, is nonexistent Unlike Protagoras, who acknowledges a relative truth for each individual, Gorgias dismisses the idea of truth altogether, as he completely rejects the notion of being.

3 Cf M Untersteiner, Sofisti, II, Florence 1949, p 146.

The Eleatics' assertion of a connection between being, thought, and truth is fundamentally flawed, as the concept of being itself remains unarticulated.

The relationship between thought and existence reveals that if our thoughts do not correspond to reality, then being itself cannot be fully comprehended This is evident because if every thought were to reflect an existing entity, it would contradict our experiences, as not everything we conceive actually exists.

But even if being were thinkable, it could not be communicated to others:

Words serve as the primary means of referring to objects, yet they are not the objects themselves Consequently, when we communicate with others, we are sharing words rather than the actual reality of the objects they represent This distinction highlights the fundamental difference between a word and the object it signifies.

Gorgias not only divorces thought from being, he also cuts the link between our words and the realities our words are meant to express.

Words can gain independence and autonomy, detached from reality, which is why Gorgias emphasizes the significance of rhetoric Despite lacking inherent truth, language can effectively influence and manipulate individuals, serving as a powerful instrument of control This small and often unseen tool possesses the remarkable ability to achieve what only the gods could accomplish.

In the 5th century B.C., the political landscape of Athens significantly elevated the status of rhetoric, primarily through the actions of Gorgias's disciples rather than Gorgias himself While Gorgias upheld traditional ethical norms, albeit without a solid ontological foundation, his followers diverged from these principles They embraced rhetoric solely as a tool to advance their political ambitions, often at the expense of ethical values.

SOCRATES

THE SOCRATIC PROBLEM

Socrates did not leave behind any written works, so understanding his teachings relies on various testimonies However, a challenge emerges as these sources offer differing and sometimes conflicting perspectives on Socrates' philosophy.

The earliest testimony comes from Aristophanes, a writer of comedies.

In The Clouds, Aristophanes presents a caricature of Socrates, depicting him as one of the sophists, and arguably the most inferior among them.

In the chronological sequence of philosophical texts, Plato's works prominently feature Socrates as the central character in many dialogues However, readers should approach Plato's accounts with caution, as he idealizes Socrates to such a degree that it blurs the line between reality and myth Additionally, distinguishing Plato's own philosophical ideas from those of Socrates is challenging, given that he often employs Socrates as a vehicle for his own thoughts.

Xenophon's "The Memorable Words of Socrates" serves as a valuable, though somewhat biased, source due to its apologetic tone and the brief personal interaction Xenophon had with Socrates.

Aristotle's insights into Socrates hold significant value today, even though he did not personally know him It is essential to recognize that Aristotle's writings on Socrates are influenced by his own philosophical perspective, which should be considered when assessing his observations.

Lastly, we can also draw from the testimonies of the minor socratics. Oftentimes, however, they give a one-sided and distorted picture of Socrates.

Reconstructing Socrates' thoughts is inherently speculative due to the lack of factual, objective accounts of his life and philosophy Instead, we rely on commentaries that vary in credibility, making it essential to approach his ideas with an understanding of this uncertainty.

When evaluating sources, it's wise not to rely solely on one but to gather information from multiple perspectives By comparing various sources and aligning our findings with the insights of Socrates' disciples, we can arrive at more reliable conclusions.

SOCRATIC ETHICS

All available sources describe Socrates' philosophy as an ethics.

Socrates "did not investigate the nature of the universe, like the majority of the other philosophers did." 2 In this, Socrates was merely following the

1 Regarding the socratic problem, see V De Magalhaes-Vilhena, Le problems de Socrate, Paris 1952.

Socrates, influenced by the tradition of the sophists, likely distanced himself from natural philosophy due to the conflicting views of earlier philosophers Initially, he may have focused on natural philosophy, but eventually, he shifted his attention exclusively to ethical questions, which became the central theme of his teachings.

The sophists were pioneers in the exploration of moral philosophy, but their inability to identify an objective basis for their discussions led them to adopt a skeptical, utilitarian, and pragmatic approach to ethics.

Socrates' significance is rooted in his clear response to the essence of humanity, asserting that the nature of man is defined by his soul This foundational idea serves as the bedrock of his ethical philosophy.

The soul as the center of moral life

Recent studies on Socrates have transitioned from examining his philosophical methods to exploring the substance of his ideas Historians widely acknowledge him as the pioneering philosopher who emphasized the soul as the focal point of human intellectual and moral existence.

This fresh perspective allows for a clearer understanding of both Socratic doctrine and Socrates' character To the youth of Athens, he was seen not as a sophist but as a dedicated educator, focused solely on guiding individuals to self-awareness and the profound value of their souls All available testimonies about Socrates reinforce this significant aspect of his life.

"Men of Athens, I honor and love you; but I shall obey God rather than you, and while I have life and strength I shall never cease from the practice and

The Socratic concept of the soul is central to Socratic philosophy, as highlighted in various works, including A.E Taylor's "Socrate" and W Jaeger's "Paideia." M Pohlenz's "La libertd greca" and F Sarri's comprehensive study on the historical genesis of the Western idea of the soul further explore this theme Socrates emphasizes the importance of wisdom and truth over material wealth and social status, urging citizens of Athens to prioritize the improvement of their souls over the pursuit of money and honor.

The ideal to which he devoted his life explains the aversionhe felt for the sophists who cared little for the cultivation and perfection of the soul.

Socrates believed that the soul's elevation is intrinsically linked to knowledge, which he equated with virtue He argued that knowledge is essential for perfecting the soul, fulfilling one's purpose, and attaining true happiness By prioritizing the pursuit of knowledge and the well-being of the soul, Socrates transformed traditional Greek ethics, which had previously emphasized physical health, wealth, power, and fame.

Socrates believed that knowledge is the foundation of virtue, while ignorance leads to vice He argued that knowledge empowers us to act rightly, suggesting that without it, we may inadvertently commit wrongful acts Although this perspective may seem like an extreme form of intellectualism that downplays the importance of willpower in achieving virtue, it implies that all immoral actions stem from a lack of understanding.

Socratic philosophy, often criticized for its intellectualism, warrants some clarification Socrates associates knowledge with virtue, specifically the highest form of knowledge concerning the nature of man and the well-being of the soul Furthermore, he argues that ignorance is the root of moral evil, suggesting that only those who lack understanding can confuse true goods with false ones.

2 Cf Aristotle, Nic Ethics, VI, 13,1144, b 28.

The intellectualism in his moral philosophy becomes evident when he asserts that knowing the good is enough to ensure its practice He overlooks the very real possibility that one may understand what is good yet fail to act on it due to a weak or flawed will.

While it is easy to critique Socrates for neglecting the importance of the will, his ideas on self-mastery, inner freedom, and autarchy, though rooted in an intellectualist viewpoint, still encompass significant elements of voluntary action.

Self-mastery (enkrateia) signifies the power of the soul over the body.

Mastering reason over sensory desires leads to inner freedom, allowing the virtuous individual to achieve personal autonomy Guided by reason, this person finds true happiness, which often eludes those who chase material possessions As stated, "If having no need at all is a thing divine, having the least possible needs is what most closely approximates the divinity."

THEOLOGY

Socrates faced the death penalty for impiety, accused of not believing in the city's gods and introducing new deities to public belief Despite this, he was a profoundly religious individual.

Socrates rejected the traditional state religion, similar to the sophists, but differed by not embracing agnosticism or atheism Instead, he held a profound understanding of divinity that transcended the anthropomorphic qualities attributed to the Greek gods.

Socrates, similar to Anaxagoras, viewed God as the Supreme Intelligence and the source of universal order, placing Him at the forefront of the pantheon of gods he likely believed in This understanding of God aligns closely with Socrates' ethical principles and philosophy regarding humanity, as illustrated by the insights of Xenophon, which highlight what can be termed the Socratic proofs of God's existence.

Do you recognize that you possess a share of intelligence, and that this intelligence is not unique to you? Your body is composed of elements from the earth and water that are abundant in nature, suggesting a purposeful formation rather than random chance The intricate order observed among countless elements raises the question: can such complexity arise from a non-intelligent force?

Another feature of the religious life of Socrates was his belief in the presence of a divine voice (daimonion) in him that guided his actions.

Throughout various occasions and locations, I have mentioned an oracle or divine sign that Meletus mocks in the charges against me This sign, which manifests as a voice, first appeared during my childhood It consistently advises me against actions I am about to take, but it never instructs me to pursue any particular course of action.

For Socrates, the daimonion was a privilege granted to him by the gods It was a proof of the reality of divine providence.

THE SOCRATIC METHOD

Socrates' teaching method was rooted in his understanding of humanity and his profound belief in the soul, contrasting sharply with the sophists, who relied on lengthy speeches and extensive rhetorical techniques to convey their teachings.

Socrates aimed to connect with his disciples' souls through engaging dialogue, fostering a collaborative journey of truth-seeking through a dynamic exchange of questions and answers.

Engaging in conversation with someone who shares an intellectual affinity for Socrates often leads to an argument, regardless of the initial topic This dialogue typically circles back repeatedly, compelling the participant to reflect on and account for both their current beliefs and past experiences Having become accustomed to this method of discourse, I understand the dynamics at play.

In Plato's "Apology," the speaker expresses a commitment to follow the guidance of Lysi-machus, acknowledging the personal cost of this choice due to his fondness for their conversations He emphasizes the importance of recognizing and reflecting on past wrongdoings, suggesting that such reminders are beneficial for personal growth.

Socrates begins his quest for true wisdom by embracing ignorance, engaging his interlocutors through probing questions This dialogue reveals the superficiality of the sophists' claims to knowledge, highlighting the irony inherent in Socratic dialectic Ultimately, ignorance serves not just as a starting point but as a crucial element in the pursuit of deeper understanding.

Socrates famously stated, "All I know is that I know nothing," which encapsulates his teaching philosophy This declaration reflects his profound belief that all human wisdom, including his own, pales in comparison to divine knowledge.

"The truth is, O men of Athens, that God only is wise; and by his answers he intends to show that the wisdom of men is worth little or nothing." 2

Irony is a key element of the Socratic method, serving as a critical tool to reveal the false wisdom of his conversational partners Once this exposure is achieved, Socrates transitions to the constructive aspect of his technique, known as midwifery This art focuses on uncovering the inherent truths that reside within the soul.

My approach to midwifery parallels traditional practices, yet it uniquely focuses on guiding men through their spiritual labor rather than attending to physical needs Like midwives, I remain unproductive, facing criticism for posing questions without offering answers This stems from a divine calling that enables me to assist others in their journeys, while preventing me from creating or originating wisdom of my own.

Lastly, the logical value of the socratic method must also be examined.

According to Aristotle, Socrates is often credited with uncovering the concept of essence in its logical and universal sense; however, this interpretation warrants a more critical examination.

Aristotle, while interpreting Socrates, aimed to emphasize the Socratic roots of certain elements of his own philosophy rather than provide a historical account of Socratic thought Therefore, it is misleading to derive the fundamental aspects of Socratic philosophy solely from Aristotle's interpretations Although the Socratic method contributed significantly to the development of concepts and definitions, the actual discovery of these ideas cannot be attributed to Socrates himself.

THE DISCIPLES OF SOCRATES

Plato, the primary disciple of Socrates, was joined by other thinkers known as the Minor Socratics, including Xenophon, Esquinus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Euclid, and Phaedo While Xenophon and Esquinus did not establish their own schools, the other Minor Socratics each founded distinct philosophical schools, offering unique interpretations of Socratic doctrine.

These Minor Socratic schools were: the Cynic School, founded by Antisthenes; the Cyrenaic School, founded by Aristippus; the school of

Megara, founded by Euclid; and that of Elida founded by Phaedo.

The Minor Socratic schools significantly influenced philosophical trends during the Hellenistic age, but our focus will shift to the study of Plato His philosophy transcends that of his master, akin to the swan in a well-known tale.

According to tradition, Socrates dreamt of a small swan perched on his knees, which suddenly flew away and sang a beautiful melody The following day, Plato approached Socrates, introducing himself as his disciple and claiming to be the small swan from the dream.

HIS LIFE AND WORKS

PROFILE OF HIS LIFE

Aristocles, known as Plato due to his broad shoulders, was born in Athens in 427 B.C Coming from a noble family with connections in high government positions, it seemed natural for him to pursue a career in politics However, his life took a significant turn due to his deep relationship with Socrates and the unjust execution of his mentor, which ultimately influenced his philosophical journey.

Plato spent his life in Athens, focusing on philosophy and science, particularly after founding the Academy, where he also educated the youth His travels were mainly for political reasons, except for his first trip in 399, following Socrates' death, when he left Athens to avoid potential persecution Accompanied by fellow disciples, he traveled to Megara, where he was hosted by Euclid, and subsequently visited Crete, Egypt, and Cyrenaica before returning to Athens around 396.

Plato undertook three additional journeys beyond Athens to pursue his vision of the philosopher-king, a concept he elaborates on in his 7th letter.

True philosophy empowers individuals to understand the essence of justice in both public and private life Consequently, the cessation of societal evils hinges on either the rise of genuine philosophers to positions of power or a transformative shift among current leaders towards true philosophical understanding.

Plato's life is primarily documented in Diogenes Laertius, particularly in section III, 1, where the most significant details can be found The limited autobiographical information available about Plato is mainly derived from his letters, with the Seventh Letter being especially notable.

Plato, primarily recognized as a philosopher, maintained a keen interest in politics, which he believed was intrinsically linked to philosophy He argued that politics derives its best justification and guidance from philosophical principles, highlighting the inseparable relationship between the two fields.

In 388 BC, Plato embarked on his second journey abroad, visiting Tarento and Sicily, where he encountered the tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius I the Old Due to various circumstances, Plato was sold into slavery but was subsequently ransomed and freed by his friend Aniceris Upon returning to Athens, he established the Academy in 387 BC, marking a significant milestone in the history of education.

At the request of Dionysius the Young, Plato returned to Syracuse in

Plato embarked on his third trip in 366 B.C but was eventually exiled from the region Despite this, he made a fourth and final visit in 361 B.C with several members of the Academy In 360 B.C., he returned to Athens, where he continued to reside until his death in 347 B.C.

PLATO'S WORKS

The strong influence exerted by Socrates on Plato is seen not only in Plato's teachings but also in Plato's manner of expounding them The

Plato's dialogues serve as a transcription of the conversations led by his mentor, Socrates, who is the central figure in most of these works Through this method, Plato presents his philosophy in a dynamic and non-systematic manner, where each dialogue revolves around a key theme while exploring various related questions The use of metaphors, analogies, and myths enriches the discussions, allowing for deeper understanding Plato's incorporation of myths is intentional, as he believes they complement rational arguments and elevate the human spirit to insights beyond mere logic.

In his early philosophical journey, Plato was heavily influenced by Socrates, but as he encountered other thinkers, he began to develop his own ideas His interests expanded to include cosmology, metaphysics, and ethics, leading to a distinct philosophical perspective that set him apart from Socratic thought This evolution is evident in the dialogues Plato authored during his later years, showcasing the unique characteristics of his mature philosophy.

Creating an accurate chronological listing of Plato's works is challenging, yet essential for a comprehensive understanding of his philosophy Despite the difficulties historians face in tracking the development of his ideas, we provide a sufficiently precise account of his various dialogues.

The first dialogues of Plato are basically concerned with ethics, and are written in a thoroughly socratic way.

They were written after the death of Socrates and before the year 390. Among them are the Apology, Charmides, the First Book of Alcibiades, the

Hippias Minor and Protagoras explore essential virtues such as justice and wisdom Plato, following his mentor's teachings, posits that virtues can be taught as sciences and that ignorance leads to immoral actions He asserts that true wisdom is the fundamental virtue of the soul, crucial for making correct decisions.

Between 390 and the time of Plato's maturity, a new collection of dialogues emerged, marked by a focus on ethical themes that reflect greater maturity and originality This period is notable for its distinctive philosophical insights and developments.

Dialogues of his Mature Years

1 G Reale ("Platone" in Questioni de storiografia filosofica, 1, pp 181 ff.) gives us a comprehensive picture of the different interpretations of Plato's thought.

Plato's second period is characterized by a renewed focus on the metaphysical questions posed by pre-Socratic thinkers He recognized that understanding human nature and moral behavior requires a metaphysical framework While Socrates laid the groundwork for ethical philosophy through his innovative concept of the soul, he did not clarify its essence or justify his belief in its immortality and superiority over the body Similarly, Socrates' ideas about the divine were profound yet lacked a solid metaphysical foundation.

Plato's exploration of the philosophy of nature led to his groundbreaking discovery of the Ideas, which became the cornerstone of his philosophical doctrine He extensively discusses these Ideas, reinterpreting the insights of Heraclitus and Parmenides through this innovative lens The evolution of Plato's thought is reflected in his sophisticated approach to the challenges posed by his doctrine of Ideas In his later years, he continued to expand upon the profound insights he gained during this formative period.

The dialogues of Plato's mature years were written between the years

387 and 367 The most important among them are the Banquet, Phaedo,

Dialogues of his old age

These dialogues were written between the years 367 and 348 In them, Plato discusses three questions at length: the metaphysical problem of the

The intersection of ideas, cosmology, and politics is evident in the political issues addressed in The Republic, which are further explored in his final dialogue, Laws.

Plato previously distinguished between the sensible and intelligible worlds, perceiving their connection solely in cognitive terms However, an ontological question persisted regarding the nature of the sensible world and its relationship to the realm of Ideas.

In Theaetetus, Philebus and especially in Parmenides, Plato tackles the question of the reality of the sensible world Should we, along with the

The Eleatics assert the singularity of being, leading to a denial of the existence of multiplicity Conversely, should we embrace the diversity of being and challenge Parmenides' teachings? Plato addresses these philosophical dilemmas in his dialogues, particularly in "Parmenides" and subsequent works.

In the dialogues of the Sophist, Plato elaborates on his doctrine of Ideas by introducing the concept of supreme genera or the community of Ideas This leads to a somewhat artificial framework in which he logically maintains the significance of the sensory world while simultaneously upholding the realm of Ideas.

Plato's "Timaeus" presents a comprehensive cosmology intertwined with his doctrine of Ideas, positing the existence of uncreated matter This primordial substance serves as the foundation from which the world is shaped through the creative efforts of the Demiurge.

Plato's esoteric doctrines, transmitted through Aristotle, offer deeper insights into his theory of Ideas, revealing how both ideas and all of reality emerge from the principles of the One and the large/small Diad.

Plato's teachings have sparked debate among historians, with some arguing they reflect the culmination of his philosophical development, while others believe they embody the essence of his thought from his mature years If the latter perspective holds true, these teachings reveal a fundamental aspect of Plato's philosophy that has significant implications for understanding his overall contributions to Western thought.

Dialogues would still reflect Plato's philosophy, but they would have to be complemented for a deeper understanding by this unwritten theory of the principles 1

Plato's negative perspective on writing, as expressed in works like Phaedrus and the Seventh Letter, suggests that his teachings reflect the culmination of his philosophical thought rather than a preliminary phase This decision to confine his ideas to a select group of disciples may be attributed to the speculative and abstract nature of his philosophy.

METAPHYSICS AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE

THE IDEAS

The doctrine of Ideas is fundamental to Platonic philosophy, serving as a benchmark for Plato's evaluations of other thinkers He dedicated himself to addressing the new questions arising from this doctrine, consistently affirming its significance and validity despite the numerous challenges it presented.

Plato explains how he came to discover the world of Ideas in the

Phaedo Using Socrates as his mouthpiece, he recalls his desire to know the cause of sensible reality.

“When I was young, Cebes, I had a prodigious desire to know that department of philosophy which is called the investigation of nature." 1

The pre-Socratics struggled to explain the origins of the sensible world using material elements like water, earth, air, and fire In contrast, he presents his own solution: the intelligible world of Ideas He characterizes this revelation as a second navigation, highlighting a profound shift in understanding.

In this article, I will explore my recent investigation into the underlying cause that has captured my attention I aim to delve into the essence of this cause, starting from widely recognized concepts of absolute beauty, goodness, and greatness that resonate with everyone.

The concept of beauty raises the question of whether anything can be considered beautiful apart from absolute beauty If such beauty exists, it can only be deemed beautiful to the extent that it reflects or shares characteristics with absolute beauty.

Platone, Milan 1984, for arguments defending the key role played by the doctrine of the principles in understanding the teachings contained in the Dialogues.

In Plato's "Phaedo," the term "second navigation" signifies the personal intellectual effort required to uncover truth, contrasting with "first navigation," which represents the ideas acquired from other philosophers This metaphor, drawn from nautical terminology, illustrates that while first navigation involves passively following favorable winds, second navigation demands the sailor's skill and determination to steer the ship against adverse conditions.

Plato posits that reality consists of two distinct realms: the tangible, material world that can be perceived through the senses, and an immaterial, invisible realm that can only be understood through intellectual insight.

Plato's concept of the Idea signifies true being and reality, serving as the foundation for thought itself Ideas are essential, as they represent the essence, cause, and principle behind all existence While inherently intelligible, Ideas can be understood by the mind but cannot be created by it.

Plato posited that Ideas exist independently and inherently, countering Protagoras' relativism, which claimed that truth is subjective and reliant on the knower He also dismissed the Heraclitean view that the nature of reality is unstable and, consequently, unintelligible.

Objects possess a distinct and enduring essence that is not influenced by human perception or whims; rather, they exist independently and adhere to the natural relationships defined by their inherent nature.

Moreover, Ideas are immutable unlike the ever-changing world of the sensible.

"'Well then', added Socrates, 'let us suppose that there are two sorts of existences—one seen, the other unseen.

'The seen is the changing, and the unseen is the unchanging?' 'That may also be supposed.'" 3

1 This interpretation of the Ideas seems to be more acceptable than the interpretation given by Aristotle (see H Cherniss, Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy, Baltimore 1944).

Plato's doctrine of Ideas reflects the influence of Parmenides, asserting that true reality consists of immutable Ideas, while simultaneously acknowledging Heraclitus's view of the physical world as ever-changing Thus, Plato presents a synthesis of Parmenides and Heraclitus by distinguishing between the two realms of the sensible and intelligible.

Aristotle offered significant criticism of Plato's dualist vision of reality, which posits two distinct realms: the sensible and the intelligible Plato maintains that these realms are entirely separate, with the Ideas transcending the sensible world, a concept explored in depth in dialogues following the Phaedo Conversely, he also suggests that Ideas are the cause of the sensible world, existing within it and defining its nature, a point particularly highlighted in his earlier dialogues.

Plato asserted that Ideas are the foundation of the sensible world, emphasizing that the visible nature cannot be understood without the intelligible realm Aristotle agreed with this notion but challenged the transcendent nature of Plato's Ideas, questioning how they could be the cause of the physical world if they exist beyond it This fundamental issue posed significant challenges for Plato, prompting him to explore various solutions.

Plato explored the connection between the sensible and the intelligible through concepts such as participation, imitation, community, and presence While we will not delve into the complexities of each theory, it is important to note that he recognized the need for a link between the sensory world and the realm of ideas, as one influences the other However, as we will discuss, Plato's proposed solutions did not fully resolve all of his philosophical challenges.

Plato was likely acquainted with Parmenides' poem, as he directly references it in his Dialogues His understanding of Heraclitus' philosophy probably came from Cratylus, who was Plato's mentor in his youth, according to Aristotle's Metaphysics.

Plato's doctrine of Ideas addressed contradictions in previous philosophies, yet he faced a challenge in establishing a unifying principle for the diverse world of Ideas Without a solution to this issue, his concept of an intelligible realm would merely mirror the sensible world, rendering it ineffective, as later highlighted by Aristotle.

COSMOLOGY

In our previous discussions on Platonist dualism, we focused on the intelligible realm of Ideas Now, we will enhance our understanding by exploring Plato's perspective on the nature of the physical world.

Parmenides viewed reality as dualistic, asserting that the true essence is a singular and unchanging Being, while acknowledging the existence of the sensible world, which he deemed unintelligible Plato reinterpreted Parmenides' philosophy, aligning his Ideas with Parmenides' concept of Being and positioning the sensible world as a counterpart to non-being Unlike Parmenides, who did not bridge the gap between the sensory world and the realm of Ideas, Plato established a connection, emphasizing that while the nature of changeable things differs from that of Ideas, the sensible world still holds a form of existence, albeit not as true reality.

Plato posits that the essence of sensible reality exists in a state that is intermediate between being and non-being While it is not pure being, it possesses being through its connection to the intelligibility of the Ideas.

1 A clear and brief exposition of the unwritten teachings of Plato can be found in E Berti,

Aristotele Dalia dialettica alia filosofia, Padua 1977, pp 95 ff For an interpretation of the

Dialogues in the light of Plato's unwritten teachings, see H Kramer, op cit., pp 178-213.

The elusive object that embodies both existence and non-existence cannot be simply categorized; once identified, it will represent the essence of opinion, allowing us to accurately attribute each aspect to its respective faculty—extremes to their corresponding faculties and the mean to the faculty of moderation.

For Plato, sensible realities are merely objects of opinion rather than true knowledge They exist to the extent that they participate in the realm of Ideas, yet their existence is compromised by their connection to matter.

Matter is inherently characterized by indetermination and a lack of intelligibility, traits that also apply to sensible realities due to their immersion in matter While these realities participate in the realm of Ideas, they remain fundamentally distinct because of their material nature In the Timaeus, Plato presents a comprehensive view of his cosmology, describing matter as "the mother and receptacle of all created and visible and in any way sensible things." He characterizes it as an "invisible and formless being" that mysteriously partakes in the intelligible, rendering it profoundly incomprehensible.

Matter represents a form of reality that, while lacking precise definition and structure, is clearly differentiated from non-being Although Plato does not explicitly define its nature, his writings reveal an early understanding of the concept that Aristotle would later articulate with metaphysical clarity, particularly the idea of matter's potentiality.

Matter is never observed in its pure form; it exists with structure and as part of a larger reality According to Plato, this shaping of matter is the work of the Demiurge, a divine creator who uses the world of Ideas as a blueprint The Demiurge imposes order and structure onto what was once chaotic and formless, transforming matter into a coherent existence.

The visible and tangible world is a product of creation, where all sensible things are perceived through opinion and sense Everything that exists is in a continuous process of creation, which implies that a cause must exist for all that is created However, the ultimate creator of the universe remains elusive and, even if discovered, conveying the essence of this creator to humanity would be an impossible task.

The question arises regarding the artificer's intention when creating the world: did he follow the pattern of the eternal Ideas or that of the created? If the world is indeed beautiful and the artificer benevolent, it is evident that he must have drawn inspiration from the eternal The world's beauty and the goodness of its cause clearly indicate that the artificer looked to the eternal when crafting creation.

Plato's cosmology involves the following principles: there is a model

(the Ideas), a reflection or representation of the model (the sensible world), and a Demiurge who forms the sensible world using matter as his raw material 2

The Demiurge, as described by Plato, is the intelligent deity responsible for shaping the material world based on the eternal Ideas Driven by a desire to create goodness, the Demiurge's actions reflect the philosophical reasoning behind the existence of the universe.

MAN AND HIS SOUL

Plato's philosophy of man highlights a dualism where he, like Socrates, asserts that the essence of a person is rooted in the soul He distinguishes between two principles: the soul, which pertains to the intelligible realm, and the body, which belongs to the sensible realm Ultimately, it is the soul that fundamentally defines human nature.

Plato's dualism presents a range of complex challenges, akin to those raised by his theory of Ideas Nevertheless, it also offers valuable insights into fundamental questions related to human nature, including the essence of knowledge, the immortality of the soul, and the realms of ethics and politics.

A comprehensive analysis of this schema reveals numerous challenges For an in-depth exploration of Plato's cosmology, refer to Zeller-Mondolfo's work, particularly volume III, section 1 Additionally, the cosmology presented in the Timaeus can be connected to Plato's principles, highlighting the interplay between the One and the Diad and their complementary relationship, as discussed by H Kramer on pages 206 and following.

Plato asserts that genuine science is derived solely from the understanding of permanent and stable truths, which belong to the realm of Ideas In contrast, knowledge of the physical world results only in opinion This raises the question of how humans connect with the eternal world of Ideas Plato explains that this connection occurs through the soul, which, prior to its union with the body, existed among the Ideas and gained knowledge of them.

The immortal soul, having been reborn numerous times, possesses knowledge of all things that exist, both in this world and the world below.

Knowledge is fundamentally a process of recollection, where the soul remembers what has always been inherent within it This understanding of knowledge is rooted in the belief in the reincarnation of souls, echoing Orphic Pythagorean teachings and the Socratic method of midwifery.

In the Phaedo, Plato argues that our ideas possess a precise and stable nature, indicating that they cannot originate from sensory experiences He posits that our intellect contains more than what is provided by the physical world, suggesting that its true source lies in the soul's initial encounter with the realm of Ideas.

Plato notes that knowledge exists in varying degrees, distinguishing between opinion and science, which can be further categorized Each category reflects a different level of reality, ranging from the mere shadows of tangible objects to the clear understanding of Ideas.

For Plato, knowledge of Ideas is the exclusive prerogative of the philosopher Science or true knowledge is nothing else but philosophy.

2 See the argumentation of Plato in Meno, 85 d, where he examines a slave Making use of Socratic midwifery, he helps the slave solve a difficult geometric problem.

In Republic VI, 509, Plato illustrates the various degrees of reality and their associated types of knowledge using a subdivided line He distinguishes between doxa, or opinion, which encompasses imagination and belief; episteme, or science, which includes dianoia, the understanding of mathematical objects; and noesis, the intellectual grasp of the Ideas.

Plato calls this knowledge dialectics, the knowledge of the nature of Ideas and their relation to one another 1

The execution of Socrates profoundly influenced Plato's belief in the immortality of the soul, particularly through Socrates' teachings on the afterlife Despite his strong convictions, Socrates struggled to define the essence of the soul and could only reinforce his belief in immortality by facing his death with remarkable calmness.

Many people are skeptical about the existence of the soul after death, fearing it may simply vanish into nothingness They worry that upon leaving the body, the soul could disperse like smoke, losing its essence entirely If the soul could reunite with itself after escaping the hardships of life, there might be hope for its continued existence However, substantial evidence and strong arguments are needed to convince individuals that the soul endures beyond physical death and retains its intelligence and power.

Plato seeks to demonstrate the immortality of the soul, a belief shared by Socrates and earlier philosophers His arguments, primarily rooted in the doctrine of Ideas, are presented in works such as the Phaedo, Phaedrus, and Republic While a detailed examination of these arguments is beyond our scope, they are intrinsically linked to Plato's theory of knowledge He posits that the soul's ability to comprehend immutable and eternal truths indicates its immortality Notably, despite differences in their teachings, there is a significant resemblance between Plato's reasoning and that of St Thomas Aquinas.

In his dialogues following the Republic, Plato further develops his concept of dialectics, particularly through logical argumentations related to his system of Ideas For a deeper understanding of these themes, one can refer to E Berti's works, "Struttura e significato del Parmenide di Platone" and "Dialectica e principi nel Filebo di Platone," found in Studi aristotelici, pages 297-346.

For a thorough examination of the proofs discussed in Plato's dialogues, refer to Phaedo (79 a ff; 102 b ff), Republic (X, 608 d ff), and Phaedrus (245 c ff) Detailed studies can be found in Zeller-Mondolfo's work, Volume III, pages 349 and onward, as well as G Reale's publication, Volume II, pages 115 and following.

In Book II, Chapter 79 of the Summa Contra Gentiles, St Thomas Aquinas presents a compelling argument for the immortality of the soul He posits that a necessary proportion exists between the knowing subject and its object; since universals, which are incorruptible, serve as the objects of human knowledge, it follows that the soul, as the knowing subject, must also be incorruptible.

ETHICS AND POLITICS

ETHICS

Plato's philosophy of man highlights the challenges he faced in articulating the connection between the sensible and the intelligible, emphasizing the duality of body and soul This dualism reflects the influence of Orphic-Pythagorean thought, particularly in the realm of ethics.

Plato, body and soul are not only different from each other but also opposed and irreconcilable.

The body is often viewed as the prison of the soul, limiting man's true existence As long as one is bound to the physical form, they are deprived of genuine life, as the soul represents the essence of humanity It is the body that leads to various evils, including passions, conflicts, and ignorance.

Plato’s ethics looks, therefore, to freeing the soul from its bondage to the body It seeks purification from the sensible and awaits death as the beginning of true life.

Wars and conflicts arise from our bodily desires and the pursuit of material wealth, which distract us from philosophical contemplation The quest for money serves the needs of the body, leaving little time for deeper understanding Even when we attempt to engage in philosophical thought, our physical existence disrupts our inquiries, preventing us from grasping the truth To attain pure knowledge, we must transcend the body; only the soul can truly perceive reality, allowing us to achieve the wisdom we seek, which we believe is accessible not in life, but after death.

Sensible pleasures are, therefore, devoid of moral value; or better still: they have to be regarded as the anithesis of the good 3 On the other hand,

In his later dialogues, Plato refines his earlier anti-hedonistic stance by categorizing pleasures based on their relation to the different parts of the soul: concupiscible, irascible, and rational He posits that true pleasures align with the rational soul, while not condemning the other types, as long as they remain subordinate to the higher aspect of the soul Ultimately, Plato suggests that the intellectual life resembles a divine existence, and although it may not be fully attainable in our current lives, individuals should strive towards it.

The journey to spiritual enlightenment is a process of purification that requires effort to attain true wisdom As the soul ascends in knowledge, it is healed from base desires and cultivated into virtue Plato aligns with Socratic intellectualism, emphasizing the rational aspect of the soul while acknowledging its irrational components related to appetites He posits that virtue is fundamentally linked to reason In his exploration of love, Plato presents it as a drive towards beauty, wisdom, and goodness, reflecting a quest for happiness through the pursuit of the absolute.

Plato viewed the contemplative life as both an ethical and religious ideal, emphasizing that divinity exists within a transcendent realm He believed that Ideas possess a divine essence, akin to the Demiurge and the soul, and that a virtuous life is the truest reflection of divinity.

God should be our ultimate standard, rather than humanity, as suggested by Protagoras To be beloved by God, one must strive to reflect His nature Therefore, it is both noble and true to assert that a good person should honor the gods through sacrifices, prayers, and various forms of service This devotion is not only the highest virtue but also essential for achieving a fulfilling and happy life.

POLITICS

Socrates never wanted to involve himself in politics Plato, on the other hand, always felt an attraction for it, and was only prevented from doing so

1 Plato gives much thought to the question of love and makes it the central theme of the

Banquet Cf L Robin, La theorie platonicienne de I' amour, Paris 1908.

Plato envisions divine reality as a complex multiplicity with various attributes This includes personal deities such as the demiurge and lesser gods created by the demiurge, as well as gods from traditional religions acknowledged by Plato Additionally, in the context of the Ideas, he also presents the concept of an impersonal deity.

The political landscape of his era and the tragic passing of his mentor significantly influenced his life Nevertheless, his passion for politics endured throughout his lifetime, deeply intertwined with his philosophical beliefs.

Plato asserts that genuine politicians are exclusively philosophers, as they hold true knowledge He emphasizes that the soul is paramount to human existence, making it the primary focus for statesmen.

Plato elaborates on his political philosophy in the Republic, the

In Plato's "Republic," the philosopher outlines the ideal structure of a state designed to cultivate virtuous citizens He emphasizes that a well-functioning state should consist of three distinct classes of individuals, each contributing to the formation of perfect men.

—the workers, the guardians and the politicians These three classes correspond to the three kinds of soul 3

Plato's guardians are required to forgo personal families and private property, embracing common ownership, a concept that has sparked diverse interpretations among historians This idea should not be mistaken for an endorsement of Communism or materialism, as Plato's philosophy fundamentally opposes a materialistic view of humanity and society Misinterpretations may arise from prioritizing the collective over the individual, which contradicts the essence of Platonism While the ideal state in the Republic appears utopian, the frameworks in the Statesman and Laws are more feasible, yet Plato insists that only philosophers possess the virtue necessary for effective governance.

1 The study W Jaeger makes about Plato in his Paideia tends to emphasize this point See especially pp 589 ff., which comment on the Republic

Plato presents Socrates as the epitome of a genuine politician, contrasting him with the sophists He asserts, "I believe I am the only, or nearly the only, Athenian who truly practices the art of politics; I am the sole politician of my era." (Gorgias, 521 d).

Plato's perspective on the ethical role of politics is crucial, as it sharply contrasts with contemporary views that prioritize economic and individual or party interests above all else.

Plato's "Republic" intertwines ethics and politics, emphasizing that the individual and the citizen are inseparable He introduces his political theories after discussing human nature and the virtues, particularly justice A.E Taylor notes that qualified individuals capable of leading are rare, which is why Plato advocates for the supremacy of laws in governance Following this foundation, he examines various political constitutions, suggesting they should be modeled after an ideal framework.

In "The Laws," Plato addresses specific societal issues and presents a legislative framework for governance This model aims for practical implementation, suggesting that the constitutions developed by his followers may have been influenced by his proposals.

THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE

The well-known allegory of the cave, which appears in the Republic, is useful as a graphic representation of Platonic thought.

In this allegorical depiction, human beings are likened to prisoners confined in an underground den, with their necks and legs chained, limiting their vision to only what is directly in front of them They have been in this state since childhood, unable to turn their heads Above them, a fire burns in the distance, casting shadows, while a raised pathway with a low wall separates the fire from the prisoners, reminiscent of a screen used by puppeteers to display their marionettes This imagery illustrates the contrast between enlightenment and ignorance, highlighting the limitations imposed on the prisoners’ understanding of reality.

Men are seen walking along the wall, transporting a variety of vessels, statues, and animal figures crafted from wood, stone, and other materials Some engage in conversation, while others remain silent.

"You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners."

"Like ourselves," I replied."And they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave." 1

The allegory illustrates varying degrees of reality, ranging from the shadows cast on the cave wall to the illuminating brightness of the sun It also signifies the different levels of knowledge that correspond to these realities, highlighting the journey from ignorance to enlightenment.

In Plato's "The Republic," the allegory of the cave illustrates the journey from ignorance to enlightenment, where prisoners perceive only shadows of reality The ultimate goal is to achieve the vision of the sun, symbolizing true knowledge and understanding, which can only be attained through a dialectical process of learning This journey requires freeing oneself from the chains that restrict perception, representing the liberation of the soul from the body and senses Once enlightened, the philosopher-king has the duty to return to the cave and help others discover the truth, even at the risk of facing hostility or death, as exemplified by Socrates The allegory emphasizes the challenges faced by those who seek to enlighten others trapped in comfortable ignorance.

Imagine a person suddenly emerging from the brightness of the sun and returning to their previous environment; wouldn’t their eyes be overwhelmed by darkness?

"To be sure," he said.

In a hypothetical contest, if a man were to compete in measuring shadows with prisoners who have never left their confinement, he would appear foolish due to his initially weak eyesight The adjustment to this new vision would take considerable time, leading others to mock him for his attempts to ascend They might argue that it is better not to even consider such an ascent, and if anyone were to attempt to lead another prisoner towards the light, they would face severe punishment, even death.

Platonism's significance lies in its revelation of a supra-sensible reality, marking a profound transformation in philosophical thought Plato's introduction of the intelligible world brought about structural changes that reshaped ancient perspectives The contrast between sensible and suprasensible realities redefined the understanding of knowledge, granting it newfound importance and clarity.

The increased awareness of the spiritual significance of ideas has transformed the philosophy of humanity, reshaping moral values and altering traditional interpretations of life's meaning and the nature of death.

"Lastly, the divinity is for the first time conceived in a proper way—as an immaterial reality." 1

Plato's exploration of the intelligible world opened new avenues of knowledge but also raised significant philosophical challenges, particularly concerning the relationship between the sensible and intelligible realms Central to these issues was the complex connection between the body and soul, which Plato viewed as opposing forces His theories, including the tripartite division of the soul and the existence of multiple divine beings, intensified the debate surrounding these concepts This intricate legacy of insights and unresolved problems was inherited by Aristotle, who sought to address and expand upon Plato's foundational ideas in his own philosophical framework.

LIFE AND WORKS

LIFE OF ARISTOTLE

Aristotle, born in 384 B.C in Stageira, was a member of an aristocratic family After becoming orphaned at a young age, he moved to Athens and joined the Academy around 366 B.C.

It was in the Academy where Aristotle's vocation to pursue philosophy matured He remained there for twenty years, leaving only at the time of Plato's death in 347 1

Aristotle's departure from Athens was likely due to his philosophical disagreements with Speusippus, Plato's successor at the Academy Following his exit, Aristotle moved to Asia Minor, marking a significant phase in his life He initially established a school in Assos with fellow Platonists before relocating to Mitylene with his disciple Theophrastus.

Aristotle likely pursued formal philosophical studies in Assos and focused on the natural sciences while in Mitylene.

In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip of Macedon to educate his son, who would later become known as Alexander the Great Aristotle remained in Macedonia until 336 BC, the year Alexander began his reign as king.

Finally, in 335, Aristotle returned to Athens where he established a school close to the temple dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, whence the name

"Lyceum," which was given to the school The school was also known as

"Peripatos" (the Greek word for a stroll), and its members as "Peripatetics,"

Diogenes Laertius' "Lives of the Philosophers" (IV, 9) serves as the most dependable source for the chronological details of Aristotle's life Recent studies, particularly W Jaeger's "Aristoteles, Grundlegung einer Geschichte seiner Entwicklung," have emphasized the distinct aspects of Aristotle's character and aimed to reconstruct the various phases of his life Notably, Aristotle was known for delivering his lessons while strolling through the garden, showcasing his unique teaching style.

The Lyceum emerged as a formidable rival to the Academy, even surpassing it for a period During his time in Athens, Aristotle experienced his most prolific years, where he organized and systematized his philosophical and scientific contributions for future generations.

Following Alexander's death in 323, a wave of anti-Macedonian sentiment surged through Athens, putting Aristotle's safety at risk due to his association with the late king To evade hostility, Aristotle fled to Chaicis, appointing Theophrastus as the head of the Lyceum He passed away in 322 after spending a few months in exile.

THE WORKS OF ARISTOTLE

Aristotle's writings are categorized into two primary groups: exoteric works, which are composed in dialogue form for public readership, and esoteric works, which are the result of his teaching and were intended solely for his disciples.

The earliest works from this group are largely lost, retaining only a few fragments and titles The first known exoteric book is likely the "Grillus" or "On Rhetoric," while the last ones composed were the "Protrepticus" and "On Philosophy." Notable earlier writings include "On Ideas," "On the Good," and "Eudemus."

Most of Aristotle's pedagogical works have been preserved, addressing a wide range of philosophical inquiries as well as topics related to the natural sciences This comprehensive collection is organized within the current structure of the Corpus.

Aristotelicum, the first book to appear is the Organon It is a collection of the following treatises on logic: the Categories, On Interpretation (or

Aristotle's body of work encompasses a wide range of subjects, including logic with texts like the Prior and Posterior Analytics, the Topics, and Sophistical Fallacies His contributions to natural philosophy include the Physics, On the Heavens, On Generation and Corruption, and Meteorology Additionally, he explored psychology in his treatise On the Soul and various smaller works known as Parva Naturalia His most renowned work, the Metaphysics, consists of fourteen books, alongside significant writings on moral philosophy and politics, such as the Nicomachean Ethics.

Eudemian Ethics, the Magna Moralia, 1 and the Politics Lastly, mention must be made of the Poetics and the Rhetoric.

Among the works dealing with the natural sciences, the following can be mentioned: the Histories of Animals, the Parts of the Animals, and the

Generation of Animals They are more relevant to the history of science than to philosophy.

The chronology of Aristotle's works and their connection to the evolution of his thought remains a key focus for historians today While research has sparked renewed interest in Aristotle's philosophy, conclusive results are still lacking Overall, his exoteric works, created during his time at the Academy from 366 to 347 BCE, exhibit a significant Platonic influence in both style and content.

Aristotle's esoteric works may have undergone revisions by him over time, making it challenging to establish specific dates for the evolution of his thoughts Consequently, our exploration of Aristotle's philosophy will not adhere to a chronological framework; instead, we will examine the various branches of science that constitute his philosophical contributions.

Much of what Aristotle wrote in his esoteric works departs from the thought of Plato Nevertheless, it would not be correct to speak of

The Magna Moralia, once thought to be authored by a later Peripatetic philosopher, is now widely accepted as a genuine work of Aristotle While scholars like Jaeger and Gauthier question its Aristotelian authorship, F Dirlmeier's 1958 commentary provides compelling evidence supporting its authenticity For further insights, refer to I During's Italian translation of Aristotle's thought, published in Milan in 1976.

In his book "Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History," Jaeger introduced the evolutionary or genetic interpretative method, aiming to reconstruct the development of Aristotle's thought and writings He posited that Aristotle began as a devoted disciple of Plato but gradually diverged from his master's views, ultimately forming a distinctive philosophy marked by a strong scientific spirit While Jaeger's hypothesis served as a foundational framework for subsequent historians, it led to varying conclusions, indicating that it may not be the definitive solution to understanding Aristotle's philosophical evolution.

Recent studies on Aristotle have shifted towards a holistic interpretation of his philosophy, moving away from the systematic approaches established by scholasticism Modern historians, such as E Berti, emphasize a comprehensive understanding of Aristotle's thought, highlighting its complexity and interconnectedness.

Question! di storiografia filosofica, I, pp 247 ff for a study on the present state of

Aristotelian historiography reveals a significant opposition between Aristotle and his mentor, yet it also highlights their commonalities Aristotle's philosophical development was deeply influenced by his master's teachings, underscoring the interconnectedness of their ideas.

ARISTOTLE AND PLATO

Before delving into Aristotle's philosophy, it's essential to understand its relationship with that of his teacher, Plato While many historians view their philosophies as fundamentally opposed, Aristotle did not reject the existence of the intelligible realm Instead, he aimed to show that the intelligible world is not separate from the sensible world, contrary to Plato's teachings on Ideas.

The immanence of the universals.

Plato believed that Ideas were the fundamental causes of things, existing both within them and in a separate transcendent realm In contrast, Aristotle rejected this notion, arguing that the essence and intelligible foundation of sensible reality are found solely within the realm of the sensible, without the need for a separate world of Ideas.

Moreover, Plato was concerned above all with studying the structure of the intelligible world, and all his disciples, with the exception of Aristotle, followed in this tradition.

Aristotle challenged Plato's philosophy by arguing that transcendent forms should be replaced with entirely immanent ones He contended that Plato's ideas cannot be equated with these immanent forms because Plato viewed them as substances For Aristotle, immanent forms are considered universals, which cannot qualify as substances since true substances must possess individuality.

1 Cf G Reale, op cit., II, pp 250 ff.

This transformation of the Idea into the intelligible foundation of sensible reality does not imply rejecting any kind of transcendence.

Aristotle also recognized the existence of a transcendent principle or the cause of the sensible This principle is God, the Unmoved Mover, which

Aristotle conceives not so much as something intelligible like the Ideas but more as the intelligent First Cause.

Aristotle introduced the concept of matter as a co-constitutive principle of sensible reality, emphasizing its role as potency in relation to form While he rejected the Idea as a transcendent principle, he maintained the Platonic doctrine of the primacy of form, asserting that the sensible world constitutes reality Rather than simply opposing Platonism, Aristotle sought to correct and develop it, and his philosophy can only be fully understood in the context of Platonic thought Although Aristotle's ideas may seem to diverge from Plato's spirit, they fundamentally remain rooted in the teachings he encountered at the Academy.

There were obvious differences in character, formation and interests between the two philosophers, differences which affected the direction of their respective fields of research.

Plato's Dialogues showcase his profound religiosity through poetic imagery, highlighting his spiritual beliefs In contrast, while Aristotle acknowledges the importance of divinity in his philosophy, he refrains from extensively expressing his religious views Instead, he focuses on theoretical issues, particularly in his esoteric works, employing a rigorous scientific method to explore these concepts.

As for their respective fields of interest, mathematics along with metaphysics was Plato's primary concern among the theoretical sciences.

He gave scant attention to the empirical sciences Aristotle, on the other

C Fabro highlights that Aristotle interprets reality horizontally, focusing on the intrinsic principles of matter and form, while Plato views it vertically, emphasizing the reality's connection to the transcendent realm of Ideas Fabro's analysis in "Partecipazione e causalita" illustrates this distinction Aristotle's approach reflects a deep interest in the world of phenomena, as demonstrated by his extensive studies in natural sciences, where he meticulously gathered and classified empirical data.

Plato's writing style lacks systematic organization, as he explores various issues in his Dialogues in a scattered manner, often revisiting topics later in the text In contrast, Aristotle adopts a more structured approach by clearly defining the problems he intends to address and analyzing them methodically Additionally, Aristotle employs technical language, while Plato's style is more spontaneous and poetic.

Dialogues These differences have no doubt contributed to highlighting the distance separating the master from the disciple, and creating the- wrong impression of opposition between their respective philosophies.

In our exploration of Aristotle's philosophy, we will begin with his logic, which he designed as a foundational tool for the other sciences Next, we will delve into the theoretical sciences he identified, including Physics and Metaphysics Finally, we will analyze his Ethics, regarded as the most significant of the practical sciences.

LOGIC

STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF THE BOOKS OF THE ORGANON

The compiler of Aristotle's logical works aptly named the collection "Organon," reflecting its purpose as a study of the tools and methods essential for scientific inquiry This term, which originated later with the Stoics, highlights the foundational role these works play in understanding logical reasoning and its application in various fields of study.

Aristotle inherits Plato's concept of science, defining it as a form of knowledge that is permanent, universally applicable, and necessarily conclusive Following the pre-Socratics and Plato, he emphasizes that true scientific inquiry must focus on eternal and immutable realities, as they believed that contingent, changeable phenomena of the sensible world cannot be the subject of genuine science.

Aristotle recognizes the significance of material substances in scientific inquiry, asserting that despite their inherent variability and changeability, we can achieve universal and necessary knowledge about them.

—scientific in the full sense of the word.

Plato points to dialectic as the means whereby the human mind gains entry into the world of Ideas and acquires science.

Aristotle says that logic is the tool our mind should use in the pursuit of scientific knowledge.

Aristotle's exploration of logic delves into the functioning of the human mind, analyzing the reasoning process, the characteristics of demonstration, and the various objects to which these principles are applied.

The term "logic" likely emerged after Cicero's era, originally synonymous with "dialectic." It was Alexander of Aphrodisias, around 200 A.D., who is credited with using "logic" in its contemporary sense In contrast, Aristotle referred to this field as "Analytics."

Aristotle viewed logic not merely as a science but as an essential introductory discipline that serves as a foundation for all other sciences He believed that it provides students with the necessary mental tools required for effective scientific inquiry.

Aristotle identifies three key functions of the human mind: simple apprehension, which allows us to understand the essence of things and form concepts; judgement, which connects these concepts; and reasoning, which helps us discover new truths based on existing knowledge These functions are explored in six treatises known as the Organon The first treatise, the Categories, focuses on the nature of terms, which serve as external representations of concepts derived from simple apprehension.

According to Aristotle, language articulates the concepts generated by our intellect, which mirrors reality itself Consequently, our words convey the various modes of existence found within reality All forms of reality can be categorized into ten distinct modes of being, known as predicaments or categories.

Expressions that are not composite indicate various aspects such as substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, or affection From a metaphysical perspective, these categories reflect the essential modes of existence, while from a logical viewpoint, they classify the different types of terms that can be included in a proposition For instance, in the statement "Socrates runs," the terms can be categorized accordingly.

"Socrates" falls under the category of substance, "runs" under that of action.

Judgements are formed when terms are connected through affirmation or negation, allowing us to assert or deny one concept in relation to another The logical representation of a judgement is known as a proposition, which possesses a truth value, unlike individual words or terms Propositions can be classified as true or false based on whether the relationships established by our intellect accurately reflect reality.

Positive or negative statements are formed through the combination of terms Every assertion is recognized as either true or false, while simple expressions like "man," "white," "runs," and "wins" cannot be classified as true or false since they are not composite.

The second treatise, On Interpretation, explores the various types of propositions based on their affirmative or negative nature and their extent The third treatise, Prior Analytics, focuses on syllogisms, providing a detailed analysis that forms the basis of formal logic In the fourth treatise, Posterior Analytics, Aristotle examines reasoning processes and scientific demonstrations, emphasizing induction as a method for establishing foundational principles Finally, the fifth treatise, Topics, complements the previous work by offering a methodological approach to dialectics, aimed at uncovering truth in everyday discussions through a thorough examination of predicables.

Our program aimed to explore reasoning based on widely accepted premises, which is fundamental to the art of discussion (dialectic) and examination (peirastic) While dialectic shares similarities with sophistry, it uniquely requires individuals to evaluate propositions both formally and contextually The final treatise, "Sophistical Fallacies," delves into various types of faulty reasoning.

INDUCTION: THE KNOWLEDGE OF PRINCIPLES

Aristotle asserts that individual substances are empirically evident, emphasizing a distinction between real being and the perception of being in the human mind He argues that reality differs from our mental understanding, cautioning against the error of Plato, who believed universal Ideas were real entities, which led him to conclude that a science of the physical world was unattainable For Aristotle, the foundation of knowledge must start with sensible experience.

Book IX of the Topics, traditionally titled "Sophistical Fallacies," is recognized as an independent treatise that explores the relationship between concrete, singular things in sensible reality and the universal ideas we derive from them It emphasizes that our concepts are abstracted from these tangible realities and can accurately represent them, allowing for meaningful predication of concepts onto actual things.

In the Posterior Analytics, Aristotle explores how we gain knowledge of universal first principles, such as the principle of non-contradiction and the idea that the whole is greater than its parts He proposes three theoretical possibilities for acquiring this knowledge.

1) like Plato, we can say that they are innate to us (Plato could not see how such universal principles could be derived from experience); 2) we could affirm that we know them through reasoning—but this is impossible since these principles are the very foundations of the reasoning process; 3) only a third alternative remains—that we acquire them through experience as the result of the spontaneous use of our intellect 1

Concepts are derived from abstracting observations, such as forming the idea of "man" from individual examples Similarly, principles arise through induction from specific instances For instance, observing that a whole is greater than its parts leads to the universal principle that every whole surpasses its components, a principle that is self-evident and cannot be proven.

Aristotle outlines a process that starts with sensations, progresses to memories and images, and culminates in the formation of universal propositions This process differs from modern reasoning or experimentation; rather, it represents an intellectual "intuition" derived from a complex and repeated experiential journey that engages all our sensory faculties.

Intuition surpasses scientific knowledge in accuracy, as it allows for a direct understanding of primary principles, which are inherently more knowable than the discursive nature of scientific demonstrations Consequently, while scientific knowledge relies on deduction, it is intuition that grasps these foundational premises with greater certainty.

Aristotle, however, does recognize some reasoning activity in the process inasmuch as different perceptions have to be worked on before we understand universal principles.

PREDICABLES

The first book of the Topics explores the concept of universals, which are formed by abstracting from numerous specific instances sharing a common form, such as the universal "man" derived from individual men Universals, like "man," "musician," and "white," possess the quality of being applicable to multiple individual entities Unlike Plato's notion of separate, independent universals, these concepts exist within the individual beings themselves in the real world.

Aristotle's exploration of universals leads to his classification of predicables, which describes how predicates relate to subjects A predicate that is convertible with the subject and expresses its essence constitutes a definition, exemplified by "man is a rational animal." If the predicate is convertible but only highlights a property, such as "man is risible," it denotes a property rather than a definition When the predicate is not convertible with the essence, it may either represent the genus of the subject, as in "animal" for man, or be a logical accident, like "this man is white." Aristotle's framework contrasts with Plato's view, emphasizing that universals exist in the logical realm rather than the metaphysical, asserting that individual substances are unique and not predicated of anything else Porphyry later modifies Aristotle's classification by introducing species as a fifth predicable and refining the concept of definition.

Aristotelian logic is fundamentally based on the primacy of singular substances, which serve as logical constructs rooted in individual beings This highlights the importance of understanding specific entities as the foundation of logical reasoning.

Predicables and predicaments are distinct concepts; predicables refer to the various ways universals relate to reality, reflecting the generality or specificity of an individual's nature In contrast, predicaments denote the types of existence encountered in reality, encompassing both substantial and accidental forms of being.

Aristotle distinguishes between primary and secondary substances, where secondary substance refers to universals that define the essence of multiple individuals sharing a common form, such as "man" being applicable to Peter and John This universal is captured in definitions In contrast, primary substance is unique and concrete, representing the ultimate being that cannot be predicated of anything else; for instance, John cannot be described as Peter or Andrew, but he can be identified as "man" or "tall." This distinction is fundamental to Aristotle's philosophy.

SCIENCES

Aristotle defines science as certain knowledge derived from understanding causes, distinguishing it from opinion, which relies on probable assertions Scientific knowledge entails a definitive understanding of why or how phenomena occur, focusing on the necessary causes behind them It is a mediate form of knowledge that results from demonstrations grounded in universal, necessary, and evident principles, such as the principle of non-contradiction and the principle that the whole is greater than its parts.

We often believe we have complete scientific understanding of a phenomenon when we identify its specific cause and assert that the phenomenon could not exist in any other form Thus, true scientific knowledge pertains to entities that are unchangeable in their nature.

Intuitive knowledge may exist alongside scientific knowledge, but I emphasize that we can attain understanding through demonstration Demonstration, in this context, refers to a syllogism that yields scientific knowledge, where understanding the syllogism itself constitutes that knowledge If my view on scientific knowledge is accurate, the premises of demonstrated knowledge must be true, immediate, and more fundamental than the conclusion, which relates to them as an effect relates to its cause While syllogisms can exist without these criteria, they do not produce scientific knowledge and therefore cannot be classified as demonstration.

Science is defined as a collection of conclusions established through demonstrative principles, as outlined by Aristotle, who emphasizes proof via syllogism There are two types of scientific demonstrations: propter quid and quia The quia demonstration starts with observable effects and leads to their underlying causes, such as diagnosing an illness based on symptoms Conversely, the propter quid demonstration begins with known causes and derives effects, exemplified by mathematical proofs that reach conclusions grounded in fundamental principles.

Aristotle defines science as a form of knowledge that is necessary and distinct from opinion, which is merely probable and contingent It originates from certain and evident principles, leading to conclusions that are definitive Additionally, science is universal, meaning its principles are immutable and applicable to all entities within its scope While it may examine sensible reality, Aristotle emphasizes that science focuses on phenomena as part of a genus or species rather than as isolated instances.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES

Aristotle categorized sciences into three main groups: speculative sciences, which pursue knowledge for its own sake; the science of ethics, aimed at achieving moral perfection; and the "poetic" or productive sciences, focused on creating specific objects.

2 Cf Ibid., 13. sciences, Aristotle accorded the highest rank and dignity to the speculative sciences, composed of physics, mathematics and metaphysics.

Aristotle categorizes the three speculative sciences based on their unique objects and how the intellect perceives them Metaphysics, which we will explore in detail, examines being in its entirety, thereby encompassing all aspects of reality In contrast, physics and mathematics focus on specific areas of reality, with physics addressing sensible beings and mathematics concerning itself with mathematical entities.

Aristotle posits that all intellectual knowledge is inherently abstract, focusing on universals rather than individual entities, which are the domain of sensible knowledge Consequently, speculative sciences are distinguished by the varying degrees of abstraction they employ For instance, physics examines mobile substances, analyzing their nature as they exist in matter without considering their specific individual traits It studies species, such as dogs and horses, in general terms rather than as unique instances, thereby concentrating on sensible objects in a broader context.

Natural sciences focus on substances that possess the principle of their own movement and rest Physics, as a theoretical science, examines entities capable of motion and defines substances primarily in relation to matter Among the various properties of tangible things, quantitative properties are significant, forming the basis of mathematics Mathematics specifically investigates dimensional quantity and number, abstracting them from their broader contexts This unique form of abstraction allows mathematics to explore objects found within sensible realities, such as curves, while disregarding their physical characteristics.

2 Ibid., 1025 b 18. color, weight, etc.) Its objects exist in the sensible but are understood apart from the sensible by way of abstraction.

Mathematical beings, as we have just described them, are unchangeable and do not subsist per se.

Mathematics focuses on universal propositions related to magnitudes and numbers, emphasizing their qualities rather than their physical existence Similarly, it is possible to formulate propositions and demonstrations about sensible magnitudes based on their specific characteristics rather than their sensory attributes This approach allows for the exploration of concepts such as motion and the nature of bodies, planes, and lines, independent of their physical properties Metaphysics, on the other hand, investigates immaterial realities that exist beyond sensory perception, such as God, and examines the essence of being and its properties—qualities that are not confined to physical entities This study of being, which encompasses both material and immaterial aspects, forms the foundation of metaphysical science.

The knowledge of eternal and immovable entities belongs to a theoretical science that transcends both physics and mathematics While physics focuses on separate substances that are movable, and certain branches of mathematics examine immovable concepts that do not exist independently, the foundational science addresses entities that are both separate and immovable.

The object of metaphysics, therefore, includes substances that lie beyond the confines of the physical world—suprasensible, immortal,

Metaphysics examines eternal and unchangeable substances, focusing on God as the universal cause of existence It also encompasses the sensible world, but only in relation to its intelligible aspects that form the foundational principles of material entities.

Aristotle posits that matter represents the principle of indetermination, lacking intelligibility The perfection of a speculative science is determined by the immateriality of its subject and how the intellect perceives it Consequently, Aristotle classifies metaphysics as the highest science, as it examines the most intelligible objects and provides profound insights into the nature of the world.

The most honorable and divine science is unique in that it encompasses two essential qualities: it is fitting for God to possess a divine science, and it focuses on divine objects This science is distinguished by the belief that God is a primary cause of all things, serving as the first principle While all sciences may be deemed necessary, none surpasses the value of this particular science, which only God or God above all others can truly comprehend.

PHYSICS

THE HYLEMORPHIC DOCTRINE

Nature reveals the presence of physical substances and the inevitability of change, with all entities, living or inanimate, undergoing processes of generation and corruption Each change has both a beginning and an end, and in substantial changes, the endpoint defines the essence of the substance Aristotle refers to this endpoint as the "form," which is not merely geometric but signifies the defining characteristic of the substance The substantial form represents the reality or perfection achieved through any significant transformation.

Change necessitates a substrate, as it signifies the transformation of one substance into another without the destruction of the original matter or the creation of something entirely new For instance, during the combustion of carbon, the resulting ashes indicate that a common substrate existed throughout the process Although this substrate is not directly observable, it is comprehended through intellectual reasoning Aristotle refers to this underlying substance as prime matter.

The principle that nothing can be created from nothing underscores the necessity of pre-existing elements in any production process Consequently, some components must inherently exist prior to the outcome, as matter plays a crucial role in transforming into a tangible result.

Prime matter and substantial form are intrinsic principles of substances rather than actual beings This indicates that all tangible realities consist of a combination of matter and form Additionally, since matter cannot exist independently of the form that shapes it, the processes of corruption and generation are inherently linked.

2 s Cf Ibid., II, 1; Met., VII, 7-9.

The hylemorphic doctrine, as articulated in Aristotle's Metaphysics, posits that matter and form are fundamentally interconnected as the essential principles of material existence This relationship indicates that where one is present, the other is also simultaneously present, underscoring the intrinsic link between matter and form in the constitution of being For a more comprehensive exploration of this concept, refer to Aristotle's works, including Physics and On Generation and Corruption.

Aristotle's hylemorphic doctrine presents a unique perspective by defining prime matter as a real potential principle that serves as the substrate of change, capable of receiving actual perfection This view contrasts sharply with the pre-Socratic notion of matter as the sole principle of corporeal existence and Plato's interpretation of matter as mere privation Aristotle identifies form as the essential determining principle of individual substances, representing the principle of actuality The form, which resides within the substance, imparts a specific nature, and as the act of prime matter, it singularly defines each corporeal being.

The question of what unifies a man, making him one rather than many, poses a challenge for Platonists who struggle to provide a clear definition However, by distinguishing between matter and form, and understanding one as potential and the other as actual, this philosophical dilemma can be resolved.

Aristotle defines matter as pure potency—incorruptible, undetermined, and passive—yet capable of receiving actual determinations or perfections In contrast, form is what defines matter, giving corporeal substances their specific identities, such as a horse or a stone, making them intelligible to humans Thus, matter and form are intrinsically linked, with matter representing potentiality and form representing actuality.

SUBSTANCE AND ACCIDENTS

A corporeal substance can experience varying degrees of transformation, which are categorized into two main types: substantial change and accidental change Aristotle discusses these concepts in detail, emphasizing the significance of understanding how substances can alter while maintaining their essence.

1 Cf Met., VII, 7-9; VIII, 4; XI, 9-12 and XII, 1-4.

2 Ibid., VIII, 6,1045 a 14; cf Physics, II, 1.

A corporeal substance can experience changes that do not alter its essence, categorized into three types: 1) qualitative change, involving alterations in characteristics such as color or temperature; 2) quantitative change, reflecting increases or decreases in quantity, like weight loss; and 3) local movement, indicating a change in position Crucially, the substance itself remains the underlying subject of these changes, referred to as secondary matter by Aristotle It can gain or lose perfections without transforming into a different substance, and these perfections are termed accidents or accidental forms.

The distinct categories of substance, quality, place, time, relation, quantity, and activity or passivity lead to the conclusion that motion can be classified into three types: qualitative, quantitative, and local.

In nature, a variety of individual substances exist, each composed of two fundamental principles: prime matter and substantial form Additionally, there are accidents, which do not exist independently but rather in relation to the substance itself.

CHANGE OR MOVEMENT

From the analysis of the two principal kinds of change, we now proceed to the nature of change itself and its principles.

Aristotle posits that all movement signifies imperfection, as it lacks a definitive end Change inherently aims toward an ultimate goal, represented by the final form achieved at the conclusion of the transformation Consequently, during the process of change, it exists only partially in actuality, attaining complete realization only when the change is fully completed.

—when there is no more change, in other words Only a body that is capable of movement (passive potency) actually changes or moves Hence,

Aristotle argues that certain categories of change are excluded from accidental change because the essence of change is inherently present within them, making it impossible to assert the change of a change.

2 We shall study the relation of the other categories with substance in the chapter on Metaphysics.

Aristotle defines movement as a state that exists between potentiality and actuality, making it challenging to fully comprehend its nature He notes that the reason movement is perceived as indefinite is due to its inability to be categorized strictly as either potential or actual, highlighting the complexity of understanding change.

"The act of what is in potency, in so far as it is in potency." 1

In Aristotle's second book of Physics, the principles of movement are outlined, including the subject of change (matter), the movement itself as an imperfect act, the motor cause indicating that movement is initiated by another force, and the end or direction of the movement A fundamental law of movement presented by Aristotle states that for movement to occur, there must be a proportional relationship between the motor principle, which represents the active capacity to move, and the movable object, which embodies the passive capacity to be moved.

These principles and laws are taken up more deeply in the study of the causes.

QUANTITY, PLACE AND TIME

Aristotle brings these questions up at the start of the third book of Physics:

Nature is fundamentally understood as a 'principle of motion and change,' which is essential for our exploration To grasp the concept of 'nature,' we must first comprehend what 'motion' entails; without this understanding, the essence of 'nature' remains elusive.

To understand motion, we must first analyze the essential terms associated with it, such as place, void, and time, which are considered necessary conditions These attributes are fundamental and universally applicable across all scientific objects Therefore, it is crucial to examine each of these elements individually to gain a clearer insight into their roles in motion.

For Aristotle, movement is related to quantity, one of the nine accidental predicaments His accurate observations about quantity enable us to understand its relation with the other accidents:

"'Quantity' means that which is divisible into two or more constituent parts of which each is by nature a 'one' and a 'this'" 4

Aristotle views matter as the principle that allows for the multiplicity of beings sharing the same substantial form Quantity, as a property of matter, influences substance by extending it in both space and time This enables a substance to remain a singular entity while possessing multiple parts, making it potentially divisible indefinitely.

Aristotle differentiates between extensive quantity, exemplified by a block of stone, and discrete quantity, represented by numbers The latter arises from the division of the former, making further analysis unnecessary.

According to Aristotle, quantity exists as a continuous entity that is inherently divisible However, while something that is divisible can theoretically be divided infinitely in potential, a natural body cannot be divided endlessly in reality.

The continuum of a corporeal substance has a limit that encompasses it

Aristotle asserts that the concept of place is distinct from the body it contains, emphasizing that place is not defined by the body's form or shape, as these attributes change when the body moves Additionally, he argues that place cannot be understood as merely an empty vacuum.

Aristotle defines place as a "hole" or limiting surface created by other bodies that immediately encloses a body, distinguishing it from the body itself This conceptualization serves as a solution to understanding the nature of space and the positioning of objects within it.

"the boundary of the containing body at which it is in contact with the contained body." 4

Consequently, place is the exact measurement of the extension of physical bodies.

4 Met., V, 13, 1020 a 7 Later on, the scholastics (especially St Thomas Aquinas) designated matter modified by quantity as the principle of individuation of corporeal substances Cf T Alvira, L Clavell, T Melendo, Metafisica, Pamplona 1982, p 101 ff.

2 Cf On the Heavens, I, 9, 277 b 27; Met., VIII, 6, 1045 b 23 and XIV, 1.

Aristotle extensively discusses the concept of the continuum in his work "Physics," particularly in sections III, 4-8 and VI, 1 These sections delve into the implications of quantitative infinity, which arises from the continuum's infinite divisibility.

Aristotle addresses the concept of time within his examination of movement, emphasizing that while time is not equivalent to movement, it is inherently dependent on it.

Time is intrinsically linked to change; without the evolution of our thoughts or awareness of these shifts, we fail to recognize the passage of time.

Aristotle defines time as a property of continuous movement, emphasizing that its duration is proportional to the duration of that movement Just as local movement flows continuously, time is marked by a succession of moments, characterized by a sequence of before and after Thus, time is effectively measured by this succession in movement, leading to Aristotle's definition of time as "the measurement of movement according to a before and after."

Time is a natural reality that corresponds to the flow of material beings, but it also represents an abstract concept shaped by the intellect, allowing us to perceive time as a whole and differentiate its various segments.

The existence of time is intrinsically linked to the concept of the soul, as counting requires an entity to perform the counting Without a soul or reason, there would be no one to measure or quantify, leading to the conclusion that time cannot exist without the soul Time, therefore, is an attribute of movement, which relies on the presence of a counting entity.

Aristotle posits that time measurement requires a mobile body, exemplified by the uniform circular motion of celestial spheres He further asserts that God and intelligent motor principles exist beyond time, residing in eternity, as they are unchanging entities.

ON THE HEAVENS

In "On the Heavens," Aristotle presents a widely accepted view of the universe prior to Copernicus, drawing on the teachings of Platonist Eudonus of Cnidus and Calippus of Cizinus He outlines the universe's structure, distinguishing between the sublunary world, which includes the moon, earth, and everything beneath it, and the supralunary world, or heavens.

Aristotle challenged earlier philosophical views by proposing that the universe is eternal, lacking a temporal beginning and persisting indefinitely in its current state This raises the question of how we can explain the movement of both earthly and celestial bodies within this unchanging framework.

Aristotle posited that all substances in the sublunary world are made up of four primary elements identified by contemporary physicists, which naturally move to occupy their designated places—fire rises while earth falls He elucidates the movements of matter and its elements, but recognizes the necessity of additional principles beyond the inherent nature of matter to explain the ultimate cause of movement.

The supralunary realm is defined by the circular motion of numerous spheres, with Aristotle proposing the existence of up to 55 of these spheres that envelop the sublunary world Composed of a divine matter known as ether, or ardor coeli as termed by Cicero, this fifth element is considered eternal and incorruptible, distinguished by its circular orbit, in contrast to the rectilinear movement of terrestrial elements.

Stars are in a perpetual circular motion, governed by a necessary law that contrasts with the contingent nature of the sublunary world This movement is driven by the uniform impulse of the Prime Mover, acting as a final cause Aristotle asserts that each star possesses its own motor principle, resulting in a circular movement that is consistently perfect and precise.

1 Aristotle expounds on this doctrine in On the Heavens, III and IV. ultimately due to the Prime Mover—Pure Act, as we shall presently explain 1

Pure Act is an eternal and unchanging divine substance that represents the most perfect nature, serving as the foundation for all sensible reality Aristotle conceptualizes the universe as a hierarchical arrangement of substances, organized in an ascending order of perfection, with Pure Act at the pinnacle.

THE EARTH: SIMPLE ELEMENTS AND MIXED BODIES

Aristotle's treatise On Generation and Corruption focuses on the substantial changes of physical bodies in the sublunary world, starting with the four fundamental elements of Empedocles: earth, water, air, and fire These elements, composed of prime matter and substantial form, represent the most basic and imperfect forms They combine in countless ways to create complex bodies known as homeomeries, which arise not merely from the simple mixing of elements but through the generation and transformation of new substances This process reveals superior substantial forms that evolve from matter, showcasing an ascending hierarchy of perfection Each superior form inherently includes its inferior forms, similar to how larger numbers encompass smaller ones, with these inferior forms re-emerging when the mixed body experiences corruption.

Matter alone cannot fully explain the generation and corruption of bodies; Aristotle emphasizes the importance of four causes—material, formal, efficient, and final—to comprehensively account for change.

According to Aristotle, the human body represents the highest form of mixed bodies, emphasizing that the perfection of a substantial form correlates with its distance from prime matter Consequently, the Prime Mover, embodying Pure Act, exists independently of prime matter, highlighting its ultimate perfection and distinction from physical substances.

1 The exposition of Aristotle's astronomy is found especially in books I and II of On the

2 Cf On Gen and Corr., II, 1.

4 Cf On Gen and Corr., II, 9-11. subsist Among the substances of the sublunary world, only the human soul, which is its most perfect member, is separated from matter 1

1 Cf Meteor., IV, 12, where Aristotle describes the hierarchical scale of natural beings.

METAPHYSICS

NATURE OF METAPHYSICS

Metaphysics, for Aristotle, is the most noble of the speculative sciences But before proceeding further, let us note that the term

The term "metaphysics," used to refer to Aristotle's 14 books on the subject, was not originally coined by him; instead, he often referred to it as "primary philosophy" to differentiate this field of study from others.

The term "secondary philosophies" likely originated with Andronicus of Rhodes in the 1st Century B.C., during his publication of Aristotle's works.

Aristotle's conception of science focuses on immaterial realities that transcend sensory perception These realities are understood through intellect rather than the senses and exist independently of tangible things This understanding highlights the essence of science as the study of fundamental truths beyond observable phenomena.

Aristotle defined metaphysics as a science that explores the first causes and ultimate principles of reality, focusing on being itself, the nature of substance, and the study of God and other suprasensible entities Unlike specific sciences that investigate particular causes, metaphysics seeks to understand the foundational principles that govern the entire universe, examining the overarching causes that influence all existence rather than just individual elements like fire, water, or various animal species.

The essence of our discussion revolves around the concept of Wisdom, which pertains to understanding the fundamental causes and principles of existence Metaphysics, as defined by Aristotle, is the science that studies being in its most general form, emphasizing its universal nature.

Aristotle's metaphysics encompasses the entirety of reality, emphasizing that the fundamental characteristic of all things is their existence Following Parmenides, he asserts that being is the most universal aspect of reality Consequently, metaphysics examines the nature of being, its inherent properties, and its various modalities, including potential and actual being, as well as being in itself and being in another.

Metaphysics is a scientific discipline that explores the nature of being and its inherent attributes, distinguishing itself from special sciences that focus on specific aspects of being Unlike these sciences, which analyze particular segments of existence, metaphysics addresses the universal question of "What is being?" This inquiry is intricately linked to the concept of substance, as Aristotle posits that understanding being requires an analogical rather than a univocal approach He argues against Parmenides' notion of a singular concept of being, emphasizing that there are various modes of existence, with substance being the fundamental form, as all that exists is either a substance or reliant on substances.

The enduring question of what it means to be, often framed as the inquiry into the nature of substance, remains a central theme in philosophical discourse Metaphysics, as the study of first causes and fundamental principles, investigates God as the ultimate cause and principle Additionally, it explores the existence of not only tangible beings but also transcendent and divine realities, delving into the nature and number of such entities.

There exists a distinct science concerning entities that are separate and unmovable, which differs from physics and mathematics We will attempt to demonstrate the existence of such a substance If this separable and unmovable essence exists in the world, it must undoubtedly be divine, representing the foundational and supreme principle.

Aristotle's four-fold object of metaphysics has sparked extensive debate, particularly among those like Jaeger, who view the 14 books of Metaphysics as a culmination of Aristotle's evolving philosophical inquiries This perspective suggests that the underlying unity of the Metaphysics is rooted in the continuous development of Aristotle's thought throughout his life Conversely, some historians argue that Metaphysics encompasses at least two distinct sciences: theology, which focuses on God and is considered primary philosophy, and a broader metaphysics that studies being as such However, certain commentators challenge this view, asserting that Aristotle perceived metaphysics and theology as a singular science.

The study of being and its causes serves as the foundation for metaphysics, from which theology emerges While theology is distinct from metaphysics, it cannot be merely categorized as a specific science Aristotle's theology is not just another particular science focused on a unique object, nor is it simply the universal study of being (ontology) Instead, it arises as a necessary extension of ontology, as it addresses certain first causes of being, specifically the motor causes that pertain to the suprasensible or divine realm Thus, theology is a universal discipline rooted in the exploration of existence.

Jaeger's analysis of Aristotle has influenced many historians who adopt the genetic method to interpret his philosophy and the various sciences he explored Notable historians such as R.A Gauthier, A Mansion, and F Nuyens have significantly contributed to this approach in understanding Aristotle's thought.

2 An indispensable book about this view is P Aubenque's Le probleme de I'etrechez Aristote, Paris 1962.

Several key texts argue that Aristotle's metaphysics constitutes a singular science focused on one primary object Notable works include J Owens' "The Doctrine of Being in Aristotelian Metaphysics," A Gomez Nogales' "Horizonte de la metafisica aristotelica," and G Reale's "Il concetto di filosofia prima e I'unita della metafisica di Aristotele." While metaphysics addresses universal causes applicable to all beings, it is distinct from the science of being itself, as it must also consider material, formal, and final causes that vary among different entities Consequently, metaphysics cannot be solely equated with theology Furthermore, theology does not merely assume the existence of its subject, the suprasensible substance; instead, it actively demonstrates this existence, thereby fulfilling its scientific role of investigating fundamental causes of being.

THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-CONTRADICTION

Aristotle challenged the relativism and skepticism of natural philosophers like Heraclitus and the Sophists, including Protagoras, by seeking a definitive truth that would serve as the foundation for all scientific demonstrations He identified this foundational truth in the principle of non-contradiction.

The principle of non-contradiction asserts that a single attribute cannot simultaneously belong and not belong to the same subject in the same context This fundamental truth is essential for coherent reasoning, as it is impossible to genuinely believe that something can both exist and not exist at the same time Consequently, this principle serves as a foundational belief for those engaged in logical demonstrations, forming the basis for all other axioms.

The principle of non-contradiction is fundamental to all realities and is primarily examined within the field of metaphysics While specific sciences focus on their own unique principles, they inherently rely on the universal principles derived from metaphysics, which underpin their findings and assumptions.

"Evidently, the inquiry into these axioms belongs to one science—viz., the science of the philosopher; for these truths hold good for everything that is,

1 E Berti, Aristotele: Della dialecttica alia filosofia prima, pp 449 ff These questions of historiography are also dealt with by Berti in the essay "Aristotele,” in Questioni di storiografia , 1, pp 265 ff.

2 Met., IV, 3, 1005 b 19. and not for some special genus apart from others All men use them, because they are true of being qua being, and each genus has being." 1

The principle of non-contradiction is fundamental, serving as the most certain and universally recognized premise for any demonstration It acts as a law of being, asserting that all entities must exist as they are and cannot simultaneously be otherwise This principle not only governs the nature of existence but also reflects a law of the intellect, which seeks to understand being itself.

The principle of non-contradiction is foundational and self-evident, though some ancient philosophers challenged its validity Aristotle effectively counters these objections through reductio ad absurdum, demonstrating that any argument against this principle ultimately relies on it Specifically, if one asserts a statement, they cannot simultaneously assert its opposite in the same context The very nature of communication depends on the acceptance of the principle of non-contradiction.

DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF BEING

We have studied Aristotle's definition of metaphysics as the science of being as such We shall now examine the nature of being as being according to Aristotle.

According to Aristotle's interpretation of Parmenides, the Eleatic philosopher asserted that only one being exists Parmenides reached this conclusion by understanding being in a univocal manner, meaning it had a single definition across all contexts For him, to affirm that

Parmenides posited that "being is" inherently implies "non-being is not," adhering strictly to the principle of non-contradiction This led him to the conclusion that only one unchanging reality—being—exists in its perfect form, devoid of any non-being According to Parmenides, this singular reality can only be comprehended through intelligence, while the diverse phenomena perceived by the senses are mere illusions without true substance.

Aristotle's interpretation of Parmenides was influenced by the perspectives of Zeno, Melissus, and later, Plato, who shaped the Eleatic philosopher's ideas through their own interpretations.

Parmenides reached his conclusions based on the univocal understanding of being, while Aristotle's perspective stemmed from the observable multiplicity of beings Aristotle noted that existence manifests differently across various entities—man, color, and number—indicating that the verb "to be" applies to all beings, but not uniformly This observation led Aristotle to establish a foundational doctrine in his metaphysics: the concept of being is analogical, possessing diverse meanings that require careful exploration.

The concept of "being" applies to all entities, but it is not used in a strictly uniform (univocal) or entirely different (equivocal) manner Instead, there exists a middle ground known as analogy, where a term can have multiple meanings that share a common essence Aristotle exemplifies this idea through the notion of health, demonstrating how different interpretations can still maintain a fundamental connection.

The concept of existence encompasses various interpretations, yet all forms of 'being' converge around a singular, definitive essence Everything associated with health is intrinsically linked to the notion of health itself; some elements contribute to maintaining health, others foster its development, and some possess the potential to promote it.

Aristotle suggests that the term "healthy" can apply to various contexts, such as a face, climate, or medicine, but its primary significance lies in its connection to the health of a living organism.

Aristotle did not use the term "analogy" when discussing being; instead, he referred to the different ways of predicating being as homonymous, with a unique form of homonymity The relationship between categories and substance is crucial, as all categories depend on substance, which is itself one of the categories rather than something superior or independent This relationship justifies the existence of a science dedicated to being Although being lacks generic unity and cannot be defined by a single meaning, a science of being exists because every reference to being points to the reality of substance Similar to the science of medicine, which encompasses various heterogeneous realities that are interconnected, the science of being studies all forms of being only in relation to their connection with substance, intentionally avoiding aspects that belong to other scientific domains.

Substantial and accidental being: the categories

In exploring the concept of "being," we must consider what it primarily refers to among various entities According to Aristotle, the term "being" fundamentally applies to concrete, individual substances, such as a specific person or a particular house, while other entities are categorized in a secondary manner.

A thing can be described in various ways, all stemming from a single origin Some entities are identified as substances, while others are recognized as attributes or affections of substances Additionally, there are processes that lead to the formation of substances, as well as concepts of destruction, privation, and qualities related to substances Furthermore, certain things are considered productive or generative of substances.

Aristotle's doctrine of substance refines Plato's philosophy by challenging the notion that universal concepts, such as Ideas, are real beings While Plato asserted that universals like "manhood" and "dog-ness" exist independently, Aristotle argued that only singular entities truly exist, with universals being mere abstractions He emphasized that the essence of things is only real when it is part of concrete individuals Therefore, Aristotle's metaphysics centers on individual substances derived from sensory experience, asserting that these singular beings are the foundation of reality.

In his work "Categories," Aristotle identifies several supreme genera that encompass all forms of predication of being, such as stating that X is a man, white, large, or in a specific location These logical genera correspond to the fundamental ways in which "being" is understood, outlining the basic meanings of the term Aristotle categorizes these into ten distinct categories or predicaments: substance, quality, quantity, relation, place, time, action, passion, position, and possession.

1 Ibid., 1003 b 5. appear in the enumerations of Aristotle) 2 As we said, it is to substance that the primacy is given since all the rest depend on it for their being:

"'Is' belongs to all things, not however in the same sense, but to substance primarily and to the other categories in a secondary way." 1

Only the substance exists in itself; all other kinds of reality (later referred to as accidents) are "affections" of the substance.

By so differentiating substance from the rest of the categories, Aristotle laid the foundations for the subsequent division of being into substance and accidents 2

The primacy of substance is evident as it exists independently, while other categories, such as color, size, and relationship, are dependent on substance These attributes do not have independent existence; instead, they are always manifested within the substance itself.

The primacy of substance is evident in how accidental categories are defined, as attributes like being white or a musician always relate back to a substance Furthermore, our understanding of objects highlights this priority; knowing a thing fundamentally involves understanding its essence, while aspects such as qualities, quantity, and location are secondary considerations.

Aristotle identified a crucial distinction in existence: being-in-act and being-in-potency, which applies across all ten categories of being, such as the difference between being white in act and being white in potency.

CAUSES

1 Cf Ibid., XI, 8, 1065 a 25; cf G Reale, Il concetto difilosofia prima , p 159.

F Brentano's study, "On The Several Senses of Being in Aristotle," remains relevant today, highlighting the diverse interpretations of existence in Aristotle's philosophy Originally published in Freiburg in 1862, this work continues to attract interest for its exploration of the multifaceted nature of being.

Aristotle's doctrine of causes is discussed across various treatises, with a notable emphasis in the Posterior Analytics, where he defines science as knowledge derived from understanding causes He elaborates on this concept in depth in Book Two of the Physics and further explores it in the Metaphysics.

The principle of causality is fundamental in Aristotelian philosophy, as Aristotle critiques earlier thinkers for failing to provide clear explanations for the reasons behind events He dismisses chance and mythological narratives as inadequate, asserting that every occurrence has a specific cause that elucidates its origin, purpose, and process of coming into existence.

"everything that comes to be is due to a cause." 1

Aristotle identifies four types of causes: the formal, efficient, final, and material causes His theory categorizes these causes based on the distinction between actual causes, which relate to being, and potential causes, which pertain to potency This approach differs from the traditional scholastic division of causes into intrinsic (material and formal) and extrinsic (efficient and final) categories.

Aristotle identifies four fundamental causes that explain the existence and essence of an object The material cause refers to the substance from which something is made, such as the wood used for a statue The formal cause pertains to the shape or form that defines the object's essence, exemplified by the statue's design The efficient cause involves the agent or being that brings about change, like the sculptor who creates the statue Lastly, the final cause represents the purpose behind the object's creation, which Aristotle considers the most significant cause, as it underpins and gives meaning to the other three causes.

The term "cause" refers to three key concepts: (1) the material source from which an object originates, such as bronze being the cause of a statue and silver for a saucer; (2) the form or essence that defines an object's characteristics, including the generative ratios like 2:1 that contribute to the octave; and (3) the source of change or transformation in a given context.

The concept of causation highlights that every action has a source, such as an adviser influencing decisions or a father contributing to the existence of a child Similarly, a creator is the cause behind the creation, and change is initiated by an external force Ultimately, the purpose or end goal of an action, like achieving health, serves as the motivation for activities such as walking.

THE FIRST CAUSE

THE EXISTENCE OF GOD

Proof from the book of Physics

In the Physics, Aristotle demonstrates the existence of the First

The concept of the Unmoved Mover refers to the fundamental cause of all movement in the universe, based on the principle of causality Aristotle asserts that every movement is initiated by another mover, leading to an infinite regress if each mover is also moved To avoid this absurdity, he posits the necessity of a First Unmoved Mover, an absolute and immobile principle that initiates movement without itself being moved This Unmoved Mover is essential for the existence of any motion, as without it, the universe would remain static.

Besides being immobile, the First Motor is also eternal; for if it had began to exist, it would have needed a cause Moreover, Aristotle's

2 Cf Ibid., VIII, 5. contention that the movement of the universe existed from all eternity is another proof of the eternity of the Prime Mover 1

The concept of pure actuality is a crucial attribute of the Prime Mover, as it cannot possess any potentiality Aristotle explores this idea in his work, Metaphysics, emphasizing that the Prime Mover must exist solely as pure Act.

The proof from the book of Metaphysics

In Aristotle's Metaphysics, the exploration of substance begins with the distinction between sensible and suprasensible substances While the existence of sensible substances is self-evident, Aristotle seeks to demonstrate the existence of suprasensible substances in Book XII He argues that if all substances were merely sensible or corruptible, existence itself would be impossible This is because corruptible beings did not always exist and require an actual being to transition from potentiality to actuality Thus, the ultimate cause of corruptible beings must be an incorruptible substance, characterized as pure act without any potentiality This concept is framed within an eternal universe, where the continuous movement of celestial and terrestrial bodies is attributed to a transcendent, eternal being—God, identified as Pure Act.

The concept of the Prime Mover's eternity is distinct from proving its existence; rather, it focuses on its eternal nature The physical demonstration of the Prime Mover presents various challenges, with two key issues standing out: the transcendence of the Prime Mover and its relationship with the world, particularly how it influences causality within it For further insights, refer to C Natali's "Cosmo e divinata," published in L'Aquila in 1974.

Aristotle, in his work "Physics," explores the concept of movement, ultimately leading to the identification of the First Unmoved and Eternal Mover In "Metaphysics," he further argues that the First Principle is Pure Act, devoid of any potentiality; otherwise, it would require a prior cause to transition from potentiality to actuality Aristotle's notion of movement encompasses not just local motion but all forms of generation and corruption, representing any type of ontological change.

The existence of a First Principle is essential to understanding movement, characterized by three key attributes: eternity, which accounts for the perpetual motion of the world; immobility, as the First Cause of movement must remain unchanged; and pure actuality, since any potentiality would negate its status as the First Cause.

This, therefore, is the Pure Act that Aristotle was looking for, the suprasensible substance which he called God.

The First Mover is capable of moving while remaining unmoved, as illustrated by Aristotle, who identifies the objects of desire and intellect as examples These objects, which are considered beautiful and good, attract our appetite without experiencing any change themselves Similarly, intelligible concepts stimulate the intellect without being moved This exemplifies the unique causality of Pure Act, which influences like an object of love, drawing the lover towards it.

Aristotle's Prime Mover is central to his theology and represents the pinnacle of his inquiry into the science of first causes As the First Unmoved Mover, it is the foundational substance upon which all other substances depend This entity exerts both efficient and final causality, meaning that all movement ultimately aims toward it as its ultimate purpose.

THE NATURE OF THE PURE ACT

Aristotle posits that the principle governing both the heavens and nature is Life, specifically the highest form of existence—pure contemplative activity This exceptional life, which humans experience only fleetingly, centers on the most noble object of contemplation: God In this context, God embodies the Understanding that reflects upon itself, representing the essence of self-awareness and comprehension.

The heavens and the natural world depend on a principle that reflects a fleeting yet profound enjoyment of life While we experience moments of pleasure, God exists in a perpetual state of goodness that surpasses our best experiences, evoking our wonder As God embodies the essence of life through the actuality of thought, He represents an eternal and self-sufficient existence Thus, we affirm that God is a living being, eternal and supremely good, where life and everlasting duration are inherent to His nature.

Aristotle defines God as the pure act, devoid of any potentiality, meaning that God lacks matter and physical extension This divine substance is characterized by its indivisible nature, having no magnitude, and is both impassible and unalterable.

THE UNITY AND THE MULTIPLICITY OF THE DIVINE

Aristotle proposed that while God initiates the movement of the first celestial sphere, the heaven of fixed stars, the motion of the other concentric spheres—each smaller than the last—requires further explanation He believed that these spheres, arranged in a hierarchical order with larger spheres encompassing smaller ones, necessitate additional sources of movement beyond divine influence.

There are two potential explanations for their movement: they may be influenced by the motion originating from the first heaven, which is then mechanically relayed from one sphere to another, or they are moved by another force.

2 Cf Ibid., 1073 a 5. by other suprasensible, immobile and eternal substances, which move in a manner analogous to that of the Prime Mover.

Aristotle favors the concept of multiple unmoved movers to explain the diverse movements of celestial spheres, rejecting a uniform view of the universe He describes these unmoved movers as intelligent substances that influence other beings similarly to God's role, serving as final causes for the various spheres However, it remains ambiguous whether Aristotle considered these intellects as instruments that transcend their respective spheres.

Aristotle, drawing from the contemporary astronomy, proposed a model consisting of 55 celestial spheres, making necessary adjustments to existing theories He also posited that an equal number of intelligent movers were responsible for the movements of these spheres In his framework, the Prime Mover, or God, directly influences only the first sphere, while the subsequent spheres are set in motion indirectly.

In spite of this multiplicity of intelligences, Aristotle says in his

Metaphysics asserts that all things are governed by a singular principle rather than multiple principles Aristotle distinguishes these intelligences from the Pure Act, ultimately affirming the unity of God as the Supreme Cause.

" they give us many governing principles; but the world refuses to be governed badly 'The rule of many is not good; one ruler let there be'.''

GOD AND THE WORLD

According to Aristotle, God contemplates itself Does it also know the world and the men who live in it?

Aristotle's perspective suggests that while God recognizes itself as the First Principle and the source of universal attraction, it does not possess knowledge of individual beings with their inherent limitations Although Aristotle does not explicitly state this, many scholars believe that, according to strict Aristotelian philosophy, divine knowledge of corruptible entities is unattainable Consequently, this implies that divine providence does not encompass specific, individual matters.

Plato, in The Laws, asserts that divine providence influences individual human actions, a view that Aristotle also appears to support in certain sections of his ethical writings.

The essence of our inquiry is to understand the initiation of movement within the soul The answer is evident: just as God is the driving force behind the universe, He also propels the movements within our souls Ultimately, it is the divine aspect within us that influences all actions and changes.

Aristotle's concept of God and its relationship with humanity remains largely ambiguous, as he intentionally left this topic open to interpretation.

Aristotle's theology presents several key elements: the Prime Mover is personal, possessing intellect and will, and is solely focused on itself as the object of knowledge, though it remains aware of the world, as understanding the cause includes knowledge of its effects Additionally, while God serves as the universal motor and final cause, there are other independent and necessary causes, such as material and formal causes, that also explain the workings of the world.

1 Eudemian Ethics, VIII, 2, 1248 a 25; cf Magna Moralia, II, 8 arid 15.

LIVING BEINGS AND MAN

LIFE AND THE SOUL

Aristotle distinguishes between living and non-living beings based on the concept of movement, defining life primarily as self-movement He posits that the essence of life lies in the ability to initiate action independently and to varying degrees of perfection Central to his philosophy is the idea that the soul is the principle of life, which leads to the classification of living beings as animate beings.

Aristotle's hylemorphic doctrine explains the nature of the soul by asserting that all things consist of matter and form, where matter represents potentiality and form signifies actuality This principle extends to living beings, which do not possess life merely due to their physical composition Instead, their corporeal nature serves as a potential substrate, with the soul acting as the actualizing form that imparts life Thus, the soul is considered a perfect act, embodying the essence of an organic body capable of receiving life.

Every living natural body is a composite substance, where the body serves as the matter and the soul represents the form The body, characterized by life, cannot be the soul itself; instead, the soul is the essence or actuality that animates the body Therefore, the soul is the primary form of a living natural body, embodying the potential for life within it.

Aristotle defines the soul as the essential principle that enables us to live, perceive, and think, making it the vital force of a living being As the substantial form, the soul serves as the foundation for all vital functions and operations within the organism.

Aristotle's definition of the soul positions him between the pre-Socratics, who linked the soul to a physical principle, and Plato, who viewed it as separate from the body He argues that the soul is intrinsically united to the body as its formal principle, serving not as a separate substance but as the form or act of the body This perspective allows Aristotle to maintain the unity of the living being.

Aristotle examines the functions of living organisms and the diverse aspects of life, identifying distinct and consistent operations He concludes that the soul, as the essence of life, possesses the inherent ability to initiate these vital processes.

Aristotle identifies three fundamental operations of life: vegetative operations, which include reproduction, nutrition, and growth; sensitive and motor operations, encompassing sensations, passions, and movement; and intellective operations, involving knowledge, deliberation, and choice He differentiates between vegetative, sensitive, and intellective souls, emphasizing that this distinction reflects varied functions rather than separate vital principles, as Plato suggested According to Aristotle, each living being possesses a single soul that governs its diverse operations, with plants exhibiting only vegetative functions.

The concept of the Prime Mover remains unaffected by the eternity of movement, emphasizing its eternal nature rather than its existence However, challenges persist in the physical demonstration of the Prime Mover, particularly concerning its transcendence and relationship with the world Two critical questions arise: the Prime Mover's transcendence over the universe and the nature of its causality Additionally, different types of souls are identified, with animals possessing a sensitive soul that governs both sentient and vegetative functions, while humans are endowed with a rational soul that integrates the functions of the lower orders alongside cognitive operations.

The relationship between figures and living beings is analogous, as both categories encompass a series where each element potentially includes its predecessor For instance, a square can be derived from a triangle, just as the sensory power is connected to the self-nutritive.

SENTIENT LIFE

Animals are primarily distinguished from plants by their ability to perceive and understand their surroundings, which leads to desires and movement Aristotle elaborates on the concept of knowledge, emphasizing that to know is to grasp the essence of other beings by abstracting their forms from their physical matter This process grants the known form a unique ontological status within the knower Knowledge is characterized by the intentional and immaterial possession of a form, contrasting with its natural possession For instance, while the form of a tree exists naturally in the tree itself, it is intentionally present in the knower There are various ways in which a form can intentionally exist within the knower.

Aristotle compares the intentional possession of knowledge to the process of nutrition, where living beings assimilate food When a knower grasps a form, it becomes part of their understanding, transforming the knower in the process Thus, the mental representation of a tree reflects the mind that has been shaped by the known object, much like clay molded by a potter This assimilation should be interpreted in an intentional and material context, rather than a physical one.

This thesis of intentional assimilation adequately explains the phenomenon of sensation Sensation is an act which presupposes a

Sensation can be understood as the interaction between a perceivable object and a perceiving subject, where both elements engage in a shared experience Aristotle illustrates this relationship by noting that the ability to hear does not guarantee that sounds are perceived; sound requires a listener to be recognized Thus, the act of hearing and the act of being heard are intrinsically linked Sensation involves the assimilation of sensory forms—such as color or flavor—by the sentient subject, which actualizes these forms within its sensory capacity, similar to how wax retains the imprint of a stamp.

A 'sense' refers to the ability to receive the sensory forms of objects without their physical matter, similar to how wax can take on the imprint of a signet ring while the actual metal is absent The essence of the impression lies not in the material itself—be it bronze or gold—but in the qualities it possesses Likewise, our senses respond to colors, flavors, and sounds, regardless of the specific substances involved; what truly matters is the quality and ratio of their components.

Aristotle's exploration of the senses categorizes them into two primary groups: external senses, which necessitate the presence of a sensible object, including sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, and internal senses He identifies two types of objects for external senses: proper sensibles, unique qualities that specifically affect each sense, such as color for sight and sound for hearing, and common sensibles, which can be perceived through multiple senses, like the dimensions of an object that can be sensed through sight and touch.

2 Cf Ibid., 1073 a 5. figures, movements, etc (e.g., the figure of an object is perceived by the sense of sight and of touch) 1

Internal senses, as defined by Aristotle, are more advanced than external senses because they synthesize and enhance the fragmented information received from them These internal senses include the common sense and memory, which play crucial roles in integrating and stabilizing sensory data.

To these two must be added the imagination or fantasy, which Aristotle describes in detail but which he does not clearly distinguish as a potency different from the common sense.

Aristotle's concept of common sense differs from the typical understanding of the term; it is not merely the instinctive ability to distinguish truth from falsehood Instead, he defines it as an internal sense with two key functions: first, it enables individuals to recognize that their senses have been engaged, such as acknowledging the act of seeing with their eyes.

2) to distinguish the objects of the different senses from one another (e.g., the white object for the sense of sight, the bitter flavor for the sense of taste) In this way, the common sense is the internal sense that unifies the five external senses; it makes possible the unified perception of a sensible object 2

Higher animals possess an internal sense known as imagination or fantasy, which allows them to represent and retain sensory impressions This ability enables them to recreate these impressions even in the absence of the original object According to Aristotle, imagination functions as an aspect of common sense rather than as a separate capability.

Memory serves as the mechanism that retains sensory images from the past It is important to distinguish between sensitive memory, which pertains to sensory experiences, and intellectual memory, which functions as a capability of the intellect, focusing on the retention of intelligible concepts.

Aristotle does not explicitly discuss the fourth internal sense, known as the estimative or cogitative sense However, many scholars point to passages in Book II of the Posterior Analytics, where he outlines the process of induction and the concept of sensible experience, as indicative of his views on the cogitative sense.

1 Cf Ibid., II, 6-11, and On Sense and the Sensible, passim.

2 Cf On the Soul, III, 1 and 2.

3 Cf Ibid., 3, and On Memory and Reminiscence, 1.

The appetites are closely linked to sensible knowledge, as any living being with sensory perception also possesses appetitive tendencies When a sense perceives something as pleasant, it naturally inclines to seek it out, while it tends to reject unpleasant stimuli These movements of attraction and aversion are part of the concupiscible appetite However, if the desired object is challenging to obtain, this inclination is referred to as the irascible impulse or appetite, according to later philosophical terminology.

The behavior of living beings is fundamentally driven by their appetites, which Aristotle describes as a single faculty that initiates movement This appetite is activated by the perceived object, accessed through sensation or sensible representation Aristotle's doctrine on appetites positions them as the intrinsic motor principle behind animal behavior, reliant on sensible knowledge He categorizes the specific actions stemming from the concupiscible and irascible appetites as passions, including emotions such as joy, sorrow, anger, hope, and fear.

THE INTELLECTIVE LIFE

At the summit of living beings we find man, whose substantial form is the intellective soul.

Sensibility is distinct from vegetative life, as it is rooted in a higher principle known as the sensitive soul Similarly, the intellect and its functions are not merely reducible to sensibility, as they belong to a superior order of reality and can only be understood through the intellective soul.

Aristotle posits that intellection is similar to sensation in that both processes involve the reception of forms; however, a key distinction lies in the fact that the intellect operates independently of the body, unlike sensation, which is inherently tied to physical experiences.

In Book III of "On the Soul," Aristotle defines the intellect as the faculty that understands the intelligible forms of objects, allowing it to become similar to what it comprehends Unlike physical objects, the intellect is distinct and incorporeal, possessing the potential to grasp all things universally and necessarily This contrasts with sensible organs, which are limited by their corporeal nature and can only perceive the sensible world within specific boundaries Thus, the intellect's unique nature enables it to transcend physical limitations and achieve a broader understanding of reality.

Aristotle explains intellectual knowledge in terms of act and potency.

Intelligence is the ability to understand intelligible forms, which are found in sensations and imaginative images An active principle is necessary to actualize this potential, transforming these forms into something comprehensible Aristotle distinguishes between the agent intellect, which separates intelligible forms from sensory experiences, and the possible intellect, which intentionally assimilates these realities, becoming them in action This distinction has sparked various debates throughout ancient and medieval philosophy.

The mind exists in two distinct forms: one that embodies the potential to become all things, known as the possible intellect, and another that actively brings things into existence, referred to as the agent intellect This agent intellect resembles a positive state, akin to light, as it transforms potential colors into actual colors.

In this chapter, Aristotle asserts the crucial distinction between the agent intellect and the possible intellect, illustrating this difference by comparing the agent intellect to light Just as colors cannot be perceived without light, intelligible forms within sensible images remain obscured without the illumination of the agent intellect.

The intellect in its potential state cannot comprehend concepts in their actual form without the aid of intelligible light, which allows the intellect to separate the intelligible from the sensible Additionally, the presence of the agent intellect within the soul is crucial for understanding The interpretation that equates the agent intellect with God or a separate Intellect is unfounded and originates from ancient commentators like Alexander of Aphrodisius, influencing Arab philosophers such as Alfarabi and Averroes, and subsequently shaping medieval thought.

The unity of the intellect and its immortality

Aristotle posits that reason is a divine force that transcends the physical body, suggesting a spiritual dimension within humanity He asserts that the lower faculties of the soul are inherently linked to the reproductive faculty, indicating that intellect, as an external influence, reflects a higher, suprasensible aspect of human nature.

Although the agent intellect is not God, it nevertheless reflects "divine" attributes, especially that of absolute impassibility.

The mind itself remains unaffected, as emotions such as thinking, loving, and hating are not attributes of the mind but rather expressions of the entity possessing the mind Consequently, when this entity deteriorates, both memory and love come to an end; these experiences are linked to the composite being that has ultimately ceased to exist.

Aristotle's writings imply that the intellective soul may survive after death, yet they also prompt inquiries into the individual's personal survival Notably, he asserts that the soul is unable to carry any memories of earthly existence into the afterlife.

"When mind is set free from its present conditions (i.e., from its union with the body), it appears as just what it is and nothing more: this alone is

1 2 Cf M Grabmann, Interpretazioni medioevali del Nous Poietikos, Padua 1965.

2 On the Generation of Animals, II, 3,736 b 27.

Aristotle asserts the divine and spiritual essence of the agent intellect, but he leaves several key questions unanswered These include whether the intellect possesses an individual nature, the precise meaning of its "divine" designation, its connection to personal identity and moral conduct, and whether it has an eschatological purpose While Aristotle addresses these issues, his responses are only partially explored throughout his ethical writings.

In conclusion, Aristotle was unable to integrate the concept of the soul, which represents the essence of an organic body, with the idea of understanding into a unified notion.

Early Christian writers favored Plato's anthropology over Aristotle's because it more effectively affirmed the immortality of the soul, viewing the intellect as an unchanging light of understanding.

In his exploration of the soul, Aristotle minimally addresses the concept of will; however, he significantly delves into this topic in his Nicomachean Ethics, where he examines individual moral responsibility.

In Aristotle's treatise On the Soul, he defines the will as the rational appetite, highlighting that there is a single appetitive faculty within the soul This faculty manifests in different forms—will, impulse, and desire—corresponding to the three levels of appetite's operation, which vary based on the presence or absence of reason.

ETHICS

THE GOOD AND THE END OF MAN

There is a fundamental question which dominates Aristotelian ethics: what is the good? Like all movement, human actions also have an end, and this end is what constitutes the good.

"Every action and choice tends towards some kind of good It is with reason, therefore, that the good is that towards which all things tend." 3

Human actions are motivated by the belief that their objectives are beneficial Some desirable things are valued primarily for their utility in achieving other, more significant goods Ultimately, it is these higher goods that are genuinely sought after This distinction highlights the difference between specific goods and the supreme good, which is cherished for its intrinsic value as the ultimate goal.

Every being has its unique good, which represents its ultimate purpose and drives its desires According to Aristotle, this proper good is defined by the specific functions inherent to each nature; for example, an animal's good is related to its sensory experiences, while for humans, it centers around understanding Aristotle's ethics are deeply intertwined with his philosophy of telos, which signifies that all entities strive toward their fulfillment or ultimate end.

"term" would not completely capture the meaning of the word, because

1 In our discussion of Aristotle's works, we have already seen the authenticity of Aristotle's

Great Ethics, which some historians consider the work of a la ter Aristotelian philosopher.

2 Aristotle himself, especially in the Nicomachean Ethics, I,3, explains the practical nature of this science and the methodological implications this has Cf E Berti, Profilo di

The concept of telos refers to the inherent principle of movement and rest within every natural entity, guiding its development toward a culminating point When applied to the human soul, telos signifies the soul's pursuit of a higher level of perfection, representing its ultimate purpose and fulfillment.

The ultimate goal of humanity must be a perfect and self-sufficient good, regarded as the highest priority above all else Crucially, this good must be individual and secure, ensuring that once attained, it cannot be lost, thus providing true happiness Consequently, this ideal good should be rooted in an activity that fulfills all these essential criteria.

Human actions can be categorized into three types of goods: pleasure, honor or fame, and contemplation Among these, the true good for man is intellective contemplation, as it uniquely distinguishes humans from animals Pleasure is merely a result of sensory experiences shared with animals, while honor or fame relies on external validation from others rather than the individual themselves Consequently, Aristotle emphasizes that only intellective contemplation fulfills the criteria for humanity's ultimate good, a theme he explores extensively in Book X of his Nicomachean Ethics.

Aristotle asserts that happiness is fundamentally an activity, prompting individuals to seek what actions lead to happiness In his Eudemian Ethics, he defines happiness as the highest good achievable through human action He emphasizes that the ultimate goal of every action and choice is to attain this supreme good This suggests that true human fulfillment is realized by engaging the intellect in its highest capacity, particularly through the contemplation of God, which he identifies as the essence of virtue and the source of human goodness.

4 Cf Nic Eth., I, 7. happiness For Aristotle, this is what it means to have the virtue of wisdom:

Human good is defined as the activity of the soul in alignment with virtue, and when multiple virtues exist, it is in accordance with the best and most complete virtue.

A fulfilling life cannot be defined by isolated moments; just as one swallow does not signify the arrival of summer, a single day cannot determine a person's overall happiness or blessing True contentment is found in the entirety of life experiences, rather than fleeting instances.

According to Aristotle, true goods are not found in external wealth or physical pleasures, but rather in the soul, with the highest good being the intelligible goods, particularly God Happiness, the ultimate goal of human existence, stems from possessing these true goods, and is achieved through the practice of moral and speculative virtues He asserts that a contemplative life is essential for attaining happiness, as it arises from activities that align with human nature and the pursuit of true knowledge.

Aristotle acknowledges that humans cannot experience uninterrupted activity like God, the Pure Act Consequently, true happiness is only partially attainable for individuals, specifically for those who emulate God's existence, which is characterized by perfect happiness derived from continuous self-intellectual engagement.

A truly elevated life transcends human existence, rooted in the divine aspect within us This divine essence elevates our actions above mere human virtues, as living in accordance with reason (nous) aligns us with a higher, divine life Rather than succumbing to the advice of focusing solely on mortal concerns, we should strive to cultivate our immortal qualities and aspire to live in harmony with our highest potential Even if this divine aspect is modest in form, its power and value far exceed all else.

2 Ibid., X, 7, 1177 b 27; cf Eud Eth., VIII, 3.

Aristotle's ethics reject the ambiguity surrounding human destiny after death, emphasizing the pursuit of a divine and ultimate goal He asserts that true happiness for humans, which encompasses both body and soul, is achieved through living in accordance with various virtues, rather than solely focusing on the divine aspect of existence.

"But in a secondary degree, the life in accordance with the other kind of virtue is happy; for the activities in accordance with this befit our human estate." 1

THE VIRTUES

Happiness is characterized as the soul's activity in alignment with virtue, prompting an exploration of the true meaning of virtue Given that the soul comprises three distinct parts, it is essential to identify a specific type of virtue or excellence corresponding to each part.

The unique virtue of humanity is intrinsically linked to the exercise of reason, distinguishing it from the vegetative soul, which is shared among all living beings While the sensitive soul, inherent to animals, is fundamentally irrational, it can still be influenced by reason In contrast, the human soul possesses a rational component that is independent of the physical body, setting it apart from the souls of animals.

Aristotle identifies two types of human virtues: ethical (moral) virtues, which involve regulating the irrational impulses of the sensitive soul, and dianoetic (intellectual) virtues, which pertain to the rational aspect of the soul.

Aristotle categorizes elements of the sensitive soul into three key components: passions, which are temporary emotional responses; potencies, which serve as the foundational forces behind human actions; and acquired dispositions or habits, which are enduring traits that enable individuals to easily engage in specific behaviors.

The Aristotelian concept of the ultimate purpose is a subject of debate among historians, as noted in J Vanier's work, "Le bonheur, principe et fin de la morale aristotelicienne." In this context, good habits are identified as virtues, while bad habits are referred to as vices Unlike passions, which stem from nature and are neutral, habits can be classified as good or bad based on their effects on our abilities; they either enhance or diminish them Importantly, habits are formed through the voluntary repetition of specific actions.

Aristotle asserts that moral virtues are not innate or contrary to nature; instead, they are developed through the consistent practice of virtuous actions He emphasizes that we become just by performing just acts and temperate by engaging in temperate behaviors Moral virtue exists only when there is a balance, avoiding both excess and deficiency This balance is not merely a numerical average but must be proportionate to the individual moral subject Thus, virtue encompasses two dimensions: the objective good related to the action itself and the various circumstances affecting the individual For instance, in the context of eating, virtue lies in consuming the appropriate amount—neither too much nor too little—tailored to one’s specific needs.

The just mean is quantitatively positioned between two extremes, yet qualitatively, it represents an extreme itself When evaluating the just mean in terms of virtue, the virtuous individual, initially defined as a mean, emerges as an exceptional high point of excellence.

Aristotle asserts that moral virtue is closely linked to right reason, which identifies the extremes of deficiency and excess to achieve a balanced mean This right reason is developed through prudence, guided by the judgment of a wise and prudent individual.

Moral virtue is the balanced application of reason to our emotions, actions, and passions, ensuring that they avoid the extremes of excess and deficiency This concept emphasizes the importance of moderation in ethical behavior.

4 Cf Ibid., 1107 a 5. virtues are habits, voluntarily acquired through the repetition of acts, and constituted by the just mean established by the right reason of a prudent man.

Virtue is defined as a character state that involves making choices, existing in a balanced mean that is relative to each individual This balance is guided by a rational principle, which is the same principle that a person with practical wisdom would use to make such determinations.

Moral virtues can be categorized into two main types based on their focus: those that govern an individual's personal conduct and those that guide interactions with others The first category includes virtues such as fortitude, which helps individuals balance between cowardice and recklessness; temperance, which regulates the enjoyment of pleasures; and modesty, which manages emotional responses The second category encompasses a variety of virtues that influence relationships with others, including liberality, veracity, good humor, amiability, as well as the principles of justice and equity.

Aristotle defines the virtue of justice as having two key aspects: adherence to the law and respect for equality among individuals The first aspect emphasizes that what is just aligns with the law, which can be categorized into two types The first type consists of natural laws, which are universal, immutable, and independent of human opinion, akin to the constant nature of fire that burns the same everywhere The second type comprises laws created by human legislators, which govern actions that are morally neutral until they are codified into civil law, thus becoming obligatory.

Aristotle emphasizes the importance of maintaining equality in human relations, asserting that individuals should receive what they are due based on their natural qualities, dignity, and societal position Understanding this concept of equality is crucial for fostering fair interactions among people.

Justice is a fundamental virtue that governs the relationships among individuals, encompassing two main types: natural justice, rooted in natural law, and civil justice, which is derived from unwritten customs or written laws Civil justice is further divided into distributive justice, concerning the interactions between public authorities and citizens, and commutative justice, which focuses on the relationships among individual citizens.

Aristotle identifies two distinct virtues associated with the rational aspect of the human soul: prudence, which pertains to practical reason and the understanding of contingent and changeable matters, and wisdom, which relates to theoretical reason and the comprehension of necessary and unchangeable truths.

Wisdom knows objects which are superior to man Its constant exercise is known as contemplation, and for Aristotle, this is what perfect happiness consists in.

THE VOLUNTARY ACT

Aristotelian ethics primarily focuses on the rational aspect of human nature, asserting that true happiness is achieved through the activity of the rational soul's superior part Reason plays a crucial role in the manifestation of human virtues, both moral and intellectual However, it is important to note that Aristotle does not neglect the volitional aspect of human behavior.

2 For a more detailed discussion of the dianoetic virtues, cf W.D Ross, op cit., pp 206 ff.

Aristotle's ethics can be seen as a deliberate effort to move beyond the intellectualism of earlier philosophers While he may not have explicitly defined his theory of the will, the essence of his doctrine is clearly present in his work.

Besides the idea of will as the rational appetite, the other notions that Aristotle introduces into the discussion of the subject are deliberation and election.

The execution of a virtuous act involves several key elements, beginning with the will, which is driven by an understanding of what is good This initial attraction to the good initiates the human action Next, the intellect engages in deliberation to determine the necessary means to achieve this good After this rational consideration, the process culminates in the act of choice or election, which is essential for the realization of the virtuous act.

"desiderative reason or ratiocinative desire." 2 It is an act, in other words, where both intelligence and will have a role to play.

Aristotle posits that the assurance of the goodness of one's actions is rooted in virtue, suggesting that moral rectitude is determined by the alignment of one's will with objectively good means.

The true good is universally desired, yet individuals perceive it differently; for the virtuous person, the genuine good is the true object of desire, while the immoral individual may wish for anything superficial This distinction arises because the good person accurately assesses all types of things, allowing them to recognize the truth in each situation.

Some historians argue that Aristotle's explanation presents a paradox: to love what is good, one must be good, yet being good seems necessary to love goodness However, this apparent contradiction can be resolved by recognizing that while being a good person and possessing a good will are interdependent, it is ultimately the individual's responsibility to cultivate their character and will through deliberate actions.

1 Cf W.F.R Hardie, Aristotle's Ethical Theory, Oxford 1968, p 178.

In the execution of these actions both reason and will, deliberation and election, have a role to play.

Every individual seeks what they perceive as good, yet their understanding of this goodness is influenced by their character While one might argue that people lack control over their perceptions, it is essential to recognize that each person is accountable for their mindset, which in turn shapes their interpretation of appearances.

Each individual shapes their own moral character and habits, making them accountable for the outcomes they choose in life This choice of end goal is reflected in every action taken, influencing the deliberation and selection of the means to achieve those ends.

Aristotle does not provide a comprehensive doctrine on the will or freedom, leaving the issue unresolved However, he offers enough information to identify the fundamental components of such a doctrine The challenge lies in organizing and synthesizing this material coherently, largely due to the nature of ethics, which examines human actions Unlike scientific disciplines, ethics cannot establish fixed laws that serve as a foundation for demonstrative knowledge, reflecting Aristotle's perspective on the complexity of human behavior.

In discussing complex subjects, we should accept that our understanding may only be approximate, leading to conclusions that reflect this uncertainty Each type of statement should be evaluated with this perspective, as an educated individual recognizes the importance of seeking precision within the limits of the topic at hand.

Aristotle's doctrine has had an historical influence which can rightly be described as unique A quick review of the history of Western thought will

2 Cf Ibid., VI, 2, 1139 a 30; VI, 2, 1144 a 20; cf also P Aubenque, La prudence chez Aristotle, Paris 1976, pp 106 ff.

Aristotle's philosophy has consistently influenced thought throughout history, with a notable absence of his presence immediately following his death due to the fate of his writings However, he re-emerged at the end of the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th century, driven by the efforts of early commentators and the rise of Scholasticism, which marked a significant revival of his ideas Interest in Aristotle's works persisted into the following centuries, and in the 19th century, a renewed examination of his treatises sparked a resurgence in Aristotelian studies that continues to resonate today.

Aristotle's lasting influence stems not just from historical context or his vast array of interests, but primarily from the profound depth of his philosophy His significant contributions across all branches of philosophy highlight this enduring value, particularly his metaphysical principles, which provide a deep and accurate reflection of reality, as well as his insightful analyses of human knowledge, ethics, and logic.

Aristotle represents the pinnacle of Greek philosophy, with his speculative discoveries remaining unmatched in many respects However, his work raises unresolved questions, particularly concerning the relationship between God and the sensible world While he identifies the Prime Mover or Pure Act, he fails to clarify its causal influence on the world, as Aristotle's concept of God does not encompass a creator This limitation extends to the notion of providence and the immortality of the soul, where he remains silent on the soul's origin and its afterlife Furthermore, although he describes God as self-thinking Thought and associates human beatitude with intellectual contemplation, Aristotle struggles to adequately address the significance of the volitional aspect of human nature.

Aristotle's philosophy holds a significant position in the history of human thought due to its profound depth and wide-ranging impact, raising important questions that continue to resonate today.

HELLENISM

Hellenism emerged as a cultural phenomenon following the political expansion of Alexander the Great, who rapidly built a vast empire and sought to unify its diverse peoples by promoting Greek culture Although he died in 323 A.D., his generals continued his vision, leading to the establishment of new cities such as Pergamon, Ephesus, Antioch, Rhodes, and Alexandria, which became vital centers of political, economic, and cultural life While Athens lost its dominance, the Greek language evolved into a universal tongue, transforming into the koiné—a popular version that facilitated culture and education across the empire.

From the year 197 B.C onwards, Rome's ascendancy within the ancient empire of Alexander grows, until it becomes absolute in the year

In 47 B.C., the fall of Alexandria to Roman troops marked a significant transition for Hellenic culture, which was subsequently inherited by Rome This cultural legacy thrived and disseminated throughout the Roman Empire, enduring until the decline of the empire in the 4th century.

The study of Hellenism reveals a rich cultural heritage established from the 4th century B.C to the 4th century A.D., during which Christianity emerged and evolved This new faith introduced a transformative worldview that deeply influenced and integrated into the fabric of society.

From the era of Alexander the Great, the people of Greece and their territories embraced a cosmopolitan identity, becoming citizens of the world As the ruling authority strengthened, it distanced itself from individual subjects, leading to diminished interest in public affairs, a stark contrast to the vibrant Greek city-states of the past Despite this, the ideal of the wise man persisted, prompting cities to welcome knowledgeable individuals This period saw the rise of vast libraries, such as the renowned Library of Alexandria, which was tragically destroyed around 600 A.D by an Arabian general named Omar This era fostered a remarkable blend of cultures, while educators emerged from esteemed institutions like the Academy, the Lyceum of the Peripatetics, and the schools of Megara and Cyrene.

Philosophy has shifted focus from the pursuit of wisdom to the quest for happiness, leading to an emphasis on ethics influenced by Socratic principles This new ethical framework is paired with a physics that supersedes the metaphysical ideas of Plato and Aristotle, reviving pre-Socratic theories The rejection of metaphysics stems from a denial of suprasensible reality and a rise in materialism Additionally, logic is included in the curriculum to structure moral norms, yet, similar to pre-Socratic thinkers, philosophers of this era often present moral doctrines that are more aligned with their personal intuitions than with the foundational principles of nature and logic, resulting in contradictions within their teachings.

The practical nature of philosophy during this period contributes to its widespread appeal, as it serves as a tool for addressing existential challenges in the absence of traditional values However, this focus on practicality leads to a noticeable decline in speculative depth, exemplified by the growing rejection of the philosophical ideas of Plato and Aristotle.

Epicureanism, stoicism and skepticism are the three main philosophies of the hellenistic period All of them show the influence of the minor

1 For a discussion on the philosophical, cultural and social changes during this period, see

G Reale, Storia , III, pp 5 ff.; M Pohlenz, La Stoa, Florence 1967, pp 12 ff (Italian translation of Die Stoa, Gottingen 1948); and M Isnardi Parente, La filosofia dell'ellenismo, Florence 1977, pp 21 ff.

Socratic schools In a way, they can be considered as the continuation of these schools 1

The Cynic school, established by Antisthenes, is epitomized by Diogenes, who famously rejected pleasure, wealth, and power This fundamental disdain for materialism became a hallmark of Hellenistic philosophy However, Diogenes' radical views and absence of constructive values ultimately contributed to the decline of Cynicism by the end of the 1st century B.C.

The disciples of Aristippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic school, diverged into three distinct groups, each interpreting their master's hedonism in unique ways This evolution of Aristippus's teachings ultimately led to the school's decline, yet its foundational hedonistic principles persisted through the philosophy of Epicurus Meanwhile, the Megarian school focused heavily on dialectics, adopting an Eleatic approach rather than a Socratic one, which later influenced the development of skepticism.

The philosophical landscape of the Hellenistic age was significantly influenced by the developments within the Academy and the Lyceum, shaping the evolution of thought during this transformative period.

Plato's disciples, including Euspesippus, Xenocrates, and Heraclides Ponticus, delved into the nature of transcendent reality through a Pythagorean lens, focusing on concepts like Idea-numbers and ideal numbers However, their interpretations gradually distorted Plato's original philosophy, ultimately steering the Academy toward skepticism.

The Lyceum struggled to uphold the high speculative standards set by Aristotle, as none of his disciples, including Theofrastus, Eudemus, Dicearcus, and Aristosenus, could match his intellectual rigor Under the leadership of Straton of Lampsacus, the school began to shift towards naturalism and showed early signs of materialism.

1 Regarding the minor Socratic philosophers, see Th Gomperz, Pensatori Greci, II, Florence 1967 (Italian translation of Griechische Denker, Leipzig 1896).

2 For a detailled study of the evolution of the Academy and the Lyceum, see Zeller-Mondolfo, op cit., II, 3, pp 857 ff., and II, 6, pp 335 ff., respectively.

EPICUREANISM

THE CANONICUM

Epicurus' approach to logic differs significantly from that of Aristotle, focusing primarily on the methods for attaining truth rather than formal reasoning He identifies three key criteria for knowledge: sensations, prenotions (or prolexis), and the experiences of pleasure and pain Among these, sensations serve as the foundational criterion for establishing truth and objectivity in Epicurean philosophy.

Rejecting the validity of all sensations eliminates any point of reference, making it impossible to evaluate or judge claims you consider false.

Every sensation is inherently true, as its objectivity is guaranteed by its passive nature Sensations arise from external stimuli, ensuring a correspondence to reality, which is fundamentally composed of atoms These atoms must emanate from objects to create sensations; without this interaction, sensations cannot occur Thus, sensations should be viewed as passive phenomena that necessitate the presence of external objects Epicurus emphasizes that there is no subjective intervention in this process, eliminating the possibility of error in sensation.

The second criterion of truth involves prenotions, which are mental representations formed through repeated sensory perceptions Humans retain these representations in their memory, allowing them to recall and utilize this knowledge even when the object is not physically present These mental images enable an anticipatory understanding of the object.

Epicurus errs by interpreting sensation solely in material terms, overlooking that sensation is a form of knowledge characterized by immateriality and immanence, as Aristotle noted He clarified that errors in sensory knowledge arise not from the apprehension of proper sensibles, but from common sensibles and imaginative activity Thus, sensations form the foundation of all rational activity, with reasoning fundamentally rooted in prenotions and sensations.

Prolexis, or anticipation, refers to our immediate understanding or awareness of real objects, accurate opinions, thoughts, or universal concepts within us It essentially acts as a memory of recurring events in the external world For instance, when we say "This is a man," the moment we pronounce "man," the image of a man is instantly conjured in our minds, guided by our sensory experiences.

Epicurus emphasizes that pleasure and pain are the most significant sensations, guiding our actions and moral judgments He asserts that pleasure is synonymous with goodness, while pain is equated with evil.

Pleasure serves as both the foundation and ultimate goal of a fulfilling life, aligning with our natural inclinations Our decisions to accept or reject experiences stem from the pursuit of pleasure, which we use as a benchmark when evaluating what is truly good.

Epicurus identifies three criteria as the ultimate standards of truth, emphasizing that error can only arise within the realm of opinion This suggests that all mental processes not grounded in sensory evidence are prone to mistakes.

In the canonica, Epicurus revives Protagoras's thesis, yet unlike the sophist, he endorses a view akin to that of the atomists This creates a significant contradiction, as Epicurus claims that sensation is the standard for truth, raising the question of how he can assert that atoms are the fundamental material principle of all things when their existence cannot be sensibly verified Epicurus's alignment with atomism may stem from the fact that his ethical framework, central to his philosophy, prioritizes ethics over ontology, suggesting that ontology is shaped by ethical considerations Consequently, a hedonistic ethic necessitates a foundation in materialism.

3 Cf Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians, VII, 211-216. ontology, and among the materialist ontologies, atomism best fulfilled this function 1

PHYSICS

Epicurus posits that reality is composed of atoms and the void, where atoms serve as the indivisible building blocks of all existence The combination of these atoms leads to creation, while their separation results in decay Each atom varies in form, weight, figure, and size, and they are in a state of constant motion Unlike earlier atomists, Epicurus uniquely asserts that all atoms move downward within the limitless void.

Atoms move randomly and can shift in various directions, a phenomenon known as clinamen These unpredictable deviations lead to the formation of diverse atom groupings, resulting in the creation of various bodies and complex entities.

Epicurus proposed a theory to safeguard human freedom, arguing that if atomic movement were solely dictated by natural laws and the weight of atoms, it would restrict our autonomy, as our souls would be compelled to follow atomic motion In contrast, Democritus, the pioneer of atomic theory, believed that all events occur out of necessity, choosing to uphold the inherent movement of these indivisible particles rather than challenge it.

Epicurus seeks to preserve human freedom through his concept of clinamen, or random deviations However, this theory fundamentally undermines itself, as it attempts to provide a material explanation for a distinctly spiritual phenomenon.

Epicurus posits that the human soul is fundamentally material, composed of igneous, aeriform, and wind atoms, making it as tangible as any physical substance.

1 2 Cf G Reale, op cit., III, pp 190 ff.

Epicurus challenges the logical implications of his assertions by differentiating between the rational and irrational aspects of the soul, each made up of distinct types of atoms He argues that human freedom cannot be fully explained through a purely materialistic perspective, nor can the rational nature of humanity be adequately accounted for by merely referencing different material principles, a viewpoint that contradicts the foundations of atomism Thus, Epicurus lacks a solid basis for his claims.

At first glance, Epicurus's materialist philosophy seems incompatible with the concept of divine reality, especially since one of its main goals is to liberate individuals from the fear of the gods However, Epicurus asserts that the existence of gods is evident, positing that their nature is either material or quasi-material, composed of inseparable atoms He claims there are numerous gods who lead a blissful existence, completely unconcerned with human affairs.

ETHICS

According to Epicurus, true happiness for humans, who are made up solely of atoms, is found in sensible pleasure, but he defines pleasure differently than the cyrenaics Rather than viewing pleasure as a violent or active experience, Epicurus understands it in a more static and tranquil manner.

The essence of pleasure lies not only in the delightful sensations that stimulate our instincts and senses but also in the highest form of pleasure, which is characterized by the absence of sorrow.

The ultimate state of well-being for individuals is the peace of mind derived from freedom from suffering and anxiety This inner tranquility can be attained by embracing one’s current circumstances and eliminating fears and superstitions.

To overcome fear, one must first conquer the fear of death Epicurus clarifies that death signifies not the end of existence or a transition to another life, but rather a complete absence of being It is not a disease but the ultimate cure for all ailments Consequently, death holds no significance for humanity, making the fear of it utterly irrational.

Embrace the perspective that death holds no significance for us, as both good and evil are rooted in our sensations Ultimately, death represents the absence of these experiences, highlighting the distinction between physical pleasures and those of the soul.

1 Regarding the existence of the gods as an evident datum, cf Letter to Meneceus, 123, and Cicero, De natura deorum, I, 18, 49; regarding their material nature, cf Cicero, Ibid., I, 18,

49 Regarding the theology of Epicurus in general, cf A.J Festugiere, Epicure et ses Dieux, Paris 1946.

Cicero's "De finibus bonorum et malorum" emphasizes that understanding death as inconsequential leads to a happier mortal existence This perspective alleviates the desire for immortality, suggesting that those who genuinely believe there is nothing to fear in death will find no fear in life itself.

Epicurean ethics emphasizes the importance of avoiding intranquility stemming from the fleeting nature of pleasure It suggests that true pleasure is achieved in the absence of sorrow, indicating that the essence of pleasure, according to Epicurus, is unaffected by intensity or duration When sorrow is absent, pleasure becomes complete, total, and infinite.

Sorrow is the only threat to human happiness; however, Epicurus suggests that if sorrow is physical, it is temporary and should not overshadow the joy of our spirit.

Lastly, fear of the gods is groundless since, as we have seen, the gods are oblivious of human affairs 4

Epicurus' ethical teachings provide four key remedies to alleviate humanity's fear of the gods and death, emphasizing that pleasure is accessible to everyone and that enduring hardship is achievable By embracing these principles, individuals can attain lasting happiness.

In the context of the ethics of pleasure, virtue serves as a crucial tool that guides us in achieving happiness by helping us accurately evaluate and discern the value of different pleasures.

Epicurus's doctrine was primarily ethical, with his teachings in canonicum and physics serving as rational justifications for his moral principles Despite the contradictions present in his philosophy, the practical wisdom he offered was highly valued by his contemporaries, leading to its enduring acceptance This practical focus allowed Epicurean thought to thrive for an extended period, as his followers emphasized its ethical implications over theoretical flaws.

3 Cf Ibid., 4 and Vatican Sentences, 4.

4 Cf Cicero, De nat deor., I, 19, 51.

5 Cf Diogenes Laertius, X, 118; Seneca, Epistolae, 66, 18. themselves almost exclusively to repeating the doctrine of their master, which they regarded as dogmas which they had to learn and defend 6

Lucretius, the sole disciple of Epicurus who recognized his dual role as both a student and a master, played a pivotal role in introducing Epicureanism to Rome.

THE STOICS

PHYSICS

"'Quantity' means that which is divisible into two or more constituent parts of which each is by nature a 'one' and a 'this'" 4

According to Aristotle, matter serves as the foundation for the diversity of beings that share the same substantial form Quantity is a characteristic of matter that influences substance by extending it through space and time As a result, a substance, while remaining a singular entity, contains parts within parts and is potentially divisible infinitely.

Aristotle differentiates between extensive quantity, exemplified by a block of stone, and discrete quantity, represented by numbers The latter arises from the division of the former, making further analysis unnecessary.

Quantity, according to Aristotle, is a continuous entity that can be divided, but this potential for division does not imply that a natural body can be infinitely divided in reality.

The continuum of a corporeal substance has a limit that encompasses it

Aristotle asserts that the concept of place is distinct from the body it contains, emphasizing that place is not defined by the form or shape of the body, as these attributes change when the body moves Additionally, he argues that place should not be viewed as a mere empty vacuum.

Aristotle defines place as the limiting surface created by surrounding bodies that immediately encloses an object, distinguishing it from the object itself This conceptualization serves as a mental tool to address the complexities of spatial relationships.

"the boundary of the containing body at which it is in contact with the contained body." 4

Consequently, place is the exact measurement of the extension of physical bodies.

4 Met., V, 13, 1020 a 7 Later on, the scholastics (especially St Thomas Aquinas) designated matter modified by quantity as the principle of individuation of corporeal substances Cf T Alvira, L Clavell, T Melendo, Metafisica, Pamplona 1982, p 101 ff.

2 Cf On the Heavens, I, 9, 277 b 27; Met., VIII, 6, 1045 b 23 and XIV, 1.

Aristotle extensively explores the concept of the continuum in his work "Physics," particularly in sections III, 4-8 and VI, 1 In these passages, he delves into the idea of quantitative infinity, which arises from the infinite divisibility inherent in the continuum.

Aristotle explores the concept of time through his analysis of movement, emphasizing that while time is not synonymous with movement, it inherently depends on it.

Time is intrinsically linked to change; without it, our perception of time diminishes When our mental state remains constant or we fail to acknowledge its fluctuations, we become unaware of the passage of time.

According to Aristotle, time is defined as a property of continuous movement, analogous to the continuity of local movement The duration of a given time period is proportional to the length of movement, and just as movement is marked by a sequence of events, time is similarly measured by this succession of "before" and "after." Thus, Aristotle defines time as "the measurement of movement according to a before and after."

Time is a natural reality that aligns with the flow of material existence, yet it becomes abstract when perceived through the cognitive processes of the mind This abstract understanding allows us to comprehend time as a complete entity and to identify its various components.

The existence of time is intrinsically linked to the concept of the soul, as counting requires an observer Without a conscious entity to quantify experiences, the notion of number becomes meaningless Therefore, if only the soul possesses the ability to count, time cannot exist independently; it is merely an attribute of movement.

Aristotle posits that measuring time requires a mobile body, which he identifies in the uniform, circular motion of celestial spheres He further asserts that God and intelligent motor principles exist beyond time, residing in eternity and remaining unchanged.

In "On the Heavens," Aristotle presents a widely accepted view of the universe that remained influential until Copernicus Drawing from the teachings of Eudoxus and Calippus, Aristotle delineates the universe into two primary realms: the sublunary world, which includes the moon, Earth, and everything beneath it, and the supralunary world, or heavens.

Aristotle proposed a unique perspective on the universe, suggesting that it is eternal and has no temporal beginning, existing in a constant state This raises the question of how we can explain the movement of both earthly and celestial bodies within this unchanging framework.

Aristotle posited that all substances in the sublunary world are made up of four primary elements identified by contemporary physicists, which are inherently in motion and strive to occupy their natural positions—fire rises while earth descends While he elucidates the movements of matter and its elements, Aristotle acknowledges the necessity of additional principles beyond the intrinsic nature of matter to explain the ultimate cause of movement.

LOGIC

Stoicism emphasized the study of logic, particularly in its early stages, but diverged from Aristotelian logic, viewing it not as a tool for all sciences but as a basis for human wisdom Stoics believed that only physical bodies exist, meaning our knowledge is derived solely from individual entities that interact with one another Consequently, propositions describe events, while reasoning articulates the sequence of these events Thus, Stoic logic is fundamentally a logic of tangible realities, serving as a verbal representation of the nature of existence according to Stoic philosophy.

According to Stoic philosophy, all knowledge originates from sensory experiences, where objects leave an impression on our senses This interaction leads to a change in the rational soul, creating a representation of the sensation once it has passed Consequently, there are two types of representations: one that is sensible and another that is rational.

Representation serves as a reflection of the soul, where the term 'impression' is used metaphorically In essence, an impression resembles the mark created by a ring's seal when it is pressed into wax.

Sensation alone is insufficient for creating a true representation; the intellect, or logos, must engage with this sensation to form a comprehensive understanding, which serves as the sole criterion of truth This raises challenges for the Stoics, who seek to uphold the autonomy of the logos, as it is evident that the logos is inherently influenced by sensory experiences Thus, the freedom of assent attributed to the logos is contingent upon these sensible representations.

1 3 Cf Von Arnim, S.V.F., I, fr 143 ff; II, fr 823 ff.

Diogenes Laertius emphasizes that our understanding is grounded in direct sensory evidence, asserting that the presence of an object creates a powerful impression in the soul This intense representation compels our reason to accept its reality, highlighting the importance of sensory experience in forming knowledge.

Memory plays a crucial role in forming general concepts and their interconnections, although these concepts lack objective reality due to their abstract nature The Stoics recognize the human intellect's capacity to create these concepts, which inspires them to establish a science of dialectics that examines the significance of language and different reasoning methods.

Language can convey reality with certainty when it reflects true, objective knowledge at the level of perception This occurs in the direct relationship between words and their meanings, emphasizing that understanding goes beyond mere vocabulary.

Words embody essences that exist universally in the mind, lacking independent existence The direct connection between words and their meanings is evident in specific statements about concrete facts, such as singular propositions.

Aristotle emphasized that reasoning connects propositions based on the objective value of their terms, while the Stoics argued that reasoning is only valid when it involves concrete facts This perspective led the Stoics to focus on hypothetical and disjunctive syllogisms, allowing them to relate various events, such as weather conditions Their approach significantly advanced formal logic, moving beyond the Aristotelian framework that primarily centered on categorical syllogisms.

1 For more about the logic, see M Pohlenz, La Stoa, I, pp 57 ff., and the study of M.Mignucci, Il significato della logica stoica, Bologne 1965.

Stoic philosophy emphasizes the practical goal of achieving happiness, which is deeply rooted in ethics For Stoics, true happiness arises from living in harmony with nature, encompassing both the broader natural world and the specific nature of humanity Unlike Epicureans, who equate happiness with pleasure, Stoicism asserts that human fulfillment is derived from our rational soul, or logos, which is intrinsically linked to the divine logos Consequently, the essence of a meaningful life lies in adhering to the principles of reason.

Reason distinguishes humans from animals, granting them a status just below the divine The ultimate good for humanity is the perfection of reason, as all other goods are shared with animals and plants Achieving excellence in one's inherent qualities merits praise, and for humans, perfecting reason signifies the fulfillment of their true nature.

The rational soul is inherently connected to universal reason, which enables it to understand the law shared by all humanity This internal law serves as the primary guide for human actions, directing them to align with both human and universal laws while steering clear of anything contrary to these principles The Stoics assert that virtue represents the ultimate expression of reason, as reason is fundamental to human nature Therefore, living in harmony with nature equates to living in accordance with reason and virtue, where virtue, as the complete realization of reason, ultimately leads to true happiness.

Virtue embodies the natural inclination to live authentically, valued for its own sake rather than external motivations like fear or hope It is the essence of happiness, akin to the soul's role in fostering harmony throughout one's life.

1 Cf Von Arnim, S.V.F., III, fr 2-19.

For stoicism, therefore, it would make no sense to speak of several virtues All virtues are so deeply interrelated with one another that, in fact, they constitute a single virtue 1

Virtue is not an inherent quality; it must be cultivated to serve as a guiding principle in life It should be cherished and practiced for its own sake, rather than for its benefits or the joy it may bring True virtue eliminates anxiety and embodies happiness, independent of desires or pleasures that people often pursue Its essence lies in the will, joy, and tranquility, leading Stoics to reject emotions and passions as the root of all evils.

"Passion according to Zenon, is either a movement of the soul which is irrational and contrary to nature, or a movement which is characterized by excess." 2

To achieve stoic apathy, a wise individual must eliminate any passions or disturbances that could disrupt their soul, focusing instead on logos However, this approach to Stoicism, marked by excessive intellectualism, presents a flawed understanding of human nature by neglecting the significant role of volitional and non-rational elements in the pursuit of happiness.

SKEPTICISM

PYRRHO

Throughout history, the emergence of multiple answers to a single question has often led to skepticism, a phenomenon observed as far back as the pre-Socratic era This skepticism reappears with the philosopher Pyrrho, highlighting its enduring presence in philosophical discourse.

Pyrrho was born in Elida towards the year 365 A.D Around the year

In 323 BC, a significant doctrinal current of Hellenism emerged, led by a powerful personality who, while not a formal founder of a school, inspired many through his unique lifestyle and teachings He primarily taught in his birthplace, where he also passed away around 270 BC.

Pyrrho, like the Epicureans and Stoics, sought to address life's challenges and believed that happiness is attainable However, his approach diverged from theirs by rejecting the notion of any absolute truth, instead embracing the idea that truth is non-existent Influenced by historical events, particularly his participation in Alexander the Great's expedition, Pyrrho was profoundly affected by the political and cultural transformations of the time His exposure to Eastern philosophies further deepened his skepticism Additionally, his philosophical background, shaped by the atomist school and the school of Megara, provided him with the foundational tools to develop his unique doctrine.

Pyrrho's philosophy centers on a complete rejection of ontology and an unwavering affirmation of the absolute nature of appearances, leading to a dismissal of the principle of non-contradiction Unlike the sophists, who acknowledged the relativity of truth, Pyrrho advances this idea further, emphasizing skepticism towards knowledge and belief systems.

1 Cf G Reale, op cit., III, pp 465 ff. possibility of putting man as the ultimate criterion of being and truth, Pyrrho rejects the very possibility of having any such criterion:

Timon, a disciple of Pyrrho, emphasizes that to achieve happiness, one must consider three key aspects: the nature of things, our attitudes towards them, and the consequences of adopting such attitudes Pyrrho believed that all things are fundamentally equal and indistinguishable, suggesting that our sensations and opinions cannot be categorized as true or false Therefore, we should refrain from forming opinions and remain indifferent, avoiding disturbance by accepting that things can be both what they are and what they are not Timon asserts that adopting this mindset leads to a state of aphasia, followed by ataraxia, a serene peace of mind.

According to Pyrrho, man must abstain from making any judgment

(aphasia), and as a consequence, have nothing but indifference towards everything (ataraxia) This is what happiness consists in.

Pyrrho's conclusions arise from rejecting the principle of non-contradiction, a notion previously established by Aristotle However, Pyrrho's adherence to his principles is only partial; as Aristotle noted, denying any criterion of truth while advocating for ataraxia as the ultimate goal of life inherently represents a position If all truths are denied, then even Pyrrho's assertion that truth does not exist cannot be considered true.

CARNEADES

Skepticism continues beyond Pyrrho through his disciple Timon, while a similar doctrine emerges in the Academy, initially presented by Arcesilaus and later developed more profoundly by his talented disciple Carneades, known for his exceptional skills in logic and rhetoric.

1 Anstocles, Praep evang of Eusebius, XIV, 18, 26, 1-4.

If everyone holds both correct and incorrect beliefs simultaneously, they become incapable of expressing coherent thoughts, as they would be affirming and denying the same idea at once Without making any definitive judgments, their mental state becomes indistinguishable from that of a vegetable.

Carneades, born in Cyrene circa 219 B.C., became a prominent figure in Athens, where he conducted most of his teaching at the Academy He played a significant role in the institution during his lifetime and passed away around 129 B.C.

Carneades rejected the dogmatism of the stoics, especially that of Crisippus Like Pyrrho, he held that there was no criterion of truth whatsoever 1

Carneades concluded similarly to Pyrrho, advocating for the suspension of all judgment However, recognizing the necessity of action in daily life, he proposed that probability should serve as the practical standard for decision-making.

Carneades argued against other philosophers by asserting that no definitive criterion of truth exists However, recognizing the necessity for a guideline in human conduct and the pursuit of happiness, he proposed that probable representations should serve as this criterion These representations, which are free from contradiction and have been thoroughly examined from various perspectives, provide a foundation for guiding human behavior.

Carneades asserts that our representations can possess different levels of credibility, with the highest probability assigned to those that are not contradicted by related representations When time constraints prevent a comprehensive examination of an issue, we must rely on alternative criteria to assess probability.

Carneades maintains a steadfast skepticism, asserting that no objective criterion of truth exists He argues that individuals must accept incomprehensible propositions due to the practical demands of life Consequently, the logical outcome of this view would be to withhold assent and suspend judgment Thus, Carneades concludes that human behavior is guided not by any objective truth but by the subjective ability to choose among various alternatives.

The skepticism of Carneades, characterized by its dialectic and negative nature, struggled to endure following his death, leading to the Academy's lack of any definitive philosophical stance.

1 Cf Sextus Empiricus, Against the math., VII, 159.

2 Ibid., VII, 166. doctrine as a result of having abandoned the teachings of Plato, veered towards the direction of eclecticism 1

SEXTUS EMPIRICUS

In its final phase, Greek skepticism increasingly emphasized the importance of sensible experience, reflecting the influence of empirical medicine during that era The key figure of this movement was Sextus Empiricus, a medic from the latter half of the 2nd century A.D., who represented the empiricist school His work, "Pyrrhonenses Hypotyposes," effectively summarizes the teachings of skeptics, while his other publication, "Adversus mathematicos," critiques the dogmatism of other philosophers.

Sextus asserts that objective knowledge is unattainable, leading to the suspension of all judgment Unlike Pyrrho, who viewed reality solely as appearances, Sextus acknowledges the existence of the object or thing-in-itself He posits that phenomena only represent a portion of reality that influences human perception, while also recognizing the existence of intellectual representations and real objects, which remain unknowable.

Sextus argues that our actions should be guided by phenomena, which he equates with sensory data While humans can form intellectual representations, these are deemed inferior to sensory experiences, as they may be contradicted by observable data or other intellectual constructs.

The fundamental tenet of skepticism asserts that for every argument presented, there exists an equally compelling counterargument This principle effectively challenges the validity of dogma, fostering an environment of critical thinking and open inquiry.

Philon of Larisa and his disciple Antiochus of Ascalon are key figures representing the eclecticism of the Academy, with Philon originating in the mid-2nd century B.C According to Sextus Empiricus, they are recognized as the fourth and fifth leaders of the Academy, respectively.

Pyrrhonenses Hypotyposes, I, 220) During Roman times, the most famous eclectic was

Cicero (born in Arpinus in the year 106 B.C.), who continued along the line established by Philon.

The work consists of eight books, which are actually divided into two distinct sections: the first six are part of "Adversus mathematicos," while the last two belong to "Adversus dogmaticos." Despite this division, they are commonly referenced under a single title.

3 Cf Sextus Empiricus, Adv math., VII, 383, and Pyrr Hyp., I, 208.

Sextus asserts that while sensory data can challenge intellectual representations, the opposite is not true He argues that skeptics can accept feelings arising from sensory experiences as empirical assent, but they must refrain from making definitive judgments about their truth, as the objectivity and validity of such phenomena cannot be established.

"Phenomena can only assure us of the fact that they appear They do not give us any assurance about their actual existence." 1

The moral ideal of empirical skepticism is ataraxia, redefined from Pyrrho's original concept Ataraxia signifies living in harmony with natural impulses, balanced by societal laws and customs While individuals should engage in artistic pursuits, they should reject philosophies that claim to explain the unknowable Ultimately, ataraxia, or imperturbability, represents the ultimate goal of human existence, achieved through this balanced approach.

Sextus's new form of skepticism faces criticism for relying on the distinction between phenomena and the thing-in-itself This reliance can be seen as dogmatic, contradicting the very antidogmatism that Sextus claims to support.

Ancient skepticism effectively dismantled the foundations of Hellenistic culture, particularly targeting stoicism and challenging dogmatic philosophical attitudes The evolution of skepticism, marked by its rise and decline, paralleled the lifecycle of major Hellenistic systems Notably, skepticism's influence waned with the death of Sextus, paving the way for the emergence of neo-Platonism in Alexandria.

1 Sextus Empiricus, Adv math., VIII, 368.

2 Cf Sextus Empiricus, Pyrr Hyp., I, 23.

NEO-PLATONISM

From the 2nd century B.C onwards, philosophical schools increasingly embraced eclecticism, integrating principles from various doctrines Platonists, Stoics, and Pythagoreans all borrowed ideas from one another, reflecting a rich tapestry of thought Alexandria emerged as a central hub for this syncretist movement, where Greek philosophy blended with diverse Eastern doctrines following the expansive conquests of Alexander the Great.

Following the upheaval caused by stoic dialectics and subsequent eclecticism, a climate of skepticism emerged towards purely rational thought, leading to an increased fascination with religious themes Philosophers shifted their focus away from speculative issues, concentrating instead on moral and religious questions in their quest for life's true meaning and the path to salvation.

During the intellectual climate from the 1st century B.C to the 2nd century A.D., the philosophies of Aristotle and Plato gained renewed prominence among scholars, with many philosophers citing their authority to support their own teachings This era marked a shift from the materialistic interpretations of reality offered by Hellenistic schools to new perspectives inspired by Plato and Aristotle, which acknowledged the existence of transcendent principles Two main philosophical currents emerged during this transformative period.

Platonism and neo-Pythagoreanism shared numerous similarities, with philosophers from both schools establishing foundational concepts that allowed Philo of Alexandria, a Jewish thinker, to shift the focus of philosophy towards religion This pivotal transition ultimately led to the emergence of neo-Platonism, representing the final significant synthesis of the Greek philosophical tradition.

During this period, philosophical thought was marked by two key characteristics Firstly, there was a notable lack of new contributions to the philosophy of nature, living beings, and humanity Instead, the focus was primarily on reiterating existing teachings rather than introducing innovative ideas.

Neo-Platonism, influenced by the works of Plato and Aristotle, introduces the concept of the First Principle, exploring its intrinsic nature and its connection to the universe This philosophical evolution into theology captures the attention of early Christian thinkers, highlighting the significance of these ideas in their spiritual inquiries For an in-depth understanding of neo-Platonism's background, refer to G Reale and Zeller-Mondolfo's works.

PHILO OF ALEXANDRIA

GOD

Philo is recognized for reviving the transcendent aspect of reality emphasized by Plato, which had been neglected for centuries He asserted the existence of suprasensible realities, particularly highlighting a singular, simple, and incorruptible God Philo provided numerous arguments to demonstrate God's existence, clarifying that this God is not to be understood as the Platonic demiurge Instead, he is a Creator God, fundamentally transcendent and ultimately unknowable to humanity.

Philo emphasizes the ineffability of God, asserting that human language falls short in capturing His essence He uses Scripture to illustrate divine transcendence and offers a metaphysical perspective, arguing that humanity is unable to grasp the divine essence due to our limitations within space and time In contrast, God exists beyond these constraints.

God transcends the cosmos, existing as a self-sufficient entity filled with His own fullness Unlike all other things, which are solitary and empty, God encompasses and sustains everything, embodying both unity and completeness He is not confined by anything, as He is the One who contains all.

God's incomprehensibility stems from his absolute simplicity, which eliminates any form of determination or definition As a result, God cannot be defined or named However, humanity should not shy away from exploring this divine mystery.

Sacred Scripture possesses both a literal and spiritual sense; however, Philo's allegorical exegesis is flawed due to its reliance on Hellenic philosophy, which often misinterprets the spiritual meanings of the texts This approach can lead to conclusions that either misalign with the context of the Old Testament or contradict the revealed truths of Scripture.

3 Cf De special, leg., I, 32-35, and De Abrahamo, 74-76.

In the pursuit of understanding God, one may relinquish the hope of fully knowing Him; however, a limited and negative knowledge remains attainable This knowledge allows us to grasp certain attributes of God, such as His incorporeity, unicity, and simplicity While these terms only partially convey God's essence, the name He revealed to Moses, "I am Who Am," encapsulates His nature more comprehensively.

God instructed Moses to convey that He is the essence of existence, emphasizing that no name can fully define Him This revelation encourages understanding the distinction between existence and non-existence, highlighting that only the term "being" truly applies to Him.

Philo's perspective on God goes beyond mere affirmation of existence; he identifies God as the ultimate Being, the eternal existence that enables all other beings to exist This foundational view, while not fully developed until later by Scholasticism and thinkers like St Thomas Aquinas, underscores God's unique and perpetual nature.

CREATION

For the first time in the history of philosophy, Philo introduces the biblical notion of creation Everything in the world has been created by God.

God's creation extended beyond mere visibility; He brought into existence things that had never existed before As both the Demiurge and the Creator, God embodies the essence of creation itself.

Philo's interpretation of creation introduces elements absent from the biblical account, notably his frequent references to the Logos For Philo, the Logos represents the intelligible world that God creates as a blueprint for the sensible world, allowing for its identification with God as the divine mind At times, however, he distinguishes the Logos as a separate reality, highlighting its multifaceted significance in his philosophical framework.

God, a hypostasis to whom Philo assigns instrumental and efficient causality Philo even speaks of the Logos as fulfilling a mediating role between God and the creatures 1

The Logos is understood as an immaterial and transcendent reality with divine attributes, while also being immanent in the world as the indestructible bond that God uses to unite, conserve, and govern creation, similar to the Stoic concept of Logos Philo introduces the Ideas, which are divine thoughts distinct from God that serve as archetypes for the sensible world, existing within the intelligible realm of the Logos In this framework, God is the primary reality and model, with the Logos being the perfect image that directly emanates from Him Following the Logos, the Ideas are seen as particular images or models of things, exhibiting both a transcendent aspect as divine thoughts and an immanent aspect as the concrete forms of reality.

Philo's religious beliefs shape his understanding of humanity, viewing individuals as possessing not only a rational soul but also a divine Spirit that grants them immortality.

Philo's ethical doctrine is distinctive, emphasizing the essential connection between humanity and God By enhancing his comprehension of creation and self-awareness, an individual can elevate himself towards God, dedicating his profound thoughts to the divine Cause.

1 Philo's explanations about the Logos are not clear Regarding the different meanings of

Logos in Philo's thought, see A Maddalena, Filone Alessandrino, Milan 1970, pp 298 ff.

The ambiguous doctrine of Philo should not be seen as a precedent for the Christian Logos In the Gospel of St John, the Logos is identified as the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, representing God incarnate In contrast, Philo's understanding diverges significantly from this concept.

The concept of the Logos is often associated with divine nature, yet there is ambiguity regarding its personhood and a lack of reference to the Incarnation of the Word.

2 The notion of such a Spirit is taken by Philo from Gen II, 7 See his Leg all., I, 31 ff.

A person who has gained profound self-awareness and has confronted the stark emptiness inherent in all creation ultimately experiences a deep despair This journey of self-discovery leads to a true understanding of the essence of existence, revealing the significance of knowing the divine.

PLOTINUS

Philo's thought is characterized by divine transcendence and the importance of spirit or religiosity, which later combined with a resurgence of Platonism in cities like Alexandria, Rome, Athens, Antioch, and Pergamon Ammonius Sakkas, believed to have lived in the 2nd to 3rd centuries A.D., is recognized as the founder of the Alexandrian school, although little is known about his life His most notable disciple, Plotinus, provides insight into Sakkas' intellectual significance through his writings.

Plotinus, born in Lycopolis, Egypt, dedicated himself to philosophy in Alexandria around 232 In 244, he moved to Rome, where he established a school that drew many disciples due to his moral authority He began writing in 254, with his disciple Porphyry noting that Plotinus wrote continuously due to poor eyesight, as if transcribing conversations These writings were later organized by Porphyry into 54 treatises, divided into six groups of nine, known as the Enneads Plotinus passed away in 270 after a prolonged illness.

Plotinus' philosophy, while influenced by various philosophers from Parmenides to Philo of Alexandria, is predominantly shaped by Plato However, it is not merely an eclectic mix; instead, it embodies a distinct originality that breathes new life into ancient doctrines This innovative spirit is reflected in the unique goal of Plotinus' school, which diverges from the aims of other philosophical traditions Unlike the Academy's focus on training future politicians, the Lyceum's emphasis on scientific knowledge, or the Stoics' pursuit of happiness, Plotinus seeks to guide individuals towards a profound union with God.

Ammonius Sakkas' philosophy is primarily understood through the teachings of his disciples, including Plotinus and Origen the Pagan, as well as the accounts of Herocles of Alexandria and Nemesius of Emesa from the 5th century A.D.

2 Cf Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, 8.

3 Regarding the sources of Plotinus' thought, see Les sources de Plotin (by several authors),Vandoeuvres-Geneve, 1957.

"In fact, the Goal and End for him consisted in coming close and uniting oneself with God, who is above all things." 1

The thought of Plotinus, however, cannot be reduced to mysticism The spiritual aspiration that inspires it rests on a philosophical interpretation of reality.

Central to Plotinus' philosophy is the absolute separation between the sensible and intelligible realms, along with the transcendence of the First Principle He identifies three hypostases in the intelligible world: the One, the Spirit that emanates from the One, and the Soul that proceeds from the Spirit The concept of emanation is vital, as all existence, including the sensible world, originates from the One and ultimately strives to return to it For humanity, achieving a mystical union with the One represents the ultimate purpose of life.

The transcendence of the One

Plotinus posits that the One is the absolute principle underlying all existence, transcending all forms and determinations This One serves as the foundation of being, with every entity's existence rooted in its unity Consequently, the degree of existence in any being correlates with its level of unity, emphasizing that the One lies at the origin of all things, beyond even the concept of being itself.

"It is in virtue of unity that beings are beings.

The existence of all entities, whether primal or otherwise, hinges on the notion of singularity; nothing can exist independently without being categorized as one distinct entity.

Unity is defined by the degree to which a characteristic being is present; thus, the strength of unity corresponds directly to the level of being A higher degree of being results in greater unity, while a lower degree diminishes it.

1 Cf Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, 23.

Parmenides' emphasis on being evolved into the absolute primacy of the One through Plato's influence, which was later adopted by Plotinus Subsequently, philosophers like Avicenna and Averroes, along with later Scholastics, reinstated the importance of being, positioning the One and the Good as secondary to it The impact of neo-Platonism on the development of scholastic philosophy is notably explored in K Kremer's work, "Die neuplatbnische Seinsphilosophie und ihre Wirkung auf Thomas von Aquin," published in Leiden in 1966.

The One of Plotinus is defined by its absolute simplicity, distinguishing it from the other hypostases of Soul and Spirit This fundamental simplicity ensures that The One cannot be equated with these other entities.

The One is the first hypostasis, characterized by its absolute simplicity and being the principle without a principle It embodies infinite perfection and possesses absolute power, remaining immaterial and fully actualized without any limitations Consequently, the One is devoid of any determinations and transcends expression through concepts or words.

The essence of Being is boundless, as there are no limits to its existence It is not infinite in size, as there is no space it must occupy or movement required in the absence of need Its true infinitude lies in its unwavering power; it remains constant and reliable, providing enduring stability to all that is steadfast.

Plotinus often uses the term the Good to designate the One The One is identical with the Good; it is the super-Good.

The ultimate cause of everything transcends the elements within it This Principle should not be equated with the goodness it generates; rather, it embodies a distinct form of goodness, representing The Good that surpasses all other forms of good.

Plotinus asserts that the One is a self-causing absolute principle, embodying the concept of autoproduction without compromising its unity Its action aligns perfectly with its essence, as its existence is intertwined with its desire to be The One is inherently what it is, not due to any limitation, but because this state of being represents the highest good.

To understand the Supreme, we must recognize that its Activities are inherently linked to will, as there can be no action without will Therefore, the essence of the Supreme and its will must be one and the same Acknowledging this, we see that what the Supreme wills is a direct reflection of its nature; thus, it is inaccurate to separate its will from its essence.

THE NEO-PLATONIC SCHOOLS