646 Index ecosystems (continued) socioeconomic and political system revisions 4:161 technologically benign substitutions 4:161 intertidal ecosystems 4:332–344 anthropogenic impacts 5:56–57, 5:58F, 5:59F biodiversity measures 4:339–340 boulder fields 4:336–337, 4:336F ecological function 4:340–342 general discussion 4:332 habitat–niche relationship 4:45–46 mangrove forests 4:337, 4:338F, 4:339F marine sedimentary habitats 5:107, 5:108T pattern variations competition 4:334, 4:335F general discussion 4:333–334 interaction chains 4:334 physical disturbances 4:335–336 predation 4:334–335 recruitment 4:333–334 processes and characteristics 4:332–333 research summary 4:342–343 sandy beaches and mudflats 4:337–339 tides and waves 4:332–333 values and services 4:342, 4:342 lake and pond ecosystems acidic and mercury deposition 1:11F freshwater invertebrates 4:369–378 altered water regimes 4:377–378 background information 4:369–370 biodiversity loss 4:376–377 decomposition and recycling functions 4:375 disturbances 4:375 ecological functions and processes 4:375 endemism 4:374–375 exotic species invasions 4:378 global patterns 4:373 habitat depletion and loss 4:376–377 habitat heterogeneity 4:375 influencing factors 4:373–374 isolation factors 4:374–375 life cycles 4:370, 4:372F major groups 4:370, 4:371T major habitats 4:369–370, 4:369F major threats 4:376–377 material transfer and uptake 4:375–376 number of species 4:370–371, 4:371T origins 4:374 pollution 4:377 primary production 4:376 reduced water quality 4:377 research background 4:373–374 river continuum concept (RCC) 4:373F species interactions 4:375 taxonomic groups 4:371–373 zonal representatives 4:374F geographic distribution 4:370T habitat loss and degradation 7:371T landscape legacies 4:527–528 living dead 4:590–598 animal populations 4:594–595 anthropogenic impacts 4:594–595 deforestation 4:591–593, 4:592F extinct megafauna 4:591–593, 4:593F food chains 4:595–596 forest ecosystems 4:590–591, 4:591F requirements 4:593–594 restoration programs 4:597 small plants 4:594 wildland patches 4:596–597, 4:596F mangrove ecosystems 5:10–22 Amazon ecosystems 1:164 aquaculture impacts 1:193–194 C4 plants 2:371T characteristics 7:271–272 conservation practices 6:77 definitions and terminology 7:369T diversity general discussion 5:18 genetic diversity 5:22 global patterns 5:18 local variations 5:20–21 regional patterns 5:20, 5:21F ecological interconnections 5:18 economic exploitation and use 5:22 global extent 7:370T global patterns Atlantic-Caribbean-East Pacific (ACEP) region 5:18–19, 5:19F, 5:20T faunal diversity 5:19–20, 5:20T Indo-West Pacific (IWP) region 5:18–19, 5:19F, 5:20T latitudinal range 5:18, 5:19F longitudinal differences 5:18–19, 5:19F habitat destruction 1:513, 1:513T, 3:404 intertidal ecosystems 4:337, 4:338F, 4:339F local variations animal distribution 5:21–22 tree distribution 5:20–21 mangrove trees characteristics and geographical distribution 5:10–11 families and genera 5:11T mangrove habitat 5:10–11, 5:10F pneumatophores 5:12F reproduction 5:11–12, 5:12F root system 5:12F salinity/salt tolerance 5:11, 5:11T waterlogged soils 5:11, 5:12F marine fauna bivalves 5:17 characteristics 5:14–15 crustaceans 5:15–16, 5:20T ecosystem engineers 5:16–17 fish 5:15, 5:15F, 5:20T grapsid crabs 5:15–16, 5:15F hermit crabs 5:16 meiofauna 5:18 molluscs 5:16–17, 5:20T mud crabs 5:16 ocypodid crabs 5:16, 5:16F root communities 5:14–15 shrimp 5:16 snails 5:17–18, 5:17F marine sedimentary habitats 5:107, 5:108T nature-based coastal protection strategies 5:452–453, 5:453T, 5:454F protected area systems 6:492T, 6:499T reproductive adaptations 7:397 restoration programs 7:375–378 shrimp farming versus mangrove conservation 3:51–53, 3:52F South America 3:111F, 3:116 Southeast Asia 1:513, 1:513T terrestrial fauna amphibians 5:13 birds 5:13–14, 5:20T characteristics 5:12–13 insects 5:13, 5:13F mammals 5:14, 5:20T reptiles 5:13, 5:20T threatened species 7:201T marine ecosystems 5:45–55 anthropogenic impacts 5:56–63 artificial reefs 5:61 ecosystem engineer species 5:60–61 eutrophication 5:53–54 invasive species 5:54, 5:60–61 major threats 5:56 mariculture 5:61 overfishing 3:410, 5:54, 5:61 pollution 5:61, 6:150–151 research summary 5:62 rocky intertidal communities 5:56–57, 5:58F, 5:59F rocky subtidal communities 5:57–58, 5:60F sea otter populations 5:58–60 biodiversity genetic diversity 5:50 higher taxa 5:47–49, 5:50T species 5:49–50, 5:50T biodiversity loss 4:664 biodiversity-rich countries 1:498 chlorophyll production 5:46 climate change effects 6:150–151 conservation 5:32–44 abundance impacts 5:34–35 assisted colonization 5:41 climate change effects 3:449, 5:32 community impacts 5:37–38 conservation strategies 5:38–39 distribution impacts 5:35–36 ecosystem-based management 5:40 evolutionary impacts 5:36 fisheries management 5:40–41 future research areas 5:41 marine protected areas 5:39–40 ocean acidification 5:33–34 predictive models 5:39 research needs 5:41 restoration 5:41 rising seawater temperatures 5:33 conservation status 3:171–173T, 3:174 continental shelves 5:52 Convention on Biological Diversity (1930) 2:318