644 Index ecosystems (continued) organism- and system-based responses 4:211, 4:212F plant biodiversity threats 6:62–63 research background 4:209, 4:210F research methodologies 4:219, 4:220T triggers 4:212 floodplain ecosystems Amazon ecosystems buritizal 1:164 igapo´ forest 1:163–164 lakes 1:164 mangrove forests 1:164 permanent swamps 1:164 pirizal 1:164 seasonal flooding 1:162–163 va´rzea forest 1:163 habitat loss and degradation 7:371T river–floodplain connectivity 7:144–160 benefits 7:144, 7:145–146, 7:150 changes and conversion impacts 7:150–151, 7:151F ecological processes 7:145 ecosystem services 7:145–146 fisheries 7:146–147 flood attenuation 7:147–150, 7:148F, 7:149F floodplain agriculture 7:146 floodplain reconnection and conservation 7:152–153 flow levels and events 7:150 future research outlook 7:156–158 geomorphic processes 7:145 hydrological connectivity 7:150 hydrological processes 7:145 key floodplain processes 7:144–145 land and water management challenges 7:151 research summary 7:156–158 spatial variables 7:150 forest ecosystems 3:528–536 biodiversity community organization 3:533–534 disturbance regimes 3:530–533 ecosystem functions 3:535 food webs 3:533–534 forest structure and patterns 3:530–533, 3:532F general patterns 3:530, 3:531F human activity 3:534 keystone species 3:535 latitudinal gradients 1:498F, 3:530, 3:530F tree taxa 3:532T biogeochemical cycles carbon cycle 6:149–150, 6:150T nitrogen cycle 6:152 classification systems 3:528–530, 3:529F disturbance events 3:529 human activity biodiversity 3:534 dramatic climatic shifts 3:535 forest conversion and fragmentation 3:534, 4:154, 4:156, 5:496, 5:497F harvesting effects 3:534, 4:156 introduced species 3:534 pollution 3:534–535 living dead 4:590–591, 4:591F precipitation 3:529F South America 3:110 temperature 3:529F freshwater ecosystems 3:560–569 acidic and mercury deposition 1:1–14 acidic deposition–mercury concentration linkage 1:13 aluminum concentrations 1:9–10 aquatic biota response 1:9–10, 1:10T, 1:11F emission occurrences and sources 1:1–5 geographic distribution 1:1–5, 1:3F mercury contamination 1:10–13, 1:11F, 1:12F mercury emissions and deposition 1:2–5, 1:4F pH changes 1:9–10, 1:10T research background 1:1 schematic diagram 1:2F surface water acidification 1:8–9, 1:10T, 1:144–145 Antarctica 1:183 anthropogenic impacts 3:570–586 acidification and pollution 3:572–574, 3:577–578 agricultural and industrial chemicals 3:575–576, 3:580–581, 3:581F areal reductions 3:573–574 eutrophication 3:575F, 3:576–577, 3:576F hydrological cycle changes 3:574–575 lake eutrophication 3:581–582 organic pollution 3:575, 3:575F, 3:580–581, 3:581F pollution 1:512 restoration and conservation programs 3:574 biodiversity 3:566–569, 3:568F biological consequences agricultural and industrial chemicals 3:580–581, 3:581F lake eutrophication 3:581–582 organic pollution 3:580–581, 3:581F biological quality species declines 3:578–579, 3:579T species variability 3:578–579, 3:578F threatened species 3:579–580 climate change effects 6:150–151 conservation status 3:171–173T, 3:174 crustaceans 2:397–399 dissolved oxygen 3:351, 3:562 ecosystem function measurements 3:64–71 basic concepts 3:64 bioenergetic analysis 3:67 biogeochemical cycles 3:68–70 biomass accrual 3:67 birth and death rate analysis 3:67–68 carbon-14 (14C) measurements 3:66 carbon-based measurements 3:65–66 comparison studies 3:64–65 data interpretation and analysis 3:66–67 egg ratio analysis 3:68 fluorescence measurements 3:66 functional type analysis 3:68 instar analysis 3:68 new and regenerated production 3:69–70 nutrient cycling 3:68–70 oxygen-based measurements 3:65 primary production 3:65 secondary production 3:67 stable isotope studies 3:70–71 ecosystem services 3:96–98 eutrophication aquatic vascular plants 3:359–360 lakes and ponds 3:583–584 macroalgae 3:358 macrophytes 3:359–360 microfauna 3:361–363 fish acidic deposition–mercury concentration linkage 1:13 African/Ethiopian region 3:472–473 aquaculture 1:190T Australian region 3:473 biodiversity issues 3:444 global biodiversity 3:471F, 3:472 habitats 3:472 mercury contamination 1:10–13, 1:12F migratory patterns 5:315 Nearctic region 3:472 Neotropical region 3:472 North America 5:565 Oriental region 3:473 Palearctic region 3:472 species richness 3:571–572, 3:583–584 Succulent Karoo 1:487T surface water acidification 1:9–10, 1:10T, 1:11F threatened species 3:578–579, 3:579T geographic distribution 4:370T habitat diversity 3:562–565, 3:564F, 3:565F, 3:570–571 habitat loss and degradation 1:510–512, 1:511F interactive regulatory mechanisms 3:565–566 invertebrates 4:369–378 altered water regimes 4:377–378 background information 4:369–370 biodiversity loss 4:376–377 decomposition and recycling functions 4:375 disturbances 4:375 ecological functions and processes 4:375 endemism 4:374–375 exotic species invasions 4:378 global patterns 4:373 habitat depletion and loss 4:376–377 habitat heterogeneity 4:375 influencing factors 4:373–374 isolation factors 4:374–375