Index Central America 2:25T characteristics 7:338–339 climate change studies 2:66, 2:92–93 conservation status 3:164, 3:164T critical pH levels 6:153F desert ecosystems 2:472–474 elevational range shifts 4:605T El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events 3:156–158 endemism 3:232T environmental threats chemical pollution 3:165–166 climate change 3:165 commercial exploitation 3:166–167 disease 3:166 general discussion 3:164–165 habitat destruction 3:164–165 indicator species 4:254–255 introduced species 3:167 ultraviolet radiaion 3:165 eutrophication impacts 3:365–366 forest canopies 3:513–514 fossil record 3:688 freshwater ecosystems 3:571–572, 3:578–579, 3:579T genetic diversity 3:665F geographical variation 1:614 global decline 3:691–699 causal factors exotic species invasions 3:695–696 general discussion 3:695 global climate change 3:696–697 habitat degradation/land conversion 3:695 human exploitation 3:696 infectious diseases 2:527–529, 2:528T, 2:529–530, 2:530F, 3:349, 3:696 synergistic effects 3:697 ecological impact 3:693 future challenges captive breeding programs 3:698 conservation approaches 3:697–698 exotic species removal 3:698 habitat change mitigation 3:697–698 infectious agent attenuation 3:698 geographic extent 3:693, 3:694F global climate change elevated ultraviolet (UV–B) radiation 3:697 general discussion 3:696–697 temperature variability–disease immunity relationship 3:697 weather pattern shift effects 3:697 implications 3:698 phylogenetic investigations 3:693–695 systematic factors 3:693–695 grassland ecosystems 4:3 indicator species 4:254–255, 7:206–207F infectious disease regulation 3:349 introduced parasites–species decline relationships 2:528T, 2:529–530, 2:530F introduced species Australia 1:80 United States 1:78 major threats 7:203F mangrove ecosystems 5:13 Mediterranean-type climate ecosystems Australia 5:213T, 5:221 California 5:213T Cape Region (South Africa) 5:213T, 5:220 Chile 5:213T, 5:217 Mediterranean Basin 5:213T, 5:218–219 migratory patterns 5:315–316 modern extinctions 2:168F, 2:170F, 5:368T Near East ecosystems 5:460T North America 5:565 past, recent, and future extinction rates 2:168F Permian–Triassic mass extinction 5:4 phenological shifts 5:723 population declines developmental deformities 3:167–168 protected habitats 3:167–168 ultraviolet radiation effects 7:300–301 river ecosystems 6:479–480 Southeast Asia 1:515 species richness gradients 4:613F species richness maps 6:709F Succulent Karoo 1:487T, 1:488 surface water acidification 1:10T threatened species 1:176–177, 1:515, 7:201T, 7:206–207F tourism industry 7:223 ultraviolet radiation effects deformities 7:301 growth and development 7:300 population declines 7:300–301 United States 1:78 urbanization threats 4:564 wetland ecosystems 7:389–391 wildfire effects 3:156–158 Amphibolis 6:542T Amphibolis antarctica 6:541T Amphibolis griffithii 6:541T Amphidinium 1:472, 1:473F, 6:294 Amphigyra alabamensis 3:185F Amphilinia 7:456–457F Amphilinidea 7:439–440T, 7:456–457F, 7:457 Amphinomidae 7:417F Amphionidacea 2:416–417T amphioxus 3:684–685 Amphipoda/amphipods classifications 4:381T endangered species 3:202T extinction vulnerability 2:416–417T lake and pond ecosystems 4:371–373, 4:374F Lake Baikal 3:183F mangrove ecosystems 4:337 marine sediments 5:106F number of species 3:182T, 4:371T sandy beaches 2:131–133 seagrass ecosystems 6:547–548 subterranean ecosystems 7:56–57, 7:57F Amphisbaenia 7:340 Amphora coffaeformis 1:475 Amphydasis cognataria 6:3 559 amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) 1:477–478, 1:479, 2:274–275, 3:663–664, 4:510, 4:515, 4:519 Ampullaviridae 5:130F Amsinckia grandiflora 6:441, 6:455–456 Amsterdam albatross 1:703 Amur leopards 3:373 Amydrium 3:522T Amygdalus communis 2:662–663, 5:481–482 Amygdalus korschinskii 5:485 Amygdalus ramonensis 5:485 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 1:592 Anabaena flos-aquae 6:33F Anabaena variabilis 2:611F Anabasis 1:270, 2:371T Anabasis articulata 1:268, 5:485–486 Anabasis salsa 1:270 Anabasis syriaca 5:484–485 Anabropsis marmoratus 3:731F Anacanthotermes 4:409T Anacardium occidentale 4:286–287, 4:289T Anadenobolus leucostigma martinicensis 5:426F anadromy 6:526 anaerobic respiration, microbial 5:301T anagenesis basic concepts 2:47–48, 2:48F, 6:620, 6:621F definition 2:47 importance 2:56–57 Anagyris foetida 1:268 Anamirta cocculus 5:712T Ananas comosus 2:663–664 Anancus 5:224T Anannas comosus 4:287–290, 4:289T Anarthrophyllum cummingii 4:106 Anasakis 7:429–430 Anasa tristis 7:294 Anas crecca 3:365–366 Anaspidacea extinction vulnerability 2:416–417T number of species 3:182T Anaspides tasmaniae 3:181 Anaspis arctica 7:218–219 Anas platyrhynchos 4:362, 6:689–690 Anas platyrhynchos diazi 6:689–690 Anas rubripes 6:689–690 Anas strepera 3:365–366 Anas superciliosa superciliosa 4:362 Anas wyvilliana 4:362, 7:184 Anatolepis heintzi 7:334–335 Anatolian–Iranian desert 1:262–263T Anatrichus pygmaeus 5:463T anchialine communities 7:58, 7:59T anchialine water 7:50 Anchiceratops 2:519T, 2:520T anchoveta 5:688–690, 5:690F, 6:422T ancient lakes 4:459, 4:463–464 ancient murrelets 5:447 ancient polyploidy angiosperms 4:169 prevalence 4:168–169 tracheophytes 4:169 Ancistrocladus korupensis 5:713 Ancistrotermes 4:409T