608 Index climate change (continued) triage approach 2:107 vulnerability factors 2:105–106 adaptation strategies assisted colonization 2:109 challenges 2:109–110 characteristics 2:107–108 connectivity 2:108 examples 2:110T reserve selection and design 2:107–108 species- and place-specific approaches 2:108–109 co-benefits 2:110–111 diseases and parasites 2:103–104, 2:110T future outlook 2:100 interspecific interactions 2:102–103, 2:110T multidimensional strategies 2:110–111, 2:110T phenological shifts 2:100–101, 2:110T population dynamics 2:102, 2:110T range shifts 2:101–102, 2:110T stressor interactions adaptation strategies 2:110T anthropogenic responses 2:105 ecosystem services 2:105 fire disturbances 2:104–105 invasive species 2:104 land-use changes 2:104 terrestrial invertebrates 3:221 threatened birds 7:185–186 wild species 2:79–99 climate models dynamical downscaling techniques 2:89–90 general circulation models (GCMs) 2:88 regional predictions 2:88–89 statistical downscaling techniques 2:89 validation methods 2:88 current trends 2:83–84 ecological models animal responses 2:92–94, 2:93F bottom-up approaches 2:66–68, 2:90 combined approaches 2:68, 2:90–91 community ecology 2:94 extinction probability 2:94–95 future climate projections 2:90 refined approaches 2:91 strategic cyclical scaling approach 2:68–69, 2:91 three-way linkages 2:94 top-down approaches 2:66, 2:90 vegetation responses 2:91–92 ecological responses abundance shifts 2:85 distribution shifts 2:85 extinction rates 2:86–87, 4:664 fish 3:449–450 phenological shifts 2:85–86 physical changes 2:86 extreme events 2:84–85 future research areas applications-driven climatic research 2:96 ecological impact assessments 2:95 ecosystem adaptability 2:95–96 multiscale interactive analysis 2:96 historical perspective 2:82–83 importance 2:80–81 joint atribution theory 2:87 meta-analyses 2:87 synergistic effects 2:81–82 see also global warming; greenhouse effect Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) 2:106 climatic regions 1:581F, 1:582F climax community 7:64 climbers 6:315T, 6:316T, 6:318T climbing everlasting daisy 4:194T climbing ferns 4:360 Clinostomoidea 7:439–440T, 7:450–451F, 7:452 Clitellata classifications 7:408 geographic distribution 7:418 morphology anterior ends 7:410F, 7:412F chaetae 7:409–410, 7:414F circulatory system 7:415 digestive tract 7:415 general characteristics 7:408–409 gills 7:415 gonads 7:415–416 head 7:409 musculature 7:414–415 nephridia 7:415 nervous system 7:410–411 posterior ends 7:410F pygidium 7:409 segments 7:409, 7:413F sense organs 7:411–414 septa 7:415 phylogenetic and taxonomic relationships 7:416–419, 7:417F reproductive biology 7:416 Clitocybe dealbata 3:635T Clitoria triquetrum 1:165 Cloeon dipterum 5:471 clomazone 4:90T clone libraries 6:349–350, 6:349T Clonorchis 7:450–451F closed basins 3:560 closed forests 1:292–297, 1:294T, 1:629–630, 6:325–327, 6:326F, 6:326T Closteroviridae 5:130F Clostridium 6:32 clothes moths 5:401–402 cloud ear mushrooms 3:637T clouded leopard 1:517 cloud forests Central America 2:28–29 South America 3:111 cloud formation 4:22–23 clover 1:114 cloves 2:663 club fungi 2:644 club moss 6:58T, 6:59 Clupea harengus 5:315 Clupea pallasi 3:256 clupeomorphs 3:463–464 Clusia 3:522T, 7:275–276 Clusiaceae 3:129T, 3:522T, 5:621–625 Clusiella 3:522T Clusiidae 3:489–491T Clusius, Carolus 6:508 clutch size 5:676–677 Clytrinae 1:329 Cnemidophorus 6:406 Cnemiornis calcitrans 5:366 Cnidaria Census of Marine Life project 2:7F endangered species 3:202T fossil record 3:684F global diversity 4:385T known and estimated species 4:384T marine ecosystems 5:50T number of species 4:371T photosynthetic symbioses 5:118–120, 5:119F phylogenetic relationships 7:434F plankton fraction 6:25 Proterozoic–Cambrian transition 3:396F coacervates 5:630 coach-whip snakes 4:494, 6:406, 6:409 coal biodiversity impacts 3:257–259, 3:264T carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions 3:265T land requirements 3:265T world energy reserves 3:265T world energy use 3:251F, 3:252T Coale, Ansley 6:205–206 coal tits 1:611–612 coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) 6:471, 6:472F, 7:51–52 coarse woody debris (CWD) 1:450 coastal beach ecosystems 2:128–136 sandy beaches alongshore distribution 2:131–133 background information 2:128 beach index (BI) 2:129 future research areas 2:135 macrofauna surveys 2:129–131, 2:130F macroscale patterns latitudinal trends 2:131, 2:131F morphodynamic effects 2:131, 2:132F, 2:133F mesoscale patterns 2:131–133 microscale patterns 2:133 microtidal regimes 2:128–129, 2:129F morphodynamic states 2:128–129, 2:129F research summary 2:135 species richness hypotheses 2:133–134 threats and challenges 2:134–135 tidal regimes 2:129 two-dimensional model 2:129, 2:130F zonation patterns 2:131–133 Coastal Brazilian Shield 3:105–107, 3:106F coastal deserts 2:458–460, 2:462F, 2:463F coastal dune vegetation 1:292–297 coastal ecosystems Asia 1:275–279, 1:275T, 1:276T Australian plant communities 1:292–297