Index life cycles 4:370, 4:372F major groups 4:370, 4:371T major habitats 4:369–370, 4:369F major threats 4:376–377 material transfer and uptake 4:375–376 number of species 4:370–371, 4:371T origins 4:374 pollution 4:377 primary production 4:376 reduced water quality 4:377 research background 4:373–374 river continuum concept (RCC) 4:373F species interactions 4:375 taxonomic groups 4:371–373 zonal representatives 4:374F lateral and vertical boundaries 3:565F light attenuation 3:560 mean composition 3:562T mean water depth 3:561F Near East 5:470–471, 5:470F, 5:470T, 5:471F nonextremeophilic Archaea 1:224T number of lakes 3:561F nutrient loading gradient 3:568, 3:568F organic matter 3:562, 3:564F, 3:565–566 photosynthesis 3:560, 3:564F physical characteristics 3:560–562 primary productivity 3:563T, 3:566–569, 3:568F protected area systems 6:494–498, 6:496F, 6:497F river–floodplain connectivity 7:151 Southeast Asia 1:510–512, 1:511F, 1:512 species richness freshwaters 3:571–572, 3:571T freshwater sediments 3:571–572, 3:572T lakes and ponds 3:583–584 site characteristics and ranges 3:572T trophic levels 3:562, 3:563T usefulness 3:570 water storage 3:560–562, 3:561T functional roles 5:582 government legislation and regulations 3:718 grassland ecosystems 4:1–7 biodiversity animal species diversity 4:3–4 biodiversity change scenarios 4:5–6, 4:6F characteristics 4:3 ecosystem functionality 4:4–5 future outlook 4:5–6, 4:6F plant species diversity 4:3 Relative Yield Total (RYT) 4:4–5, 4:5F soil microbial diversity 4:4 conservation status 3:171–173T determinant factors 4:1–3, 4:2F ecosystem services 3:96–98 functional diversity (FD) measures 3:604–605, 3:605F geographic extent 4:1, 4:2F neotropical seasonally dry forests 5:496 water availability 4:1–3, 4:2F guilds 4:36 high-elevation Andean ecosystems 4:96–110 background information 4:96 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F habitat characteristics 4:96–97 number of species 4:102T pa´ramo ecosystem characteristics 4:101–103, 7:275–276 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F northern Andean alpine cushion formations 4:103 northern Andean dwarf Polylepis forest 4:103 number of species 4:102T physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98 plant diversity 4:98–99, 4:99T representative species 4:102F subpa´ramo zone 4:102–103 superpa´ramo zone 4:103 true pa´ramo zone 4:103 physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98 plant diversity endemism 4:99–100, 4:99T origins and diversification 4:100–101 species richness 4:98–99 puna central Andean dwarf Polylepis forest 4:105 cushion bogs 4:105 desert puna 4:104–105 dry puna 4:104 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F humid puna 4:104 number of species 4:102T physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98, 4:103–104 plant diversity 4:98–99 representative species 4:104F salar vegetation 4:105 research summary 4:107 southern Andean steppes altitudinal zonation 4:106–107, 4:106F bogs and seeps 4:107 cushion plants 4:106–107, 4:106F geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F latitudinal gradients 4:106–107 number of species 4:102T physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98, 4:105–107 plant diversity 4:98–99 representative species 4:105F historical perspective 3:59–60 historical research 5:581–582 human-dominated ecosystems basic concepts 2:350–351 human-dominated landscapes 2:349F, 2:350–351, 2:350F human-dominated seascapes 2:351 645 human-dominated techno-ecosystem 3:60–63, 3:62F human impacts 2:350 trait-based studies 2:356–357 untouched ecosystems 2:350 human impacts 4:153–161 alien species invasion continental ecosystems 4:155 general discussion 4:155 island biogeography 4:155 onshore ocean waters 4:155–156 pathogens 4:156 current impacts alien species invasion 4:155 general discussion 4:153–154 habitat alteration 4:153–154 driving forces environmentally unsound technologies 4:159 faulty economic factors 4:159 faulty political arrangements 4:160 faulty social arrangements 4:159–160 IPAT equation 4:158–159 market failure 4:159 overconsumption 4:159 population growth/overpopulation 4:159 ecosystem deterioration measures epidemiological environment 4:158 faltering food production 4:157–158 fisheries decline 4:158 net primary production (NPP) 4:156–158 observable symptoms 4:158 water quality decline 4:158 habitat alteration climate change effects 4:155 conversion to farms 4:154 conversion to grazing 4:154 conversion to infrastructure 4:154 dam projects 3:573–574, 4:154 deforestation 4:153–154 fire suppression 4:140, 4:154 forest fragmentation 4:154 general discussion 4:153–154 mining impacts 4:154 ocean toxification 4:155 onshore ocean siltation 4:155 ozone depletion 4:155 recreational activities 4:155 selective harvesting 4:154 wetland drainage 4:154–155 historical perspective 4:153 overexploitation aquarium fish 4:156 esthetic resources 4:156 food harvests 4:156 general discussion 4:156 natural products 4:156 scientific and educational use 4:156 solution strategies proximate steps 4:160 ultimate steps 4:160–161 ultimate solutions consumption control 4:161 population reduction 4:160–161